EARTH’S INTERIOR STRUCTURE

Earth’s interior was divided into three concentric layers:-

the crust, the mantle and the core by the scientists.
The core is made up of dense rocks containing iron and
nickel and divides into solid inner core and a molten outer
core with 5000oC.
The mantle is made up of molten and semi-molten rocks
and the crust is the topmost and lightest layer which is thin
beneath ocean crust (Sima) 6 – 10km and thicker below the
continental crust (Sial) 30—70km thick under mountains.
The crust and the rigid upper mantle form the lithosphere
and it divides into seven large plates that float on the semi-
molten liquid part of earth asthenosphere

2H: 10, 26,

Hypothesis
 THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS
The theory of tectonic plate states that the
lithosphere is made up of a number of a large series
building block and smaller ones, called plates
separated by a boundary called plate margin.
Large plates
i. African plate
ii. S. American plate
iii. N. American
iv. Eurasian plat
v. Indo-Australian plate
vi. Pacific plate
vii. Antarctica plate

Small plates
1) Nazca plate
2) Cocas plate
3) Juan de fuci plate
4) Adriatic plate
5) Aegean plate
6) Turkish plate
7) Caribbean plate
8) Philippine plate
9) Arabian plate
10) ranian plate
PLATE MOVEMENTS AND RESULTANT
FEATURES
There are four types of margins according to
their movements and the resultant features:-
1. Constructive or divergent margin: plates
move apart and create a new oceanic crust
below oceans because the magma rises
upward to fill the gap and results the
formation of the mid-oceanic ridges.
Examples are the Mid-Atlantic and the Mid-
Indian Ridges.
2. Destructive or convergent margin: plates
move towards each other and destroy an old
crust, because the edge of the heavier
oceanic plate plunges beneath the
continental and melts in the mantle, and this
called the subduction zone,(Nazca and S.
America )
This results the formation of ocean deeps or
trench below the oceans and fold mountains
(Andes range) but the subduction zone of two
oceanic plates like the pacific and the Philippine
plates form island arcs, earthquake tremors and
volcanic eruptions.
3. A collision zone is a destructive margin
where two continental plates converge and collide
each other and because of their equal density
and strength, the soft rock layers between the
two plates are squeezed to destroy the old crust
to form a new fold mountain chains e.g. the
Himalayas. Also disastrous earthquakes occur on
this margin like the Eurasian and the Indo-
Australian.

4. Conservative plate margin or transform is

where two plates are moving or sliding past each
other and neither a new crust is formed nor an
old one is destroyed, but the friction between the
plates creates a tremor or an earthquakes, like
Andrea’s fault of the N. American and the small
Cocas and Juan de fuci plate.

GLOBAL GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

Earthquake, volcanic eruption and tsunami the three main geophysical hazards which are internal forces that
change the earth’s surface.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
In 1912 Alfred Wegner a German meteorologist, first proposed
the theory of continental drift which states that a single landmass
(Pangaea) in a single ocean (Thetys) existed about 300 million
years ago. He presented that Pangaea breakup into northern
Laurasia and southern Gondwanaland portion and maintained
drifting apart to form the present-day seven continents.

Evidences of continental theory

Wegner published several pieces of evidences to prove that
continents were once joined and moved apart.
1. The fit of South America and Africa coastlines, (the jigsaw fit).
2. Similarity of fossil brachiopods found in Indian limestone and
fossils in Australia.
3. Same fossil of the mesosaurus reptiles found in both
Southern Africa and South America.
4. The glaciations deposits of the same age formation found in
South America, Antarctica and India
EVOLUTION OF THE PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
From 1940 many researches showed that Wegner’s ideas of continental drift have gained support and
credited, such as:-
1. In 1930 Harry Hess discovered huge oceanic ridge and trenches and proved that sea floor was not
smooth by using sonar detector and proposed the idea of sea-floor spreading in 1960.
2. The discoveries of mid-Atlantic ridge (1950s) and later study of similar feature in the Pacific Ocean
(1960), suggested that sea-floor spreading was occurring.
 The rock ages of oceanic crust on either sides of the boundary get older with distance from
the mid-oceanic ridge.
3. Finally, in 1970 geologists agreed that Wegner’s idea of continental movement was right and adapted
the use of tectonic plate theory.
Hypothesis
THE EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake is a sudden violent ground-shaking
created by the friction and pressure that built up
between plates along the destructive and
conservative plate boundaries.
The centre of the earthquake or the point of origin
underground is called the focus and the point on the
surface directly above the focus is known as the
epicentre.
The earthquake shockwaves are called the seismic
waves and the amount of damage caused by the
earthquake depends on the type of rocks and soil,
the depth of focus and distance of the epicentre. The
worst damage and devastation occur where the focus
is closest to the surface (shallow) and where rocks
are soft.

Measurements of earthquake
Seismic waves are measured by an instrument called
seismometer which produces a seismograph and use the
scale called Richter scale which measures the magnitude of
an earthquake and the amount of energy released during
the event.
Richter scale is a logarithmic scale which runs from 1 to 10
magnitudes, so a point up on the Richter scale represents
a 10 times increase in strength and 30 times increase in
released energy.
For example an earthquake of 7.0 magnitudes is 10 times
more powerful in strength and 30 times in energy released
than one of 6.0 Richter scale, but 100 times more powerful
and 900 times more energy than the one measuring 5.0
Richter scale.

Distribution of the earthquake

The global distribution of earthquake and volcanoes
occur along the tectonic plate boundaries of three
narrow belts and some small belts:
1- The fringes and shores of the pacific ocean
called the pacific Ring of Fire
2- The belt that stretches from south Asia to
the southern Europe
3- The belt along the Great African Rift Valley
formed by a constructive plate margin.
4- San Andreas Fault between the North America
and Pacific plates.
MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE
Mercalli scale is based upon the observation of the people about
the amount of damage that earthquake has done. It runs from 1
up to 12 written in Roman numbers (I, II – XII).
TYPES AND DIFFERENCES OF SEISMIC WAVES
BODY WAVES SURFACE WAVES
PRIMARY SECONDARY Rayleigh Love
WAVES WAVES
1 Longitudinal Transverse Transverse waves
waves
2 Fastest moving Slower moving Slowest of all the
waves and waves and seismic waves
arrives at a arrives at a
detector first detector second
3 Can travel Can travel They can travel all
through solids through solids the three phase of
and liquids only matter
4 Vibrations are Vibrations are Vibrations are at right
propagated to at right angle to angle to the direction
the direction of the direction of of the waves
the waves the waves vertically
horizontally Shear

5 Waves move Waves move Waves move up and

forward and sideways down
backwards
6 Move through They are more They are the most
the whole earth destructive destructive
 and are than the P
detected all waves
parts of the
earth
7 Travel through Travel through They travel only
the crust, the crust and through the crust
mantle and the mantle only
core to the and blocked
opposite side of by the upper
the earth. liquid core,
thus Shadow
zone
Calculating the location of an earthquake
There is a time delay between the faster P wave and the
slower S-wave. So the closer the epicenter is, the shorter
the lag-time and the farther away the epicenter is the
larger the time delay.
Factors that affect earthquakes impacts
The effects of an earthquake are varying as it depends on:
1. The magnitude of the earthquake on the Richter
scale - the higher the scale, the more destruction it
can cause.
2. The depth of the focus – the shallower focus, the
more destructive.
3. Distance from epicenter - the effects of an
earthquake is more severe at its center.
4. Population density - the more people living in an
area, the more deaths and casualties may occur.
5. The time of the day - whether people are in their
homes, work or travelling.
 6. The level of development the country - Richer
countries will be more likely to be able to predict,
protect and prepare themselves from the effects of an
earthquake.
Types of impacts and consequences of quakes
The primary effects includes:
1. Buildings and bridges fall apart and collapses due to
poor building designs.
2. Loss of life because the falling masonry kills, traps
and crashes people.
3. Land cracks and fault

The secondary or after-effect impacts:-

1. Fire outbreaks from broken gas pipes and
electricity cables.
2. Disruption of transportation, water and electric
supply services
3. Homelessness, and lack of shelters
4. Shortage of food, clean water and medical
equipment.
5. Diseases caused by polluted water supplies.
6. Tsunami is a high tidal wave generated by the
earthquakes with epicentres under the ocean.
QO1: Analyse the impacts of named earthquake and how it
is responded to? (12)
A case study: - Kobe earthquake
Japan is an island on the junction of three faults of destructive
plate boundaries of the Philippines and the Pacific (oceanic)
moving downward beneath the Eurasian plate (continental crust).
Japan under constant threat from severe earthquakes like the
1995 January 17 Kobe earthquake.
Kobe city is on the Nojima fault of Awaji Island, and a 7.2 Richter
scale earthquake shook at 5:46 am and lasted only for 20
seconds.
Primary effects were:
 A death toll of 6324 people
 Injuries at 40 000 people
 Collapsed buildings nearly 200 000
 Bridges along 130km section of the bullet train route.
Secondary effects include
 All electricity, gas and water supplies were disrupted.
 Fires broke out from ruptured gas pipes and electricity mains.
 About 230 000 people became homeless
 Industries were forced to close, such as Mitsubishi and Panasonic.

Responses to Kobe
Japan a HIC responded quickly to the short-term effects through
emergency response activities by:
 Rescuing injured and trapped people in collapsed homes
 Restoring basic services such as sewage, gas, electricity and
communication
 Providing medical help
 Organizing the distribution of emergency food, water and clothing
 Using lifting gear and diggers to clear away the rubble
 Providing transport for emergency by the armed forces.

Also Japan copped the long-term effects by

  Kobe’s infrastructures were rebuilt and repaired by July, such as
bridges, port and main railways and roads
 Replaced buildings to meet earthquake-resistance standard by
 High-rise buildings with flexible steel frame. Smaller buildings
with concrete frames and reinforcing bars to absorb shockwaves

Volcanic activities and its features

The great temperature and pressure cause rocks below the
crust semi-molten state but if the pressure weakens some
of the molten rocks become a hot liquid material called
magma.
If magma comes out from cracks or faults in the crust and
reaches the surface it cools and solidifies quickly to form
features like a volcanoes or lava flows which is made up of
extrusive igneous rocks (volcanic).
But if magma could not come out and collects in the crust
cools and solidifies slowly forms features like batholiths,
sills and dykes which are made up of
intrusvie igneous rocks (plutonic).
Batholiths: is a very large dome-like mass of magma that forms
the root of the mountains.
Sill: is a sheet of magma lying horizontally along the bedding
plane.
Dykes are vertical or inclined wall-like masses of magma which
cut across the bedding planes.
Sills give rise to waterfalls and rapids where they are crossed by
rivers.
Form 2
Term 3
Volcanic eruption
Volcanic eruption is when the magma explodes from
the volcanoes violently with cinder, dust, ash and
gases.
During eruptions, magma emerges either through a
hole called a vent to form a mountain called a
volcanoes or from a crack called fissure which
usually form a lava plateau or a lava flow.
Three types volcanoes are:-
a) A cone volcano is a conical in shape which is made up of
layers of accumulated lava, ash and cinder.
b) Shield volcano is a gently sloping, shield-like mounds which
is made up of mainly lava and ash because the magma was
very fluidly viscous.
c) Composite volcano is a cone volcano which has two or three
cone-lets formed by small side vents.
Types of volcanic activities:
1. Active volcanoes also called alive is one which erupts more frequently from
time to time.
2. Dormant or sleeping volcanoes, are those which has not erupted for a long
time but may erupt sometime in the future
3. Extinct volcano also called dead is one which has not

erupted in the known human history.

HAZARDS AND DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

The location of the world’s major centres of volcanic activities and eruptions occur in
three long, narrow belts:
i) The Pacific Ring of Fire which encircles the whole of the Pacific Ocean
ii) The margin that extends down the entire length of the Mid-Atlantic Ocean
iii) Smaller areas in Southern Europe, the Caribbean, East Africa and the mid-
Pacific Ocean.

Volcanic eruption hazards

Four hazards associated with volcanic eruptions:
a) Hot lava flows that destroy farmland, buildings, lines of transport and blocking up
river courses.
b) Pyroclastic flow is a mixture of hot ash and gas that travel very fast down the
slopes of volcanoes that kills and destroys everything on its path.
c) The ash clouds thrown into the air is carried by the prevailing winds and cause air
transport to halt, collapsing roofs of buildings and damaging crops, lakes and
roads by covering them.
d) Poisonous dense gasses emitted during the eruptions cause death and acid rain
e) Tsunami cause death and destruction on coastal areas when eruptions occur on
ocean floor, e.g. the 1883 Krakatau eruption which drowned over 36000 people.
BENEFITS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Unlike earthquake and tropical storms, volcanic activity has benefits:
1. Volcanoes bring valuable mineral resources to the surface.
2. Fertile soil around volcanoes as the ash enriches the soil which is good for
farming.
3. Geothermal electricity is generated from the hot steam emitted by the geysers.
Iceland harnesses the steam that rotates turbines to generate electricity for
factories and homes.
4. Hot springs provide heat energy that can be used to heat homes, factories
5. The greenhouses of vegetables, fruits and flowers are grown in Iceland.
6. Tourism volcanic features and the hot springs do attract tourists from around the
world. Mount Vesuvius in Sicily, Italy.

NATURAL HAZARDS MANAGEMENT

There are six steps that involve in hazard management and control for mitigation. This
means taking evasive or precaution actions before, during and after a hazard event to
reduce its possible consequences.
1. Hazard identification:- this is naming the natural hazard that threats people,
(drought).
2. Hazard risk assessment: - is to determine the probability of a hazard happening
by researching the distribution, frequency and scale of the hazard damage.
3. Hazard prediction: - this is putting in place a monitoring system that might give
warning about an imminent hazard.
4. Preparation (adjustment):- this is finding ways of reducing the death toll and
the scale of damage of property, such as:
Hazard event: - this is the happening of the natural hazard that has been
anticipated and planned for.
5. Recovery of the hazard: - this step involves in actions taken just after the
hazard event to minimize the amount of damage by doing first emergency aid and
then repairing the damages.
6. Appraisal of the hazard: - this is the examination of what happened after the event
to get answers whether hazard preparations and emergency plans have effectively
worked or what should be done to make better in future.

PREDICTION OF EARTHQUAKE
Though it is known that earthquakes occur along the active plate margins but cannot be
predicted. There are warning signs and changes that local people notice before
earthquake, like that:-
 The land may be seen to rise or tilt
 The water level in wells is seen to fall
 There are improvements in detecting changes in electric signals
 There have been improvements in detecting changes in registering radioactive
emissions

Predicting volcanic eruptions

It is very difficult to predict eruptions though the location of the world’s most active
volcanoes are known because it may become dormant. However there are warning signs
as the magma beneath the volcano comes close to the surface:-
 The escape of gases like SO2 can be monitored
 An increasing number of small earthquakes in the locality that can be measured
 A swelling of the sides of the volcano.

Preparing for earthquake hazard

Japan (HIC) managed well the Kobe earthquake in terms of preparation and adjustment
to reduce death toll and damage by.
1. Spending large amount of money designing buildings and transport links to
withstand earthquakes.
2. Educating people safety measures to do during events.
3. Holding regular earthquake drills in schools and working place
4. Organizing armed forces and emergency services in full-scale practices
5. Responding quickly in time to rescue trapped and injured people

However, it is proved that different building materials respond to shock waves in

different ways, like that:-
 Wooden houses may burn by broken gas lines
 Bricks fall of buildings and trap people
 Concrete frames with reinforcing strong flexible steel bars in joints can cope with
shock waves
 High-rise buildings with flexible steel frames do survive but falling glass and bricks
cause injury and death

Preparing for volcanic eruptions

This can be prepared by:-
  Controlling lava flows by erecting barriers
 Cooling lava fronts with water
 Sloping roofs of the buildings to prevent accumulation of ash
 Educating people with emergency procedures
 Putting in place early warning systems
 Building dykes and dams to protect against lahars and flash flood in case of rain
falling aftermath.

A lahars is a flow of wet ash down the sides of a volcanic cone as in Mount Pinatubo in
the Philippines in June 1991
HOMEWORK
1. List the major steps to be taken when managing hazard?
2. Mention two ways that can be prepared for each of the following hazards
a) Tropical storms
b) Volcanic eruptions
c) Earthquake events
3. How tropical storms can be predicted and forecasted?
4. What do the following terms mean.
a) Lahars
b) Meteorologist
c) Imager sensor
d) Sounder sensor
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEISMIC WAVES
 Waves don’t travel in straight line but they bend (refracted) as they travel deeper
into the mantle.
 The deeper the wave gets, the denser the mantle gets, and the more the wave is
refracted.
 As the density increases, the pressure increases with the depth, then waves speed
up.
 The shadow zone is the part on the opposite side of the earth that S-waves cannot
be detected by the seismographs, because the upper liquid core blocks them up to
pass through. So, the size of the shadow zone is the size of the Core, only the
area that S-waves are detected is between 0o and 105o from the point of origin
(focus)
 P-waves can be detected on the opposite side of the earth, except the area
between 105o and 140o from the origin, because they are able to pass through
both solid and the liquid, but there is an area of P-wave shadow zone after Nuclear
Explosion test and seismograph
 Also speed and direction of a wave changes as it travel through the different phase
of the matter and gets either refracted or reflected
 Seismic waves vibrate more than 200 times a minute.

RECAP

Augustus Edward H. Love

John William Rayleigh
Measurements of earthquake