1.

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

VARIOUS METHODS TO STUDY THE INTERIOR OF EARTH

1. Seismic studies

2. Meteorites(shooting stars)

3. Xenoliths

4. High pressure experiments.

1. Seismic studies
a) Seismic reflection studies
b) Seismic refraction studies

a) Seismic reflection

• If two layers of differing densities are separated by a fairly sharp boundary, seismic waves reflect
off that boundary.

• These reflected waves are recorded on a seismograph which shows the time taken by the waves to
travel down to the boundary, reflect off it and return to the surface.

• From the time necessary for the round trip, the depth of the boundary can be calculated.

b) Seismic Refraction

• Suppose there are two rock layers of differing densities and lower layer is denser and transmit
seismic waves rapidly.

• Seismic waves from an explosion travel in all direction .

• Station S1 is near to the epicenter, receiving only the direct wave (r 1 ) followed by the refracted
wave (r3)

• At the seismic station S2, which is away from the epicenter, the refracted wave (r 4) reaches first
followed by the direct wave (r2 ).

• This is because, though the refracted wave (r 4 ) travels longer distance, most of it travels through
high density layer B and so arrive earlier.

• At some point between S1 and S2 there is a transformation from receiving the direct waves first
to receiving refracted waves first.

• The distance between this point and the epicenter is a function of the depth to the refracting
boundary.
2. Meteorites

• Extra- terrestrial material which falls into the earth when captured by the earth’s gravitational
field.

• They are considered to represent samples of an aborted planet and average compositions of
meteorites, relative abundance of direct varieties of meteorites are useful in estimating the
composition of the planet.

3. Xenoliths

• Fragments of foreign rock within a host rock

• Often they are fragments of rock from the lower crust or mantle, rapidly brought up along the
ascending magma.

• Xenoliths composition gives direct evidence of the composition of lower crust and upper mantle.

4. Experimental studies

• The pressure-temperature at lower crust and upper mantle can be duplicated in the laboratory

• Taking the samples of rock which is most closely representing the lower crust and upper mantle
and subjecting them to pressure temperature conditions prevailing at these depths

• Variations in mineralogy and density in the lower crust and mantle can be studied.

INTERIOR CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

• Seismic waves transmission pattern shows that the interior of the earth is concentrically layered.

• There are first order seismic discontinuities (a boundary plane along which the behavior of the
seismic waves change rapidly)in the interior of the earth. They are the Mohorovicic discontinuity,
the Guttenberg discontinuity, the Lehmann discontinuity.
 • These three first order discontinuities separates the Crust, Mantle, Outer core and Inner core.

DISCONTINUITY Moho Guttenberg Lehmann

discontinuity discontinuity

BOUNDARY Crust and Mantle Mantle and outer core Outer core and Inner
LAYERS core

DEPTH 6 to >30 km 2900km 5200km

SEISMIC WAVE Vp increases to 8km/s Vp decreases from P waves refracted and

BEHAVIOUR 13.5 km/s to 8.1km/s Vp increases
Vs increases to 4.5 and S waves
km/s terminated

DISCOVERED BY A.Mohorovicic Beno Guttenberg I Lehmann(1936)

(1909)
(1914)

INTERIOR CONSTITUTION OF EARTH

 The Crust
 Characteristics Oceanic crust Continental crust

Thickness 7 km 30-50 Km

Seismic P wave velocity 7km/s 6 km/s

Density 3 g/cm3 2.7 g/cm3

Probable Composition Basaltic (SIMA) Granitic (Sial)

Rock types Basalt and Gabbro Gneiss,granite etc…

 The mantle

• It constitutes about 84% by volume of the earth. density of rocks- 3.3 g/cc (upper mantle ) & 5.5
g/cc (lower mantle).

• The Vp in the mantle is 8 Km/s at the top and increases with depth

• Mantle is considered to be made up of ultramafic rocks like peridotite

• Study of meteorites supports the above conclusion

• Stoney and iron meteorites

• stoney meteorites are considered to represent the composition of mantle.

• Lithosphere: crust and upper part of the mantle(70-125 km)

• In general the seismic velocities increases with depth except at two zones- i)low velocity zone
and ii) the transition zone

• Low velocity zone ( 70-125 km to 200 km)-melting rocks-lubricating layer-also known as

asthenosphere.

• Transition zone- The zone of rapid increase in seismic velocity extending from 410 km-1000km
depth is designated as transition zone which separates the upper mantle from the lower mantle-
characterized with mineral transition.
 The Core

• Gutenberg Seismic Discontinuity / Core-Mantle Boundary

• Seismic velocities gradually increase with depth in the mantle. However, at arc distances
of between about 103° and 143° no P waves are recorded.

• Furthermore, no S waves are record beyond about 103°. Gutenberg (1914) explained this
as the result of a molten core beginning at a depth of around 2900 km.

• Shear waves could not penetrate this molten layer and P waves would be severely slowed
and refracted (bent).

• Lehman Siesmic Discontinuity / The Inner Core

• Between 143° and 180° from an earthquake another refraction is recognized (Lehman,
1936) resulting from a sudden increase in P wave velocities at a depth of 5150 km.

• This velocity increase is consistent with a change from a molten outer core to a solid
inner core.

Composition of core

• Avg density 5.5 g/cc.

• 10 g/cc at the Guttenberg discontinuity and increases to 12-13 g/cc at the centre of the earth.

• Temperature at Guttenberg discontinuity is 4800 o C , at the Lehmann discontinuity is 6600o C

and at the center 6900o C.

• Pressure 3 million atm.

 • Under these pressure temperature conditions in the core, iron mixed with lighter elements like
sulphur or silicon, would give the high density.

• Iron meteorites represent the core composition.

• Core is metallic composed or iron.

• The existence of earth’s magnetic field also supports a metallic core

• Outer core liquid core is considered to be dominated by iron and minor amount of sulphur.

• And the Inner core by iron and nickel.

2. PLATE TECTONICS
 Layers of atmosphere

 Continental Drift

• Alfred Wegener's theory that the continents were once a single supercontinent called Pangaea (all
land).

• Over time this super continent slowly broke apart into what we have today.

 Theory of Plate Tectonics - The theory of plate tectonics, Lithosphere is broken up into
sections/pieces that move on top of the liquid mantle (asthenosphere).

• Tectonic Plates – these sections/pieces of lithosphere are called plates.

PLATES

• There are 7 major plates on the earth that are moving extremely slowly but continuously.

Major Plates: Eurasian, African, Australian-Indian, North American, Pacific, Antarctic and South
American.
Intermediate Plates: Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca, Arabian, Phillippine, European and Scotia

Tectonic plates have different boundaries.

• Based on the type of relative motion across the boundary and nature of interaction between the
adjoining plates

A. Transform Boundary: occur

when plates slide apart each
other.

B. Convergent Boundary: occurs

when plates push together.

C. Divergent Boundary: occurs

where plates move apart, usually
found in the ocean

 Divergent Boundaries

• Plates moving apart. Divergent boundaries can cause the following effects.

1. Seafloor Spreading (oceanic-oceanic)

• The process by which new oceanic crust is created.

• Two oceanic plates move apart leaving a gap which is filled by molten rock material

• This on cooling gets welded to the ocean crust, forms new oceanic crust.

2. Mid-Ocean Ridges (oceanic-oceanic)

• A mountain under the ocean

• A mid-ocean ridge formed by arching of the oceanic crust by the rising magma and cooling of the
enormous amount of magma poured out.
 3. A Rift Valley (continental-continental)

• When continental plates pull apart, they form

rift valleys.

• Makes volcanoes and new land

(Example: East African Rift Valley)

 Convergent Boundaries

• Plates come together

Subduction Zones

• If the plates moving towards each other are oceanic and continental

• The more dense (oceanic plate) plate slides beneath the other plate.
Benioff Shear Zones

Volcanic Arc (Subduction: Oceanic-Continental)

• More dense (heavier) oceanic crust goes under the less dense continental crust.

• As the plate moves under the continental plate, the rock melts and rises, creating volcanoes.

• Trenches are also created.

Deep-Sea Trench (oceanic-continental)

• A depression (hole) in the ocean floor at a subduction zone, it has sand in it.

Mountains (Subduction: Continental-Continental)

• When 2 continental plates come together.

• The plates push up and form mountains. (Example: Himalayas)

 Transform Fault Boundaries

• Plates slide past one another moving in opposite directions.

• Also called FAULTS

• Causes earthquakes/tsunamis to occur.

  Convection Currents

• Convection cells in the mantle move the plates.

– Hot in the center, less dense magma rises up due to heat.

– When the magma reaches the surface, it cools and sinks back down creating a circular
pattern of movement.

• This process happens continually.

• Hot – goes UP

• Cool – goes DOWN

3. EARTHQUAKE
An Earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the earth’s crust that creates seismic
waves.

Terminology

• Focus/Hypocenter: A hypocenter or focus is the point of origin of an earthquake

• Epicenter: The epicenter, is the point on the Earth's surface directly above a hypocenter or focus

• Intensity of earthquake: Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at
a certain location. It describes the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth's
surface and on humans and their structures

• Magnitude of earthquake : Magnitude measures the energy released at the source of the
earthquake. Magnitude is determined from measurements on seismographs

• Isoseismic lines : A line connecting points on the Earth's surface at which earthquake intensity is
the same. It is usually a closed curve around the epicenter.

• Seismograph : A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record

earthquakes.

• Seismogram : A seismogram is a graph output by a seismograph. It is a record of the ground

motion at a measuring station as a function of time.
 • Seismic waves: Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are
a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large man-
made explosions

• Fore shock: A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a larger seismic event (the
mainshock) and is related to it in both time and space

• Main shock: The mainshock is the largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes preceded by one
or more foreshocks, and almost always followed by many aftershocks.

• After shock: An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake, in the same
area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock.

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES

1. Based on their location w.r.to lithospheric plate boundaries.

 Interplate earthquakes: along the boundary of the plate

 Intraplate earthquake: within the interior of plates

 The intraplate earthquakes occurring within the stable regions of the continent
are known as stable continental region(scr) earthquakes.

2. Based on causative factor

 Tectonic

 Non tectonic

Tectonic earthquakes Non tectonic earthquakes

Caused by readjustments and dislocation in the interior Caused by disturbance on the surface of the earth like
of the earth meteor impact, artificial explosions etc.

Generally less frequent but more intense and affect More frequent but less intense and the impact is over
larger area. limited area.

3. Based on the depth of focus:

Depth of focus (Km) Earthquake Type

< 70 Shallow earthquake

 70-350 Intermediate earthquake

>350 Deep earthquake

4. Based on the magnitude of earthquakes:

Magnitude Earthquake type

>8 Great

7-7.9 Major

6-6.9 Strong

5-5.9 Moderate

4-4.9 Light

3-3.9 Minor

<3 Very minor

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

• According to this theory earthquakes are the result of release of strain energy during breaking of
rock that accumulates in the rock by deformation.

EARTHQUAKE/SEISMIC WAVES

 Two types of seismic waves are generated at the earthquake focus:

1. Body waves: spread outward from the focus in all directions.

2. Surface waves spread outward from the epicenter to the Earth’s surface

These waves can move rock particles in a rolling motion that very few structures can withstand.
These waves move slower than body waves

Body waves:
 1. Primary Wave (P wave):

• Compressional wave (travels in the same direction the waves move

• Very fast (4-7 km/second)

• Can pass through a fluid (gas or liquid)

• Arrives at recording station first

2. Secondary Wave (S wave):

• Transverse wave (travels perpendicular to the wave movement

• Slower moving (2-5 km/second)

• Caused by a shearing motion

• Cannot pass through a fluid (gas or liquid)

• Surface waves: are produced when earthquake energy reaches the Earth's surface. Surface
waves moves rock particles in a rolling motion, so that the earth moves in different directions.
These are the slowest moving waves, but are the most destructive for structures on earth.
 1. Love (L) wave: Rock moves from side to side like snake

2. Raleigh wave: Rolling pattern like ocean wave

 Strength of an earthquake

• Intensity: denote the extent of damage to life and property caused by an earthquake.

• Magnitude : measure of the amount of energy released during an earthquake.

• Mercalli Intensity scale:

measures the intensity of how people and structures are affected by the seismic event. In essence, it
measures damage. It is much more subjective and uses numbers ranging from 1 (no damage) to 12 (total
destruction).

 Richter Scale- (logarithmic scale)

 The Richter Scale is used to express earthquake magnitude on the basis of the height (amplitude)
of the largest line (seismic wave, P or S) on a seismogram.

Measuring earthquakes

• Seismometers: instruments that detect seismic waves

• Seismographs

• Record intensity, height

• and amplitude of seismic

• waves