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Mapping And Surveing Department

INTRODUCTION
 The science of Geology
 Why Geology?
 Related to our daily life, such as:
 Water and soil
 Provide guide to use of natural resources
 Provide knowledge of avoiding natural hazards
 Helping protecting the environment
• Physical geology : examines Earth
materials, understand surface and
subsurface processes
 Geology incorporates principles from physics,
chemistry, biology, engineering

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 The Science of Geology

 Some historical notes about geology

 Catastrophism – mid 1600’s, James
Ussher
 Sudden and violent change shape landscapes
 Religious belief of Earth created in 4004 B.C.
 Uniformitarianism – late 1700’s, James
Hutton
 processes that operate today also operated in
past
 geologic processes occur over extremely long
time
 birth of modern geology

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 Earth as a system
 Earth is a dynamic planet with many
interacting parts or spheres
 Parts of the Earth system are linked
 Characterized by processes that
• Vary on spatial scales from fractions
of millimeter to thousands of
kilometers
• Have time scales that range from
milliseconds to billions of years

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 Earth as a system
 Powered by Sun - drives external processes
• Atmosphere
• Hydrosphere
• At Earth’s surface
 Powered by the Earth’s interior
• Heat remaining from Earth’s formation
• Heat generated continuously by
radioactive decay - powers internal
processes that produce volcanoes,
earthquakes, & mountains
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 A view of Earth
 Earth is a planet that is small and self-
contained, fragile, sensitive to change
 Environment is highly integrated with
interactions between air, water, rock, life
 Earth’s four spheres
• Atmosphere- air
• Biosphere- life
• Hydrosphere - water
• Solid Earth- rock

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 Atmosphere
 Gaseous environment that surrounds Earth
– provides life
 90% of atmosphere within 10 miles of Earth
surface (thin relative to radius of the solid
Earth at 4000 miles)
 Provides air for breathing and protects from
Sun’s heat and ultraviolet radiation
 Recent concern with atmosphere regarding
Ozone holes and Global Warming

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 Hydrosphere
 Water makes our “Blue” plant unique –sustains life
 Water in motion – Hydrologic cycle
 evaporation from oceans, precipitation from
atmosphere, run off back to ocean
 97% ocean water, 3% fresh water
 fresh water includes: surface water (lakes,
streams), ground water and glaciers
 Ocean covers 71% of Earth surface -average depth of
3800 m (12,500 feet)

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Earth’s Water Balance

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 Biosphere
Biosphere includes all life (including us!)
Extends from ocean floor to several miles into
atmosphere; however, concentrated at Earth
surface
Life responds to countless interaction with the
environment
 Successful adaptation to changing
environment – evolution of species
 Non-successful adaptation – Extinction
 Survival of the “fittest” – Darwin’s
Legacy
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 Solid Earth
 Solid Earth: between atmosphere and
oceans – rocks and soil
 Surface and subsurface features reveal
dynamic processes – Plate Tectonics
 Face of the Earth
 Earth’s Interior
 Rock cycle - the loop that involves the
processes by which one rock type changes
to another

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 The face of Earth
 Earth’s surface - two principal divisions
• Continents
• Ocean basins
 Significant difference between the continents
and ocean basins is their relative elevations
• continents average 2750 feet above msl
• ocean floor average 12,500 feet below msl
• continents average 15,250 feet above ocean
floor

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Continents and Ocean Basins

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 Continents
 Mountain belts – linear features, active
 Youngest Mountains
• Circum-Pacific Belt (surrounds Pacific Ocean)
• Island arcs – active volcanic mountains,
 Older mountains
• Appalachian – eastern United States
• Urals – Russia
 Shields – continental interiors, stable craton, oldest
rocks (4 billion yrs)

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 Ocean basins
 Continental shelf – gently sloping platform
adjacent to shore
 Continental slope – steep dropoff from shelf
to deep ocean floor
 Ocean ridge system – most prominent
topographic feature on Earth (43,000 mi)
 Deep-ocean trenches – deep narrow
depressions (36,000 feet)

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 Earth’s internal structure
Layers defined by chemical composition Layers defined by physical
Crust – thin, rocky outer skin properties
Mantle – solid, rocky shell Lithosphere – sphere of
Core – iron-nickel alloy center rock
Asthenosphere – weak
sphere
Mesosphere – middle
sphere
Core – outer (liquid),
inner (solid)

Earth’s Layered Structure

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 Layers Defined by Composition

 Crust
• Oceanic – 7 km thick, dark igneous rock basalt,
young (<180 my), dense (3.0 g/cm3)
• Continental – 70 km thick, granitic rock, old (up to
4000 my), less dense (2.7 g/cm3)
 Mantle
• contains 82% Earth’s volume, depth 2900 km
• rock called peridotite, more dense (3.3 g/cm3)
 Core
• iron-nickel w/ minor oxygen, silicon, sulfur
• extreme pressure – highly dense (11 g/cm3)

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 Layers by Physical Properties
 Lithosphere
• cold, strong rock exhibits rigid behavior
• 5 to 250 km thick
 Asthenosphere (upper Mantle)
• soft weak layer, partial melting
• depth of 660 km
 Mesosphere (lower Mantle)
• between 660 and 2900 km depth
• very hot, gradual flow of convection currents
 Core (differing mechanical strengths)
• Outer – liquid, generates Earth’s magnetic field
• Inner – behaves as solid due to immense pressure

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 Earth’s internal structure
 How do we know about the Earth’s interior?

 Study of seismic wave generated by

earthquakes

 Chapter 17

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 Dynamic Earth
 The theory of plate tectonics
• continental drift – the idea that continents
moved about the face of the planet
• not widely accepted for more than 50 years
because driving mechanism unknown
• magnetic patterns on sea floor (found from
chasing submarines during WWII) suggested
sea floor spreading
• Plate Tectonics accepted in 1965 as driving
mechanism

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 Theory of plate tectonics
 Symmetric magnetic
pattern around ocean
spreading ridges
 Black: north magnetic
pole, white south magnetic
pole
 New ocean crust records
magnetic pole
 Crust moves away from
spreading ridges

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 Plate Tectonics
 Earth’s rigid outer shell composed of numerous
slabs (plates)
• mobile, continually changing size and
shape
• create, consume, transform lithosphere
 Plate boundaries
• Most major interactions among individual
plates occurs along their boundaries
 Plate tectonics – first comprehensive model of
Earth’s surface and internal workings

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 Plate Boundaries

Divergent – two plates move apart, resulting in

upwelling of material from the mantle to create new
seafloor
Convergent – two plates move together with subduction
of oceanic plates or collision of two continental
plates consuming old lithosphere
Transform – located where plates grind past each other
without either generating new lithosphere or
consuming old lithosphere

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Mosaic of Earth’s Outer Shell

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Plate Boundaries

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 Divergent Boundaries

 Plate spreading – occurs mainly at mid-ocean ridges

(sea floor spreading), rate of 2 to 20 cm/yr
 Molten rock rises from asthenosphere through
fractures (cracks) in hard rock, encounters sea
water, cools to new rock.
 New ocean crust is continually created – oldest
ocean floor rock is 180 million years.

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 Convergent Boundaries
 Older ocean plates consumed by
subduction zone and returned to mantle
 One plate descends beneath another – high
temperature, high pressure environment
producing molten rock
 Pacific “ring of fire” – volcanic chains result
in explosive eruptions
 Mount Saint Helens, WA – 1980
 Mount Pinatubo, Philippines – 1991

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 Transform Fault Boundaries

 Plate grind past each other without creating or

consuming lithosphere
 San Andreas Fault Zone, CA – Pacific plate moving
northwest relative to North American plate
 Capable of producing strong earthquakes
• Loma Prieta, San Francisco, CA in 1989 – 7.4
• Northridge, Los Angeles, CA in 1994 – 6.7

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Plate Collisions formed the Himalayas

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 Geologic time
Geologists today - accurate dates to geologic events in
Earth
history
Relative dating and geologic time scale
• Relative dating – events dates in sequence or
order without knowing their age in years
• Law of superposition – oldest sedimentary rock
layer on bottom
• Principle of fossil succession – fossils appear in a
definite order, represent time period
Absolute (radiometric) dating – Chapter 8

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 Geologic time
 The magnitude of geologic time
• Age of Earth – 4.5 billion yrs (4500 million)
• Humans arrived – 0.01 million yrs
• Count one year per second 24/7– take 150 yrs
(two lifetimes) to reach 4.5 billion yrs
 An appreciation for the magnitude of geologic time is
important
• many geologic processes are very gradual
• we are just a fraction of Earth’s history

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Geologic Time Scale

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