Earth’s Formation and Layers

Earth’s Formation
The process of accretion can be described into four steps.

Step 1: Accretion of dust particles

Step 2: Physical collision

Step 3: Gravitational accretion

Step 4: Molten protoplanet due to heat of accretion

 Structure of the Earth

• The Earth is Mantle

made up of three
Outer core
main layers:
• Core Inner core

• Mantle
• Crust
Crust
 Core: Inner and Outer
Inner Core Outer Core
- Inge Lehmann – - Thickness – 2300
discovered that Earth kilometers
has solid inner core in - Composition – iron-nickel
1936
- Temperature – 4000 - 5000
- Radius – 1250 kilometers 0
C
- Composition – iron-
- Cause of Earth’s magnetic
nickel alloy field
- Temperature – 6000 0C
 Core: Inner and Outer

__ __ __ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

- The boundary between the

outer and inner core.
 Core: Inner and Outer

LEHMANN
DISCONTINUITY

- The boundary between the

outer and inner core.
 Mantle: Lower and Upper

Lower Mantle Upper Mantle

- Asthenosphere (J. - Lithosphere
Barrell )
- Rigid/solid
- Soft/Magma
- Exhibits plasticity
- Moho boundary
- Convection currents - 660 km
- 2240 km
 Mantle: Lower and Upper

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

- Detected between Earth’s lower mantle

and the outer core as observed by
changes in seismic waves.
Core: Inner and Outer

GUTENBERG
DISCONTINUITY
- Detected between Earth’s lower mantle
and the outer core as observed by
changes in seismic waves.
 Mantle: Lower and Upper

__ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

- The upper boundary that

separates upper mantle from the
Earth’s crust.
Mantle: Lower and Upper

MOHO
DISCONTINUITY

- The upper boundary that

separates upper mantle from the
Earth’s crust.
 Crust

Oceanic Crust Continental Crust

- Dark-colored - Light – colored

- Rock sample – Basalt -Rock sample – Granite

- More dense -Less dense

-Coarse-textured
- Thin layer
-Thick layer
- 50 km
-40-70 km
Earth’s Subsystems
E L S T B I O M E O
R I D H Y A I F Z I
E T J B T Q U O V G
H H C B F D N Y S L
P O X V S E C K D K
S S H M R W N G Z E
O P A N G A E A D R
R H F I R O Y B M E
D E G U U H D F B H
Y R A D N U O B R  P
H E R T O E D H G S
D S W E G F S F Y O
Y A R E R M F J F M
S I B D A R D N U T
A S U B X C S D E A
1. Lithosphere
•solid outer section of the Earth which
includes the crust and the rigid upper
mantle
•not a continuous layer since it is divided
into a number of huge plates that move
in relation to one another
 Pangaea was
huge mass
named after
Alfred
Wegener. They
broke apart
and gradually
drifted to their
present
position.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html
Plate Tectonics
• proposes that lithosphere is divided into major
plate and smaller plates nesting upon the
asthenosphere.
• This plate motion causes them to collide, pull
apart, or scrape against each other.
• The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of
the crust as a consequence of plate interaction.
• There are 15 major tectonic plates but experts
count more than 50 plates.
Three Types of Plate Boundary
Divergent Movement
•occurs on seafloor where two plates move
away from each other
•molten magma released from the mantle
creates a new crust
•believed to have created the oceans and
seas
Convergent Movement

•happens when two plates move toward each other or

collide
•There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries
•Oceanic - continental movement
•Oceanic - oceanic movement
•Continental - continental movement
 Continental-Continental Movement
• forms mountains, e.g. European Alps, Himalayas
 Continental-Oceanic Movement

• called SUBDUCTION
• forms mountain ranges
• Oceanic lithosphere
subducts underneath the
continental lithosphere
• Oceanic lithosphere heats
and dehydrates as it
subsides
• The melt rises forming
volcanism
• e.g. The Andes
 Oceanic-Oceanic Movement
• When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other
which causes it to sink into the mantle forming a subduction
zone.
• The subducting plate is bent downward to form a very deep
depression in the ocean floor called a trench. This movement
could also for volcanic island.
• The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found along
trenches.
• e.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep!
 Lateral-slipping Movement
• where plates slide past each other creating large
amount of friction

View of the San Andreas

transform fault
2. Atmosphere
•The early Earth’s atmosphere has lots
of water vapor but no oxygen.
•Later, frequent volcanic eruptions
produced gases such as water, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen, ammonia and methane.
2. Atmosphere
Two component processes that changed the
Earth’s atmosphere.
• Radiation from the Sun caused water to split
apart to outer space and oxygen accumulated in
the atmosphere.
• Cyanobacteria evolved and began undergoing
photosynthesis.
Composition of the Atmosphere
• Nitrogen
- important component in the tissues of
organisms
- part of nucleic and amino acids
- must be converted to a form usable for
organisms
Composition of the Atmosphere
• Oxygen
- used in metabolic processes to provide
energy for plants and animals
- half of the world’s oxygen is produced
phytoplankton
Composition of the Atmosphere

● CarbonDioxide
-needed to form the basic molecule of sugar
needed for plants to grow
3. Hydrosphere
•As the Earth cooled, water vapor
condensed to form the early ocean.
•There are four main ocean basins
namely Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean and Arctic Ocean
• An ocean is a body of salt water with almost
no boundaries and limitless volume.
• Ocean water or seawater has an average
salinity of 35%.
• Chemical weathering of rocks is one of the
major sources of salts.
• During volcanic eruptions, large quantities of
water and gases are emitted to Earth’s surface.
(volcanic outgassing)
•Saltwater – 97.5% from Earth’s crust
(ocean and midland seas)

•Freshwater – 2.5 % - 68.9% glaciers

- 30.8 % groundwater
- 0.3 % lakes and river
system
Ocean Zones
• Horizontal zones divide the ocean from land to
the sea.
a. Coastal zone – sea bottom is exposed during
low tide and covered during
high tide.
( sea stars, sea urchins and some species of
coral)
b. Pelagic zone – located seaward of coastal
zone’s low tide mark
Neritic zone – above the continental shelf
- extend low tide mark outward from
the seashore and extends with depth of 200 m
Oceanic zone – extends from the edge of continental
shelf, over the continental shelf and
over the ocean floor.
Ocean Zones
• Vertical zones begin at sea level and end at the
deepest point in the ocean.
a. Epipelagic zone/ sunlight zone (0-200 m)
b. Mesopelagic zone/twilight zone (200-1000m)
c. Bathypelagic zone/midnight zone (1000 -4000 m)
d. Abyssopelagic zone/abyss (4000 – 6000 m)
e. Hadalpelagic zone/trench ( 6000 – bottom )
4. Biosphere
•Referred to as the “zone of life”.
•Global ecological system integrating all
living things and their relationship
including their interactions with the
elements.
•Term coined by Edward Guess in 1875.
Water Cycle
1. Evaporation
2. Condensation
3. Precipitation
4. Surface runoff
5. Transpiration
 Nitrogen Cycle
1. Fixation of nitrogen from gaseous form to solid form.
Lightning can be used to transform nitrogen gases to nitrates that can be
used directly by plants
2. Atmospheric nitrogen is brought to soil through precipitation.
Bacteria in living symbiotic relationship with some leguminous plants are
also capable of fixing nitrogen gas into solid form that plants can use.
3. Bacteria receive some carbohydrates and find shelter in the form
nodules.
Nitrogen fixation – nitrogen atoms of
atmospheric nitrogen are separated and
combined with hydrogen to form ammonium
(Actinomycetes and Cyanobacteria)

Ammonification – conversion of nitrogen to

ammonia
Nitrification – conversion of ammonia into nitrite
(Nitrosomonas) and then into nitrate (Nitrobacter)

Assimilation – process of obtaining nitrogen by

consuming other plants and organisms

Denitrification – nitrogen going back to atmosphere

through denitrifying bacteria (P. denitrificans)