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Interior of Earth & Formation of Earth Crust, Geomorphic Process -

Continental drift and Plate Tectonics

The interior of Earth can be observed through direct evidence such as rock samples from
mining, deep ocean drilling project, volcanic eruptions and indirect evidence such as seismic
waves, meteorite investigation, gravitation force, magnetic field etc.

Structure of the Earth

Crust

• The crust is the outermost brittle solid part

of Earth ranging from 5 – 70 kms.
• The crust is of two types:

1. Continental Crust: Mean thickness is

around 30 km, made of SIAL (Silica and
Aluminium) and is thicker than oceanic
crust. Its density is around at 2.7 g/cm3
2. Oceanic Crust: Mean thickness is about 5
km made of SIMA (Silica and
Magnesium). Oceanic crust is basaltic in
origin and relatively of a younger age than
the continental crust. The basaltic crust is
denser at 3.0 g/cm3

Mantle

• The mantle extends up to 2890 km.

• Asthenosphere: The upper portion of the mantle which extends up to around 400 km.
It is the primary source of magma.
• The density of mantle is 3.4 g/cm3
• The lower mantle is in the solid state which extends up to the Core-Mantle boundary.
This layer is called as the D″ (pronounced dee-
double-prime) layer.

Note:

• The Crust and Upper part of mantle combined

are called as Lithosphere.

Core

• The core extends to 2870 – 6370 km.

It is divided into
1. Liquid Outer Core
2. Solid Inner Core: Made of NIFE –
Nickel and Ferrous.
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Note: Inner core rotates slightly faster than the rest of the planet.

• The density at the outer core is at 5.5 g/cm3, which increases to 13 g/cm3 in the inner
core.

Note:
Dynamo theory: It suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the
Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field.

Schematic sections through the Earth:

• Continental crust
• Oceanic crust
• Upper mantle
• Lower mantle
• Outer core
• Inner core

Boundaries in the Earth's interior

Conrad Discontinuity: Between Upper and Lower Continental Crust.

Mohorovičić discontinuity, "Moho": Crust-Mantle boundary

Gutenberg discontinuity: Core-Mantle boundary

Lehmann discontinuity: Boundary between Outer and Inner Core

Important Facts

• Earth's radius: 6370 km

• Earth's diameter: About 12756 km at equator & about 12715 km at the poles
• Crust: 0.5 % of the volume of the Earth
Mantle: 83 % of the volume of the Earth
Core: 16 % of the volume of the Earth
• Temperature, Pressure and Density increases with the increasing distance from the
surface to the interior in deeper depths
• Gravitation force is higher near the poles and lesser near the equator
• Gravity anomaly is the difference in gravity value according to the mass of the
material

Earthquake

• It is shaking of the Earth caused due to the release of energy along a fault line.
• Hypocentre or Focus: The point where the energy of an earthquake is released
• Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, directly above the focus, the first one to
experience the waves.

Earthquake waves are divided into:

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• Body waves: created due to the release of energy at the Hypocentre (focus). These
waves travel in all directions through the body of the Earth.
It can be divided into:
1. P-waves: They are called Primary waves. They move faster and are first to
arrive at the surface. They are similar to sound waves and can travel through
Solid, Liquid and Gaseous materials. P waves vibrate parallel to the direction
of the wave which causes stretching and squeezing of the material
2. S-waves: They are called Secondary waves which arrive at a time lag with
Primary waves. They can travel only through solid materials. S-waves vibrate
in perpendicular to the wave direction which creates crests and troughs.

• Surface waves: the body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate surface
waves which move along the surface rocks. They are the last to report on the
Seismograph and are the most destructive. They cause displacement of rocks and
structural collapse. Surface waves vibrate perpendicular to the wave direction.

The velocity of the waves is directly proportional to

the density of the material through which they travel.
Differing density leads to reflection or refraction of the
seismic waves.

Shadow ZoneShadow zones are those

specific areas where seismic waves are not
reported. These zones are distinct for P and
S-waves.

• Within the angular distance, up to

105° from the epicentre, both waves
are recorded.
• The zone between 105° - 145° from
the epicentre is identified as a
shadow zone for both types of waves
(P & S).
• However, P-wave reappears after
145° from the epicentre.
o These recorded data gives an
insight that there is a
molten/liquid layer at around
2900 kms from the surface,
which absorbs the S wave.
o The P-waves reappearance
after 145 degrees shows that as these
waves encounter a change in the
density of the medium, they refract,
and hence a limited shadow zone of
upto 145 degrees.
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Continental Plate Theory:

German meteorologist Prof. Alfred Wegener proposed this theory in 1912. The first
continental portion of the Earth was called 'Pangea', and the oceanic part was called
'Panthalassa'. Later, a sea called Tethys divided Pangea into two parts, namely Laurentia
(Laurasia) or Angaraland to the north and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.

Observations:

In the continental region of tropical zones, evidence of glaciation was found in the past and
the continental region of colder zones, evidence of tropical climate found. There were only
two possibilities, either the climates have changed, or the continents have changed their
positions. Wegener ruled out a change in climate that requires changes in Earth's axial
alignments, orientation, rotation and movements and rather suggested movements or drifting
of continents.

Theory:

He proposed that around 250 million

years before present there was one single
vast continent called 'Pangea' surrounded
by oceans on all the sides called
Panthalassa. He further suggested that the
Pangea broke into two parts around 200
million years before present, Laurentia or
Angaraland and Gondwanaland. After
that, the continents further broke down
and moved to the current position by
drifting, and he called this drifting as
continental drift.

Evidence:

1. Jig-Saw-Fit: The shorelines of South America and Africa facing each other have a
remarkable and unmistakable match. In 1964, after the death of Wegner, Bullard did a
similar Jig-Saw-Fit but at a depth of 1,000- fathom lines under the Earth. It proved to
be quite perfect.
2. Rocks of different continents on the two sides of the oceans had the same age and as
well as similar composition: Eg. Brazilian coast and western Africa.
3. Tillite deposit: Sedimentary deposits formed or brought by glaciers. Wegner said
tillite deposits in different continents and different positions at the present time,
formed when all the continents were joint and located around the south pole.
4. Placer deposit: Deposits of gold on Ghana coast without a source in proximity but
the source being found coast in Brazilian coast proves that two continents were
together.
5. Fossil evidence: fossil remains of Lemur found in India, Madagascar and Africa. This
contiguous landmass was called Lemuria. Fossil remains of Mesosaurus (small
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reptile) found in southern Africa, as well as South America, also proves that the
continents were together when animals moved to another continent.
6. Paleomagnetic evidence: In different continents, the solidified magma of past shows
that magnetic field for the same time in a different direction, which is not possible.
This phenomenon also explains if continents are places as Wegner proposed, then the
magnetic field show correct direction as per the past proposed direction.

After the evidence given by him, he talked about movements. Movements were in two
directions. The first movement was in northward, and its cause was a gravitational and polar
fleeing force. Laurentia moved and after that Gondwanaland moved in northward. The
second movement was in westward, and north America, South America, Africa shifted
towards west. The forces given as a cause are also the weakness of the theory. The continents
do not move because of these forces.

Criticism or Weakness:

1. It only talked about the movement of continents stating that the continent floated over
the ocean floors like ship floats on the ocean and this is not true.
2. It does not talk about the movement of ocean floors.
3. Reasons for the drift are not right.
4. Wegner did not talk about the condition before the Pangea starting the explanation
from only 250 million years before present.

Later, it was found that there were more such continents and their breaking. Wegner tried to
explain every part despite not having suitable reasons.

Contribution:

1. This theory was the first comprehensive theory to talk about the drifting of continents.
2. His contribution helped evolved the understanding the direction of drift and evidence
supporting it.
3. It finally led to the development of the theory of Seafloor Spreading and Plate
Tectonics.

Plate Tectonics Theory

Arthur Homes in 1930 discovered convection and convectional current in the mantle. The
generation of this current due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the
mantle portion. This convectional current was the cause of the movement of the earth crust. It
was an explanation for the issue of drift-force, based on which contemporary scientists
discarded the continental drift theory.

Overview:

McKenzie and Parker and Morgan in the 1960s developed a more comprehensive
understanding about the movement related to the different part of the earth crust (both
oceanic and continental) and the associated formations, this was explained under the theory
of plate tectonics.
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A plate is made part of lithosphere which comprises of the complete solid crust and the top
solid mantle. The whole lithospheric earth surface is divided into seven major and many
minor plates. Plate means the top solid fractured part of the lithosphere covering the whole
surface of the Earth as a solid rocky layer. Plates move over the asthenosphere horizontally as
rigid units. Tectonic means the movement and associate building of plate.

Plates can be major plate and minor plate based on size. For example, India-Australia-New
Zealand plate is a major plate, whereas the Arabian plate is a minor plate. And based on
nature, it is the continental plate or oceanic plate, decided by whichever occupy a large part
of the plate. For example, the Eurasian plate may be called as a continental plate, whereas
Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate is mostly an oceanic plate.

Theory:

The plate tectonics theory proposes that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into seven major
and various minor plates. The plate movement results in the building up of stresses within the
plates and the continental rocks above, which leads to folding, faulting and volcanic activity.
The major plates are surrounded by young fold mountains, trenches, ridges and faults.

Major plates of the world:

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate

2. North American (including western Atlantic floor separated from the South American
plate alongside the Caribbean islands) plate
3. South American (including western Atlantic floor separated from the North American
plate alongside the Caribbean islands) plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.

Important minor plates of the world:

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America & Pacific plate

2. Nazca plate: Between South America & Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic & Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine & Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.

Plate movement:

Type of convectional movements:

1. Rising convection (Divergent movement)

2. Sinking convection (Convergent movement)
3. Rising & sinking but not align convection (Slide past or Transform movement)
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Types of plate margin interaction:

1. Oceanic-Oceanic plates
2. Oceanic-continental plates
3. Continental-continental plates

Plate types, movements and related outcomes:

1. Divergent movement: Where the new

crust is formed as the plates pull away
from each other. Spreading sites is the
place where the plates move away from
each other.
o Continental-Continental: When
divergent convection flows below
two continental plates due to
tensional force, plates crackdown
and create faults and move away,
forming block mountains and rift
valleys. E.g. the East African Great Rift Valley. Block mountains are also
volcanic peaks. Some depression turned into lakes.
o Oceanic-Oceanic: The magma comes out of asthenosphere as it rises and due
to its denser and hot nature, it starts spreading in the horizontal direction,
which takes time to cool down. Magma is basaltic and forms elongated sea
between rifts and later forming the oceanic floor — for example, Red sea.
▪ Due to rising convection, magma comes out of the Earth, and it starts
to form mid-oceanic ridges. E.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (between the
South America and Africa continents separated by Atlantic ocean)
and the East Pacific Rise. Formation of volcanism on Mid Oceanic
Ridge with silent eruption is also present in this divergence. The mid-
oceanic ridges formed along the divergent oceanic-oceanic boundary
are longest mountains stretching nearly 17000 km.
o Continental-Oceanic: Basaltic magma will always form oceanic floor only,
and it is not possible that magma comes out and forms continent on one side
and ocean on the other side and hence continental-oceanic divergence is not
possible.

The divergent boundary will form oceanic plates only, and it does not form a continental
plate. Magma forms an oceanic crust on both sides. Even if it starts with the oceanic-
continental divergence, it turns into oceanic-oceanic divergence as it cannot remain
continuously as continental-oceanic.

Outcomes of these movements lead to the various forms such as HORST (peak) and the
GRABEN (valley) leading to block mountains and rifts, respectively. For example, Black
Forest, Vosges are Horst and Rhine river is Graben (Germany and France) & Vindhyachal
range, Satpura rang are Horst and Narmada river is Graben (India).
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2. Convergent movement: Where one plate

dived under another, and the crust is
destroyed. A subduction zone is a location
where the sinking of a plate occurs.
o Oceanic-Oceanic: When two
oceanic plates converge due to
sinking convection, and
compressional force; hence
oceanic crust starts to subduct
Whichever crust is denser and
heavier or relatively older goes
down and start to subduct first. After partial subduction, melting starts.
Magma created by melting of the lithospheric plate, which is lighter, less
dense and less hot compared to magma below the asthenosphere, try to move
upward and fracture the plate and erupt through the plate which is not
subducted and cool down faster to form more vertical formation like
seamounts and Island Arc. Examples of such arcs are Japan, the Philippines,
the Tonga Islands, the Aleutian Islands, and the West Indies Islands etc.
o Oceanic-Continental: When oceanic-continental plate converges the lighter
continental plate folds at its margin, forming what is called as Anticline (upper
part) and Syncline (lower part). The anticline is called a marginal fold
mountain formed on the margin of the continent. The folds can be more than
one creating parallel fold mountains, also called as cordilleras. Such fold
mountains are volcanic peaks also. Compression gives fold mountains, and
subduction gives volcanic peaks- for example, Andes Mountains off the west
coast of the U.S. and Rockies (Mt. St. Helens) and Chimborazo.
o Continental-Continental: When both the continental plates convergence,
there is no subduction as the continents never subduct, and there is the only
compression between continents which leads to its folding, and it forms Fold
Mountains (not marginal) which are on the interior of continents along with
compressed marine deposits of the un-subducted oceanic plate. E.g. Himalaya
mountains, the sea that was compressed to form marine deposits was Tethys
sea.
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The Indian plate Movement:

• The Indian plate consists

of Peninsular India and the Australian
continental parts.
• The continent-continent convergence
boundary is in the northern plate with
the subduction zone alongside the
Himalayas.
• It extends in
the east through Rakinyoma
Mountains of Myanmar in the
direction of the island arc along the
Java Trench.
• To the east of Australia,
the eastern margin is a spreading site
lying inside the shape of an oceanic
ridge in South-West Pacific.
• The Western margin follows
Pakistan's Kirthar Mountain. It, in
addition, extends alongside the
Makrana coast and joins the
spreading site from the Red Sea rift
south-eastward alongside the Chagos
Archipelago.
• The boundary between the Antarctic plate and India is also marked by way of an
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running in West-East route and merging into the
spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
• India was a large island located off the Australian coast, in a boundless ocean. The
Tethys Sea separated India from the Asian continent until approximately 225
million years ago.
• It is supposed that India had started her northward journey approximately two
hundred million years ago at the time when Pangaea broke.
• India collided with Asia approximately 40-50 million years in the past resulted
in fast uplift of the Himalayas. Nearly 140 million years before the present, the
subcontinent was positioned at the south as 50 degrees South Latitude.
• The Tethys Sea has separated the two primary plates, and the Tibetan block was near
to the Asiatic landmass.
• During the Indian plate movement toward the Eurasian plate, a
major event that happened was the eruption of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps.
• This began somewhere around 60 million years in the past and continued for a
long period of time. Note that the subcontinent was still near the equator.
• From 40 million years in the past and thereafter, the occasion of the formation of the
Himalayas took place.
• Scientists agree that the process is still continuing, and the height of the Himalayas
is growing even to this date.