World Geography by - Dr. Kuldeep Sir

WARRIOR BATCH
ENGLISH MEDIUM
MPPSC MAINS
PAPER-1 Part-B UNIT-1
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
@I-magnus
www.imagnus.in
By:-Dr. Kuldeep Sir

For- UPSC / MPPSC
Sources to study the earth’s interior

A.Direct sources
• Deep earth mining and drilling
• Volcanic eruption
B. Indirect sources
• Increase in pressure and temperature with depth
• Seismic waves
• Meteorites
• Gravitation
• Magnetic field.
Seismic waves
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s layers and are a result of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large human-made explosions.
• They are the most important source available to understand the layered structure of the earth.
• The velocity of seismic waves changes as they travel through materials with
different elasticity and density.
• The more elastic and denser the material is, the higher is the velocity.
• They also undergo refection or refraction when they come across materials with different densities.
• The seismic waves or earthquake waves are basically of three types
1.'P' or primary or longitudinal waves

• Primary waves are called so because they are the fastest among the seismic waves
• These are longitudinal waves because the displacement of the medium is in the same direction as, or
the opposite direction
• Their average speed is 8 km per second.
• They can travel in all mediums,
2. "S" or Transverse Waves

• S-waves are also called as transverse waves or shear waves or distortional waves.
• They are analogous to water ripples or light waves.
• Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations of the particles in the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they create troughs and crests
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids
• Their average speed is 4 km. per second.
3- L Waves
Add:–Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near Sai Baba Mandir, Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) | Cont. us – 7524821440, 7000360672 1 |P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• P and S waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called surface waves
travel only on the surface of the earth.
Earth's interior on the basis of Seismic waves

• Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric
mantle (part of the Earth’s mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere), outer core, and inner
core.
• Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and
inner core.
Crust
• Outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less than 1 per
cent of Earth’s mass.
• Made up of lighter elements like Silica and Aluminium.
• average density is about 2.7 g/cm3
• It has two parts.
1. Continental Crust
2. Oceanic Crust
Continental crust
• Made up of granite and Andisite
• The thickness of the continental crust is 50-70 km
• The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain systems
Oceanic crust
• It is made up of basalt and gabbro.
• The thickness of the oceanic crust is 5-30 km
Conrad Discontinuity
• Transition zone between SIAL (Continental crust) and SIMA (Oceanic crust) .
Mohorovic (Moho) discontinuity

• It forms the boundary between the crust and mantle
Mantle
• It forms about 83 per cent of the earth’s volume and holds 67% of the earth’s mass.
• It extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
For- UPSC / MPPSC
1. Upper Mantle
o Crust and the upper part of the mantle combinedly called lithosphere has thickness of about 100 km
which is solid in nature.
• The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric plates)
• Movement of these tectonic plates cause large-scale changes in the earth’s geological structure (folding,
faulting).
Asthenosphere
• The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere
• It lies just below the lithosphere extending up to 100-200 km.
• It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile and its density is higher than that of the crust.
• It is the main source of magma that ooze out during volcanic eruptions.
Repiti Discontinuity
• Transition zone between Outer mantle and Inner mantle.
Gutenberg Discontinuity
• Transition zone between Mantle and Core.
Core
1. Outer core
• The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between 2900 km and 5155 km below the earth’s
surface.
• The outer core is composed of iron mixed with nickel (nife)
• It is in liquid state
• Convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth’s magnetic field.
• Therefore, it is called 'heat engine'
Lehman Discontinuity
• Transition zone between Outer core and Inner core.
Inner core
• It is also called Barysphere.
• It is situated between 5155-6371 km
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• At 6000°C, this iron core is as hot as the Sun’s surface, but the crushing pressure caused by gravity
prevents it from becoming liquid.
Earthquake
• Shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the seismic waves
Center/Focus/Hypocenter
• The point from where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake
Epicenter
▪ The point vertically above the focus on the earth s surface is known as epicenter
▪ Epicenter is point on surface lies nearest to the focus that’s why first surface point to
experience the earthquake waves
• Intensity is the highest at the epicentre.
• That is why the maximum destruction occurs at and around the epicentre.
• The intensity of vibrations decreases as one moves away from the epicentre.
Isoseismal line
• A line connecting all points on the surface where the intensity is the same is called an isoseismic
line.
Homoseismal line
• The line joining the places of earthquake waves arising at the same time is called co-seismic line.
Causes of the earthquake

Natural causes
1. Volcanic action
• In volcanic action, fast and fast gases and vapors exert force to come out of the surface, due to
which earthquakes are generated on the earth's surface.
1. Plate Tectonic Theory

• Slipping of land along the faultline along convergent, divergent and transform boundaries cause
earthquakes.
3. Exogenic forces
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• An earthquake may also be caused due to landslide and collapse of cave or mines etc. which can
cause a sudden release in energy.
Manmade causes
1- Reservoir Induced earthquake
• Underground rocks bend under pressure
• When the bending exceeds a limit, the rocks break and try to return to their former position, due
to which an earthquake is experienced.
2- Nuclear test
• Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
3- Mining
4- Unscientific infrastructural construction
Type of earthquake
A. Depending on the location of the foci of earthquake

1. Shallow earthquakes
• Due to the decrease in pressure at the divergent boundary of the plates, the magma of the inner
parts rises at a slow rate, which causes shallow earthquakes.
• These are 0-70 km deep.
• More than 90 percent of earthquakes in nature are of this type
2. Intermediate earthquakes
• These are 70-300 km deep
3. Deep Center Earthquakes

• These are 300-700 km deep
Benioff zone
▪ It is a zone of subduction, along which earthquakes are common, which are produced by the
interaction of a downgoing oceanic crustal plate against a continental plate.
▪ Deep earthquakes (300-700 km) are produced in this zone.
For- UPSC / MPPSC
B. Depending on the location of earthquake

1. Terrestrial earthquake
• This type of earthquake occurs on the continental part.
2. Oceanic earthquakes
• These types of earthquakes occur in the ground of the sea.
• The waves produced by these ocean earthquakes are called tsunamis. Their number is less as
compared to local earthquakes.
Distribution of Earthquakes
1. Pacific Ocean
2. Mid Continental Belt
3. Mid-Atlantic belt
4. IntraPlate Belt
Pacific oceanic belt

• This is world's greatest earthquake belt found along the rim of the Pacific Ocean,
• About 65 percent of the world's earthquakes occur here.
Responsible factors
1. Meeting point of ocean and land
2. Area of new fold mountains
3. Volcanic Zone
4. Convergence Zone of destructive Plates
Mid continental plate or Alpine earthquake belt

• It extends from Java to Sumatra through the Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and out into the
Atlantic.
• About 21 percent of earthquakes in the world occur in this region.
Mid-atlantic ridge
• The ridge marks where two tectonic plates are spreading apart (a divergent plate boundary.
• Most of the mid-Atlantic Ridge is deep underwater and far from human development.
IntraPlate range
• Occurs within the interior of a tectonic plate
Effects of Earthquake
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Earthquakes are a natural hazard. If a tremor of high magnitude takes place, it can cause heavy
damage to the life and property of people. The following are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:
• Ground Shaking
• Differential ground settlement
• Land and mudslides
• Fires
• Ground lurching
• Avalanches
• Ground displacement
• Floods from dam and levee failures
• Structural collapse
• Tsunami
Scale for measurement of Earthquake

1. Richter Scale (1935)
• It is also called magnitude scale
• It measures the energy released by an earthquake.
• It has a measuring scale from 1 to 10.
• On each scale 10 times more energy is released.
2. Mercalli Scale(1902)
• It is also called intensity scale .
• It measures the impact of an earthquake on the surface.
• It has a measuring scale from 1 to 12.
Major earthquakes
• Koyna in 1967
• Latur, Maharashtra in 1993
• 26 January 2001 in Bhuj, Gujarat
• On March 11, 2011, the Earth's rotation distance increased by 16 microseconds, the Earth's
rotation speed increased by 16 microseconds, due to the earthquake in Japan, the duration of the
day was microseconds.
Tsunami
• The word tsunami is derived from the Japanese words su (port) and nami (wave).
• These are long wavelength and low frequency sea waves
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Causes of tsunami origin

• Earthquake
• Volcano
• Landslide
• Meteorite
Characteristics of tsunami
1. Tsunami waves have the longest wavelength in deep seas, which decreases as they move towards the
coast
2. As the depth of the ocean water decreases, the height of the tsunami increases. This is the reason
why tsunamis are not visible in the open oceans.
3- With the decrease in speed, the height of the tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which was
imperceptible in deep water may grow to many metres high, and this is called the ‘shoaling’ effect.
5- The speed of tsunami is high in deep water whereas the speed of tsunami decreases when the depth
of water is less
6- Sea water retreats rapidly before the arrival of tsunami waves in coastal areas
• Tsunami waves are mostly born in the Pacific Ocean

• The Sumatra tsunami on 26 December 2004 is the most devastating tsunami ever
• On March 11, 2011, Japan was hit by a tsunami with the highest magnitude of the century,
causing massive destruction and radioactive material leaks from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear
device explosion.
Volcano
• A volcano is a vent or a fissure in the crust from which lava (molten rock), ash, gases, rock
fragments erupt from a magma chamber below the surface.
Factors that lead to volcanism

Plate Tectonics
• The majority of volcanoes occur where two lithospheric plates converge and one overrides the
other, forcing it down into the mantle to be reabsorbed.
Ocean floor spreading

• A major site of active volcanism is along the axis of the oceanic ridge system, where the plates
move apart on both sides of the ridge and magma wells up from the mantle.
Weak Earth Surface

• Because of high pressure in the earth’s interior, the magma and gases escape with great velocity .
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Faults
• Whenever extreme pressure builds in the mantle, along fault lines an eruption is likely to happen
next. The earthquakes, for instance, may expose fault zones through which magma may escape.
A decrease in external pressure

• A decrease in external pressure can trigger an eruption as it may minimize the volcano’s
ability to hold back by increasing the pressures inside the magma chamber
Volcanism
• Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of a planet.
Products of volcanism
• All three types of substances, gas, fluid and solid, erupt from the volcano.
Gasses
• Many types of gases are released during volcanic eruption
• e.g. hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide sulfide, ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid
• The amount of water vapour is the highest (60 – 90%) among the gases.
• As soon as the water vapour comes in contact with the atmosphere, it cools down and causes
torrential rain.
Fluid substance
• The fluid erupt from the volcano is called lava.
• The temperature of freshly ejected lava is 600 °C to 1200 °C.
• The speed of a lava flow depends on its chemical composition and the slope of the land.
• Acidic lava (containing silica) is thick and viscous while alkaline lava (containing iron) is liquid.
Acidic lava
• These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point.
• They are light-coloured, of low density, and have a high percentage of silica.
• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying.
• The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava, resulting
in loud explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
• Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the destructive boundaries (convergent boundaries).
Basic or Basaltic or Sheild Lava

For- UPSC / MPPSC
• They are dark coloured basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
• They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are not very explosive.
• Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour.
• They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they
solidify.
• The resultant volcano having gentle slope with a wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or
dome.
• Shield type lava flow is common along the constructive boundaries (divergent boundary).
Solid material
• Most of the lava cooled before it reaches the surface.
• With the next volcanic eruption, this condensed lava comes out in the form of solid which includes
dust particles and ash.
• Apart from this, pea-sized lapilli and tufts (particles deposited in the ocean) also erupt.
Distribution of volcanoes based on plate tectonics

1- Circum-Pacific ring of fire
• Most of the high volcanic cones and volcanic mountains are found in this belt
• About 70 per cent of earthquakes occur in this belt.
• Where there is active subduction of the Pacific, Nazca, Cocos, and juan de fuca plates.
• Other example is the volcanoes of Sumatra and Java, which lies over the subduction zone between
the Australian plate and the Eurasian plate.
2- Mid-Atlantic belt
• A few basaltic volcanoes of fissure eruption type also occur along the mid-oceanic ridge, where
seafloor spreading is in progress.
3- Mid-Continental belt
• It includes volcanoes of the alpine mountain chains and the Mediterranean Sea and those in the
fault zone of Eastern Africa.
• Here volcanoes are caused due to collision of African, Eurasian and Indian plates.
4- Intra-plate volcanoes
• Some volcanoes are scattered in the inner parts of plates away from the margins.
• There are also called Hot spot volcanoes as they occur in the middle of plate boundaries where
magma exits from weaknesses in the earth’s surface.
Add:–Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near Sai Baba Mandir, Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) | Cont. us – 7524821440, 7000360672 10
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• The Hawaiian Islands are an example of hot spot volcanoes.
Types of volcanoes
1. According to the explosivity
a- Hawaiian Volcano
• They are the calmest types characterised by the effusive eruption of very fluidish basalt-type lava.
b- Strombolian Type
• More explosive than the Hawaiian type
• Example – Stromboli (Italy)
c- Vulcanian type
• In Vulcanian eruptions, intermediate viscous magma within the volcano makes it difficult for gases
to escape.
• This leads to the build-up of high gas pressure, eventually resulting in an explosive eruption.
• They are also more explosive than their Strombolian
• Example – Vulcano (Italy)
d- Peléan
• In Peléan eruptions, a large amount of gas, dust, ash, and lava fragments are blown out the
volcano's central crater
• Example – Pelee (France)
e- Vesuvius or Plinian type

• Most Explosive
• Example –Vesuvius (Italy)
2. According to the Periodicity of Eruption

a- Active Volcano
• They erupt frequently and there is a possibility that it may erupt soon.
• Etna in Italy, Stamboli, Krakatoa in Indonesia, Mayon in the Philippines, Mona Loa in the
Hawaiian Islands and Barron Islands in India.
b- Dormant Volcano
• That has not erupted in a long time but there is a possibility it can erupt in the future.
• Vesuvius of Italy and Cotapexi of South America are dormant volcanoes.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
c- Extinct Volcano
• Have not worked in distant geological past. In most cases the crater of the Volcano is filled with
water making it a lake
Landforms associated with Volcanoes are broadly of two types:

A- Intrusive Landforms
• The commonest intrusive landforms are-
a- Sills
• They are the near horizontal bodies of intrusive igneous rocks.
• Thinner ones are called as sheets and while thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
b- Dykes
• When the lava comes out through cracks and fissures, they solidify almost perpendicular to the
ground .
c- Laccolith
• It is large blister of igneous mound with a dome-shaped upper surface and a level base.
d- Lopolith
• A lopolith is another variety of igneous intrusions with a saucer shape.
e- Phacolith
• It is a lenses-shaped mass of igneous rocks occupying the crest of an anticline or the bottom of a
syncline and being fed by a conduit from beneath.
f- Batholith
• It is a huge mass of igneous rocks, usually granite, which after removal of the overlying rocks
forms a massive and resistant upland region.
B- Extrusive Landforms
a- Cinder cones
• Cinder cones are of low height and are formed of volcanic dust and ashes etc pyroclastic material.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Falling under the influence of gravity, these particles accumulate around the vent, in a large pile.
• The form of a cinder cone is very distinctive, with steep straight sides and a crater (depression) at
the top of the hill. E.g.: Volcano Parícutin, Mexico
b- Composite cones
• A composite cone results when formative eruptions are sometimes effusive and sometimes
explosive.
• Composite cones are therefore composed of a combination of lava flow and pyroclastic materials.
• They are also called stratovolcanoes because they are constructed of layers (strata) of pyroclastics
and lava.
• They are formed due to deposition of alternate layers lava and fragmental material wherein lava
acts as cementing material. E.g.: Mount Fuji in Japan
c- Shield volcanoes
• When numerous successive basaltic lava flow occur in a given region they can eventually pile up
into the shape of a large mountain called a shield volcano.
• E.g.: Mauna Loa, Hawaii
d- Parasitic Cone
• It formed in the vicinity of the main cone and feed on the main cone.
e- Craters
• It is a pit at the top of a volcanic vent.
f- Calderas
• A caldera is a large, basin shaped depression formed at the volcanic mouth.
• It forms when summit material on a volcanic mountain collapses inward after an eruption or other
loss of magma. E.G.: Crater Lake, USA
g- Hot springs
• Ground water, coming in contact with the magma, gets heated beyond 36° C.
• It comes to the surface as hot spring. e.g. Ladakh, Manali, volcanic regions of Iceland, Yellow
Stone National Park.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
h- Geyser
• It is a special type of hot spring, which ejects steam and superheated water from an underground
source through a hole in the ground, intermittently.
• For example, old faithful geyser in the USA
Q- geophysical characteristics of Circum- Pacific Zone.
Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is a layered gaseous cover that envelops the earth from all sides.
• The atmosphere is present on the earth by its gravitational force.
• The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by warming the surface through greenhouse effect
Composition of the atmosphere

• The atmosphere is made up of three basic elements or components
(1) Gas
(2) water vapour
(3) Aerosol
Gasses
1- Constant gases
• Nitrogen, oxygen and argon are the major stable gases, which account for 78.1, 20.9 and 0.9
percent respectively in the gaseous composition of the atmosphere.
2- Variable gases
• Variable gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, hydrogen, helium, neon, xenon,
krypton, methane, etc.
Water vapour
• Due to this various forms and types of condensation and precipitation (Fog, frost, dew, hail, snow,
water) found.
• In the warm and wet tropics it may account for 4 % of the air by volume, while ill the dry and cold
areas of deserts and polar regions it may be less than 1% of air.
• Amount of water vapour decreases with altitude.
• It also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• Water vapour absorbs parts of the insulation from sun and the thus reduces its amount reaching
the earth’s surface.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• It also preserves the earth’s the earthis radiated heat.

• Water vapour absorbs heat during evaporation and release during condensation and
precipitation.
• Released energy plays important role in producing tropical cyclones and thunderstorm.
Aerosols
• The particulate matter and liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere are collectively called
aerosols.
• It includes dust and ash emanating from volcanic eruptions, dust particles blown from plowing
fields, sand particles blown from deserts, rock particles obtained from mechanical weathering of
rocks, salt particles from the ocean surface, meteorite particles, organic matter ( bacteria, pollen,
seeds etc.), smoke and soot etc.
Different layers of the atmosphere

Troposphere
• It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, which is closest to the Earth.
• Tropos is a Greek word meaning mixture or disturbance.
• In the troposphere, 75% of the total molecular or gaseous mass of the atmosphere
• All weather events occur in this layer.
• Its thickness is 8 km on the poles and 18 km on the equator.
• With increasing altitude in the troposphere, there is an average lapse of temperature at the rate of
6.50C per km (10C for every 165 m) which is called normal lapse rate.
• The upper layer of the troposphere is called the troposphere.
Stratosphere
• It extends upto 50 kilometers
• With increasing altitude, the temperature gradually increases.
• Most of the ozone gas of the atmosphere is found in the upper part of the stratosphere and it is is
maximum at 22 km. height.
• Ozone blocks the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth's surface.
• Ozone increases the temperature of the upper part of this layer by absorbing ultraviolet rays.
• Some rare clouds are visible in this layer, which is called 'Mother of Pearls' or Polar stratospheric
cloud.
• Due to the absence of meteorological changes, this layer is ideal for aircraft flights.
• The boundary separating the mesosphere and the stratosphere is called the stratosphere.
Mesosphere
• It extends upto 80 kilometers
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• The temperature in this layer starts decreasing again with altitude.

• The minimum temperature (-1000C) in the atmosphere is recorded in the Mesosphere.
• The strongest winds are found in this layer
• The Noctilucent clouds are found in the mesosphere.
Thermosphere / Ionosphere
• Thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height.
• Ionosphere is a part of this layer.
• It extends between 80-400 km.
• This layer helps in radio transmission.
• Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
• Person would not feel warm because of the thermosphere’s extremely low pressure.
• The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer.
• The Kármán line (or von Karman line) is an attempt to define a boundary between Earth's
atmosphere and outer space.
• It is situated at 100km above mean sea level
Mechanism of heating and cooling of the atmosphere

1. Radiation
• Direct heating of an object by thermal waves.
2. Conduction
• The mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of an object due to the difference in
their temperatures is called conduction.
• It occurs due to molecular activity.
• The process of conduction plays very little role in heating the atmosphere, because the effect of
conduction is only on the air near the surface and air is also not a good conductor of heat.
3. Convection
• The transfer of heat due to the movement of substance is called convection.
• The lower layer of the atmosphere is heated by radiation or conduction by the earth.
• Air expands by heating. Its density decreases and it becomes lighter and rises up, due to the
continuous rising of hot air, space is vacated in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
• To fill this void, cold air from above descends and thus convection currents are formed.
4. Advection
• The horizontal transfer of heat by winds is called convection.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
1- The atmosphere of earth is retained by

(A) Earth’s gravity
(B) Earth’s core
(C) both (A) and (B)
(D) none of the above
2- The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth

(A) by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the earth’s surface
(B) by absorbing ultraviolet radiations
(C) by warming the surface through greenhouse effect
(D) all of the above
3- The atmosphere
(A) becomes thicker and thicker with increasing altitude
(B) become thinner and thinner with increasing altitude
(C) remain same with increasing altitude
(D) none of the above
4- The study of Earth’s atmosphere and its processes is called

A- aerology
B- geology
C- meteorology
D- astronomy
5- The Karman line, the boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and outer space, is at a height of
(A) 50 km
(B) 100 km
(C) 150 km
(D) 200 km
6- Which of the following contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth

(A) Troposphere
(B) Stratosphere
(C) Thermosphere
(D) Exosphere
7- The highest layer that can be accessed by jet powered aircraft.

(A) Troposphere
(B) Stratosphere
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
(C) Mesosphere
(D) Thermosphere
8- Which of the following contains roughly 80% of the Earth’s atmosphere

(A) Troposphere
(B) Stratosphere
(C) Mesosphere
(D) Thermosphere
9- The Ozone layer is contained within the

(A) Troposphere
(B) Stratosphere
(C) Mesosphere
(D) Thermosphere
10- The density of air at sea level is about

(A) 1 kg/m3
(B) 1.2 kg/m3
(C) 1.8 kg/m3
(D) 2 kg/m3
Lattilude
• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the
center of the earth.
Equator
• The equator is the latitude of 00.
• It is largest latitude.
• The Equator passes through 3 continents and 13 countries
A- South america
1.Ecuador
2.Colombia
3.Brazil
Sao Tome & Principe
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
B. Africa
1.Gabon
2.Republic of the Congo
3.Democratic Republic of the Congo
4.Uganda
5.Kenya
6.Somalia
C.Asia
1.Maldives
2.Indonesia
3.Kiribati
Water bodies
• Atlnatic ,Pacific and Indian Ocean
• From 00 to 900 North Pole above the equator is called the Northern Hemisphere and from 00 to 900
South Pole below the Equator is called the Southern Hemisphere.
• Thus there are a total of 181 latitudes (including the equator or 00 latitude).
Tropic of Cancer
• The Tropic of Cancer is a parallel located at 23.5 degrees North of the equator.
• It most northerly circle of latitude on Earth at which the Sun can be directly overhead. This
occurs on the June solstice, when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun to its
maximum extent
• North of the tropic are the subtropics and the North Temperate Zone.
• The Tropic of cancer passes through 17 countries, 3 continents and 6 water bodies.
North America Bahamas (Archipelago), Mexico

Africa Egypt, Libya, Niger, Algeria, Mali, Western Sahara, Mauritania
Asia Taiwan, China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Oman, United Arab
Emirates, Saudi Arabia
Water Bodies Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Taiwan Strait, Red Sea, Gulf of
Mexico
Tropic of Capricorn
• Tropic of Capricorn is a parallel located at 23.5 degrees south of the equator.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Tropic of Capricorn passes through 10 countries, 3 continents and 3 water bodies.

South America Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay
Africa Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar
Australia Australia
Water Bodies Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean
• The Tropic of Capricorn (or the Southern Tropic) is the circle of latitude that contains the
subsolar point at the December (or southern) solstice.
• It is thus the southernmost latitude where the Sun can be seen directly overhead.
Subpolar circles
• The 66.5 degree latitude in both the hemispheres are called the Subpolar circles.
• These latitudes are also called the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic
Circle in the Southern Hemisphere.
Note - The distance of the arc of 10 latitudes is about 111 km. which differs from the equator to the
poles due to the roundness of the earth.
Longitude
• The angular distance of a place which is to the east and west of the prime meridian (00 or
Greenwich) is called longitude.
• It is measured in either of these two directions till 1800.
• The equator is the circumference of a circle with angular divisions of 3600.
• The distance at the equator of 10 longitude is 111.32 km. which decreases towards the poles.
• At the poles it is 0 km.
• The number of longitudinal lines are also 360.
Prime meridian line/ Greenwich line

• The longitude line passing through the Greenwich place of England is called 00 longitude line or
Greenwich line or Prime meridian line.
International Date Line
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• all the longitudes in the East up to 1800 are called Eastern Longitudes and all the longitude from
Greenwich Longitudes to the West are called West Longitudes.
• 1800 longitude is called the International Date Line.
• While crossing this line, one day is increased or decreased
• One day is added for traveling west, while traveling in east direction is subtracted one day.
• Due to the fact that the International Date Line does not pass through any land area, it has been
diverted near the Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga, and other islands.
Earth's movements
Rotation
• It’s turning on its axis.
• The earth completes one revolution on its axis from west to east in 24 hours.
• Because of this day and night are possible.
• During rotation , Day on the side of the Earth facing the Sun while on the opposite side there is
night
• Because the earth rotates from west to east the eastern to western part of the earth gradually faces
the sun.
Revolution
• Earth makes one complete revolution around the Sun in an elliptical orbit in 365 days 5 hours 48
minutes 46 seconds.
Aphelion
• During this, on July 4, the Earth is at its maximum distance from the Sun in its orbit (152 million
km.), which is called Aphelion.
Perihelion
• In contrast, on 3 January, the Earth is at the closest distance (147.3 million km) from the Sun. This
condition is called Perihelion.
• Earth's axis is inclined 23.5 degree to it’s normal.
• Therefore, during its revolution, sometimes one of its hemispheres comes near the Sun and
sometimes it gets away from the Sun.
Equinox
• The time of the year when the Sun is vertical at the the equator is called the equinox.
• This situation occurs on March 21 and September 22.
• These are called Spring equinox and Autumn equinox respectively in the northern hemisphere.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Solstice
• It is a Latin word that means ‘stalled sun’. It is a natural phenomenon that occurs twice every year
• The Sun reaches the northern solstice (Tropic of Cancer) on 21st June and the Southern solstice
(Capricorn) on 22nd December.
• These dates are called Karka Sankranti or Summer solstice and Makar Sankranti or Winter
solstice respectively in the northern hemisphere.
Insolation
• Earth intercepts only one in two billion parts of solar radiation.
• This intercepted radiation is called Insolation.
• Energy from the Sun is released in the form of electromagnetic wave.
Solar Constant
• The amount of solar radiation energy received on per unit time per unit area on the surface of the
Earth
• It’s value is 1.94 calories per square cm per minute.
Factors affecting insolation

1- Angle of incidence
• The higher the latitude, the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth.
• The area covered by the vertical rays is always less than the slant rays.
• If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area
decreases.
2- Rotation of the earth on its axis
• The rotation of the earth on this inclined axis has a greater influence on the amount of insolation
received at different latitudes.
3- Duration of Day
• The longer the duration of the day, greater the insolation will be received.
4- Variation in the amount of solar radiation

• These Student Notes: variations have periodic components, the main one being the approximately
11- year sunspot cycle.
• Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear visibly as dark
spots compared to surrounding regions.
• When there is an increase in sun spots it leads to increase1 in the amount of solar radiation.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
5- Revolution of Earth around Sun

• The revolution path of the Sun by the Earth is elliptical.
• Therefore, on July 1, the Earth is at its maximum distance from the Sun. (Aphelion) while on
January 1, the Earth is closest to the Sun(Perihelion),
6- Transparency of the atmosphere

• Thick cloud hinders the solar radiation to reach the earth’s surface.
• Similarly, water vapour absorbs solar radiation resulting in less amount of insolation reaching the
surface.
Heat budget
• The mean annual temperature of the Earth's surface remains constant because there is a balance
between insolation and terrestrial radiation.
• This blance is called heat budget.
• Suppose 100 units of energy comes from the Sun.
• 6 units scattered by gas molecules and dust particles.
• Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth’s surface.
Reflected from the top of clouds 27 units
Reflected by ice-fields on earth 02 units
Scattered by the atmosphere 06 units
Total Reflected radiation 35 units
• The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth

• The remaining 65 units are absorbed as
Absorbed by the atmosphere 14 units
Absorbed by the earth 51 units
Total absorbed radiation 65 units
• Hence Earth receives 51 units of radiation which in turn radiates back in the form of terrestrial
radiation.
Radiated to space directly 17 units
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Radiated to atmosphere 34 units
• The details of 34 units radiation absorbed by atmosphere from terrestrial radiations are as under
Absorbed directly 06 units
Absorbed through convection and turbulence 09 units
Absorbed through Latent heat of condensation 19 units
Total 34 units
• Total units absorbed by the atmosphere are 48 (14 units insolation + 34 units Terrestrial radiation)
• Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is
Radiated back by earth 17 units
Radiated back by atmosphere 48 units
Total 65 units
Temperature
• The temperature is the measurement of the degree of hotness.
Distribution of Temperature
1. Horizontal distribution of temperature
• The distribution of temperature on the earth's surface along the lines of latitude and longitude is
called horizontal distribution of temperature.
• The distribution of temperature on the surface of the earth is not uniform.
• Factors responsible for the uneven distribution of temperature on the surface are
a. latitude
b. heterogeneity of land and water
c. relief and elevation
d. ocean currents
e. winds
f. Vegetation cover
g. nature of soil
h. slope and orientation of land
a. Latitude
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• The amount of insolation depends on the latitude of the place.

• At the equator sun’s rays fall directly overhead throughout the year.
• Away from the equator towards poles, the inclination of the Sun’s rays increases
b. Altitude
• Atmosphere is largely heated indirectly by re-radiated terrestrial radiation from the earth’s
surface.
• Therefore, the lower layers of the atmosphere are comparatively warmer than the upper layers,
even in the same latitudes.
•
c. Heterogeneity of land and water
• Land surface is heated and cooled at a faster rate than the water surface.
• Thus the temperature of the air over land and water surfaces is not the same at a given time.
• In summers, the sea water is cooler than the land and in winters, land is much colder than the sea
water.
d. Ocean currents
• The effect of warm ocean currents and the cold ocean currents is limited to the adjoining coastal
areas.
e. Winds
• Winds helps in the redistribution of temperature.
• The places, which come under the influence of warm air-masses experience higher temperature
and the places that come under the influence of cold air masses experience low temperature.
f. Vegetation cover
• Thick vegetation (such as Amazon forest) cuts off much of the in-coming insolation and in many
places sunlight never reaches the ground.
• It is cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few degrees lower than that of open spaces in
corresponding latitudes.
g. Nature of surface
• In the tropical and subtropical deserts, the sandy surface record high temperature because they
absorb most of the solar radiations.
• Snow has very high albedo and thus, reflects much of the insolation without absorption.
h. Soil
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils. Dry soils like sands are very sensitive to
temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay retain much moisture and warm up more slowly.
i. Slope and orientation of land

• Slopes of a mountain facing the Sun experiences high temperature than the slopes on the leeward
side due to more insolation.
• A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle one.
Isotherms
• The isotherms are the lines joining places having equal temperature.
Chief features of isotherms

• The isotherms are generally parallel to equator.
• They show successive temperature decrease towards the poles.
• The rate of change of temperature is indicated by the spacing between isotherms.
• Closely drawn isotherms indicate rapid change in temperature and vice-versa.
• The isothermal lines have larger space on the oceans and become closer on the continents.
(A) Horizontal distribution of temperature (in January)

• In January the northern hemisphere, the air over the oceans is warmer than the continents, so
here the isothermal lines bend towards the equator while crossing the continents and towards the
poles while crossing the oceans.
• The position of isothermal lines in the Southern Hemisphere is just the opposite.
• They bend towards the poles while crossing the continents and the equator bends further when
crossing the oceans.
(A) Horizontal distribution of temperature (in July)

• In July, high temperatures are found throughout the northern hemisphere.
• During the summer season in the northern hemisphere, the isothermal lines bend towards the
equator while crossing the oceans and bend towards the poles while crossing the continents.
• The position of isothermal lines in the Southern Hemisphere is exactly opposite to that of the
Northern Hemisphere.
Vertical distribution of temperature

• The temperature decreases with increasing altitude.
• Since the atmosphere is mainly heated by terrestrial radiation.
• Therefore, the layers of the atmosphere that are closer to the surface receive the most heat from
the Earth and are the hottest.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• The temperature gradually decreases in the course of going up, with the increase in altitude, the
rate of fall in temperature is 6.50C per 1000 m. (1 degree for every 165 metres)
• This is called the normal lapse rate of temperature.
Diurnal range of temperature

• The range between extrme temperatures in a single day is called diurnal range of temperature.
• Air temperatures usually reach their minimum just before sunrise, because the ground has been
giving off long-wave radiation all through the night, gradually becoming colder and cooling the air
above by conduction.
• With sunrise, temperature of the ground begins to rise.
• Maximum insolation receives at midday. But the peak of air temperature is usually about 2:00
PM.
• After sun-set, the air initially remains fairly warm as it is still being heated by long-wave radiation
from the ground, but this gradually expires.
• Desert areas typically have the greatest diurnal temperature variations while Low lying, humid
areas typically have the least range.
Annual average range of temperature

• It is the monthly range of temperature or the difference between the average temperature of
hottest month and average temperature of the coldest month of the year.
• The annual range is lower in low latitudes and higher in high latitudes.
• In the same latitudes, it is higher over the continents and lower over the oceans and coastal
regions.
• The highest annual range of temperature is more than 60° C over the north-eastern part of
Eurasian continent.
• This is due to continentality.
• The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S and 15° N.
Temperature Belts
• The three major temperature belts of the Earth are
1- Tropical zone / Torrid zone
2- Temperate Zone
3- Frigid Zone
1. Tropical belt
• This is the hottest zone of the Earth
• In this heat zone, the sun's rays fall almost vertically throughout the year.
• This heat zone is the widest zone.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• The tropics are situated between Tropic of Cancer (North) and Tropic of Capricorn (South).
• The Sun is also perpendicular to the Tropic of Cancer on 21st June and Capricorn on 22nd
December.
2. Temperate
• The temperate zone is located on either side of the tropics.
• The northern temperate zone is situated in between the Tropic of Cancer (North) to the Arctic
Circle (North).
• Here the duration of night in winter is longer than the duration of day and vice versa in summer.
3. Frigid Zone
• This zone is the coldest region in the world.
• Here there is always a thick layer of snow on the ground.
• The northern frigid zone is located between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole.
• The southern frigid zone is from the Antarctic Circle to the South pole.
• In the frigid zone, the sun's rays always fall obliquely and their angle of incidence is very small.
• The poles have a day of 6 months in summer and a night of 6 months in winter.
Pressure System
• Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled.

• This results in variations in the atmospheric pressure.
• The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of air from high pressure to low
pressure, setting the air in motion.
• Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink.
• Air in horizontal motion is wind.
• The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole.
• The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and bring precipitation.
Pressure belts
• There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes
or ‘pressure belts’.
• On the earth’s surface, there are seven pressure belts.
• The seven pressure belts are :
1. equatorial low pressure belt

2. the sub-tropical highs pressure belt
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
3. the sub-polar low pressure belt

4. the polar high pressure belt
Equatorial low pressure belt

• Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.
• This belt is thermally produced due to heating by Sun.
• Due to excessive heating horizontal movement of air is absent here and only vertical currents are
experienced in this belt.
• Therefore, this belt is called doldrums (the zone of calm).
• This belt is also known as-Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) because the trade winds
flowing from sub tropical high pressure belts converge here.
Sub-tropical high pressure belt

• These extend roughly between 250 and 350 latitudes in both the Hemispheres.
• The existence of these pressure belts is due to the fact that the up rising air of the equatorial region
is deflected towards poles due to the earth’s rotation.
• After becoming cold and heavy, it descends in these regions and get piled up.
• This results in high pressure.
• It is a Calm are with feeble and variable winds.
• In southern hemisphere, this belt is broken by small low-pressure areas in summer over Australia
and South Africa.
• In northern hemisphere, the belt is more discontinuous by the presence of land masses, and high
pressure occurs
• only over the ocean areas as discrete cells - termed the Azores and Hawaiian cells in the Atlantic
and Pacific areas respectively.
Horse latitudes
• These belts are also called Horse latitudes.
• In older days, vessels with cargo of horses passing through these belts found difficult in sailing
under these calm conditions.
• They used to throw the horses in the sea in order to make the vessels lighter.
Sub-polar low pressure belt

• It extends along 600 latitudes (550 -650 ) in both the hemisphere.
• These belts are dyanamically induced due to this fact that the winds coming from the sub-tropics
and the polar regions converge in this belt and rise upward.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Polar high pressure belt

• Because of low temperature, air compresses and its density increases.
• Hence, high pressure is found here throughout the year.
• This is more marked over the land area of the Antarctic continent than over the ocean of the
North Pole.
• In northern hemisphere, high pressure is not centered at the pole, but it extends from Greenland
to Islands situated in the northern part of Canada.
Shifting of Belts
• Pressure belts are not fixed.
• Pressure belts swing either to the north (in July) or the south (in December) of the equator by
following the apparent annual migration of the sun .
• Sun’s movement is recorded between tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn.
• During the month of July, low pressure equatorial belt extends upto the tropic of Cancer in Asian
region.
• While in January, it extends to latitudes 100 -150 S.
• Most profound effect of shifting of belts is seen in the temperate region.
• Winds blowing from the Horse latitudes in the form of westerlies create unique climatic conditions
in the temperate parts of the world, especially in the Mediterranean region.
General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Largely, wind movement in the atmosphere may be classified into three broad categories
1- Primary circulation
• It includes planetary wind systems which are related to the general arrangement of pressure belts
on the earth’s surface.
2- Secondary circulation
• It consists of cyclones and anti-cyclones, monsoon
3. Tertiary circulation
• It includes all the local winds.
Planetary Winds
• Primary or planetary winds blow from high pressure belts to low pressure belts in the same
direction throughout the year.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• They blow over vast area of continents and oceans.

• Trade winds, Westerlies and polar easterlies together form the planetary wind circulation
Tropical easterlies or trade winds

• The trade winds are those blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure areas towards
the equatorial low pressure belt.
• Therefore, these are confined to a region between 30°N and 30°S throughout the earth’s surface.
• They flow as the north-eastern trades in the northern hemisphere and the south-eastern trades in
the southern hemisphere.
• This deflection in their ideally expected north-south direction is explained on the basis of Coriolis
force and Farrel’s law.
Westerlies
• The westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the sub
polar low pressure belts.
• They blow from southwest to north-east in the northern hemisphere and north-west to south-
east in the southern hemisphere.
Variability of westerlies
• The prevailing westerlies are relatively more variable than the trade winds both in direction and
intensity.
• The westerlies are stronger in the cold.
• In the southern hemisphere, westerlies are so powerful and persistent due to absence of land
between 400 -600 S that these are called ‘roaring forties’, ‘furious fifties’ and ‘screaming sixties’
along 400 S, 500 S and 600 S latitudes.
Polar easterlies
• Winds move away from polar high pressure to sub-polar low pressure along the surface of the
earth in Polar cell.
• Their direction becomes easterlies due to coriolis force.
• These are called polar easterlies.
Local Winds
• There are certain types of winds which are produced by purely local factors and therefore, are
called local winds.
• These local winds play a significant role in the weather and climate of a particular locality.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Sea Breeze Land Breeze

During the day the land heats up faster and In the night, the land cools up faster than the
becomes warmer than the sea. surrounding sea.
The heated air rises giving rise to a low pressure This creates relatively high pressure on land.
area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the
pressure over sea is relatively high.
Pressure gradient is created from sea to land. Pressure gradient is created from land to sea.
the wind blows from the sea to the land as the the wind blows from the land to the sea as the
sea breeze land breeze
Reaches at maximum intensity in midafternoon Reaches at peak shortly before the sunrise
Helpful for fishermen in returning from sea In morning, fishermen enter into sea with the
after a good catch. help of land breeze and stays there till
midafternoon.
The Valley Breeze

• During the day the slopes get heated up more than the valleys.
• Hence, the pressure is low over the slopes while it is comparatively high in the valleys below.
• Air moves up from slope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley.
• This wind is known as the valley breeze or anabatic wind.
• The valley breeze is accompanied by the formation of cumulus cloud near mountain peaks to cause
orographic rainfall.
The Mountain Breeze

• During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain
wind.
• The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called mountain breeze
or katabatic wind.
Hot Local Winds

1- Loo
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• ‘Loo’ is a hot and dry wind, which blows very strongly over the northern plains of India and
Pakistan in the months of May and June.
• Their direction is from west to east and they are usually experienced in the afternoons.
• Their temperature varies between 45°C to 50°C.
2- Foehn
• ‘Foehn’ is strong, dusty, dry and warm local wind which develops on the leeward side of the Alps
mountain ranges.
• Ascending air sometimes causes precipitation on the windward side of the mountains.
• After crossing the mountain crest, the Foehn winds starts descending on the leeward side or
northern slopes of the mountain as warm and dry wind.
• The temperature of the winds varies from 15°C to 20°C which help in melting snow.
• Thus making pasture land ready for animal grazing and help the grapes to ripe early.
3- Chinook
• ‘Chinook’ is the name of hot and dry local wind, which moves down the eastern slopes of the
Rockies in U.S.A. and Canada.
• The literal meaning of chinook is ‘snow eater’ as they help in melting the snow earlier.
• They keep the grasslands clear of snow.
• Hence, they are very helpful to ranchers.
4- Sirocco
• ‘Sirocco’ is a hot, dry dusty wind, which originates in the Sahara desert.
• It is most frequent in spring and normally lasts for only a few days.
• After crossing the Mediterranean sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the moisture from the sea.
• Still it is harmful for vegetation, crops in that region.
• Its other local names are Leveche in Spain, Khamsin in Egypt, Gharbi in Aegean Sea area.
5- Harmattan
• Harmattan is a strong dry wind that blows over northwest Africa from the northeast.
• Blowing directly from the Sahara desert, it is a hot, dry and dusty wind.
• It provides a welcome relief from the moist heat and is beneficial to health of people hence also
known as ‘the doctor’.
• It is full of fine desert dust which makes the atmosphere hazy and causes problems to the caravan
traders.
• It may cause severe damage to the crops.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Cold Local Winds

1- Mistral
• ‘Mistral’ originates on the Alps and move over France towards the Mediterranean Sea through
the Rhone valley.
2- Bora
• ‘Bora’ is a cold, dry north-easterly wind blowing down from the mountains in the Adriatic Sea
region.
• It is also caused by pressure difference between continental Europe and the Mediterranean Sea.
• This is usually occurs in winter.
3- Blizzard
• ‘Blizzard’ is a violent and extremely cold wind laden with dry snow.
• Such blizzards are of common occurrence in the Antarctic.
Upper Air Circulation

Hadley Cell
• The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused by high
insolation and a low pressure is created.
• The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone.
• The converged air rises along up.
• It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km and moves towards the poles.
• Due to cooling air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high.
• This air flows towards the equator as the tropical easterlies or trade winds.
• The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
• Thus, winds originated at ITCZ come back in a circular fashion and form a cell called as Hadley
Cell.
Ferrel cell and Polar cell

• In the mid latitudes (300 -600 ) warm air that blows from the subtropical high pressure belt
towards sub polar low pressure belt deflected due to coriolis force and become westerly in both the
hemisphere.
• Westerlies meet along the sub-polar low pressure belt to raise high in the troposphere.
• From here, air moves away in both directions – towards pole and equator.
• These winds start descending down above the sup-tropical high pressure belt and polar high
pressure belt to form cells.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• These cells are called Ferrel cell and Polar cell respectively.
Jet Streams
▪ The Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind blowing horizontally through the upper layers of the
troposphere, generally from west to east, at an altitude of 20,000 - 50,000 feet.
▪ Jet Streams develop where air masses of differing temperatures meet.
• It was found in 1940s during Second World War that high-flying aircraft encountered upper
winds of very great velocity.
Features of jet streams are

• These are narrow belts at the high altitude near the top of the troposphere.
• Their speed varies from about 110 km per hour (kmph) in the summer season to more than 180
kmph in the winter season.
• Their shape is circular.
• Speed in the jet streams decreases radially outwards
• Their circulation path is wavy and meandering.
• These meandering winds are called Rossby waves
Types of Jet Streams

• Two permanent jet stream zones occur in each hemisphere.
• One is sub-tropical jet stream and another is polar front jet stream.
1- Sub-tropical jet stream

• It runs between 250 and 300 latitudes in both the hemispheres.
• It blows constantly.
• Its speed is comparatively lower than polar jet streams.
• The air currents arising near about the equator descend at 300 N and S latitudes.
• A part of these air currents takes the form of Sub Tropical Jet streams.
• It swings to the north of Himalayas in summer in North India.
2- The polar front jet stream

• It is originated because of temperature difference.
• It is associated with the polar front zone in each hemisphere.
• It runs at a more meandering path than the Sub Tropical Jet Stream.
• It extends between 40 and 60 latitudes in both Hemispheres.
• It is found at a height between 6km and 9km in the atmosphere.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• It swings towards poles in summers and towards equator in winter.

• When swinging to south it takes very cold air with it to subtropical region.
3- Eastern Tropical Jet Stream

• It is a seasonal Jet Stream.
• It blows between equator and 200 N latitude at the time of South-West Monsoon in summer over
south-east Asia, India and Africa.
• It’s direction is opposite to that of other two jet streams.
• It runs in eastern direction.
• It is located comparatively at higher height between 14km and 16km
• Its speed is around 180 km per hour.
Climatic Significance of Jet Stream

▪ At times, Jet Streams bring about some moisture to the stratosphere, leading to the formation
of Noctilucent clouds known to have brought some ozone depleting substances to stratosphere
which result in ozone layer depletion.
▪ Intensifies alternative cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions with the crust and trough
formation in its movement.
▪ When the air mass is moving, it undergoes alternate expansion and compression which means
that it is associated with alternative high pressure and low pressure.
Temperature inversion
• Increasement of temperature with increasing altitudes is called inversion of temperature or
thermal inversion.
Surface or low-level inversion (Ground inversion)
A. Terrestrial radiation inversion (Radiational inversion)

• After sunset, due to the terrestrial radiation from the surface, there is a rapid dissipation of heat,
due to which the terrestrial surface becomes quite cold during the night.
• The layers of air adjoining the surface quickly become very cold by the processes of radiation and
conduction.
• The upper layers of air are less affected by this process of cooling than the lower layers.
• Therefore, the temperature of the upper air remains higher than the air near the surface.
• The following are the favorable conditions for the generation of low level temperature inversion of
radiation
1. Long winter nights
2. Cloudless sky or high-level clouds,
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
3. Dry air
4. Low wind velocity
5. Surface covered by snow
• Low level temperature-inversion is fully developed in mountainous or mountainous regions in
their valleys.
• During the long winter nights, mountain slopes become extremely cold by radiation, due to which
the temperature of the air layers surrounding them also drops significantly.
• At the same height the air away from the slopes is relatively warm.
• Therefore, when the sky is clear at night, the cold and heavy winds in the hill slopes move away
from the valleys due to the effect of gravity.
• In winter, in these valleys, on calm and clear nights, there is severe frost, which proves to be very
harmful for the crops.
• Therefore, the trees is planted at some height on the slopes in the valleys.
B. Advection inversion
• Whenever hot air passes over cold air, a state of inversion of convection is observed.
1. Upper air inversion

a. Subsidence inversion
• It is found in subtropical areas.
• It originates due to subduction of air from the stratosphere and heating due to adiabatic
temperature change.
b. Turbulence and convective inversion

• Convectional current flows in the stratosphere due to irregular heating of the surface.
• In this sequence the cold air rising up and the air coming down gets hot.
• Due to such mixing of air for a long time, the air in the upper part of the mixing zone will become
colder than before.
2. Frontal inversion
• Sometimes in the case of cold front, the cold air mass force the warm air mass upwards, causing
a situation of frontal inversion.
• In the warm front zone, when the warm air mass rises above the cold air zone, then the front
itself turns into the reversal zone where temperature increases with altitude.
• The marginal regions of frontal inversion are not horizontal but have a slope.
• This is due to the Coriolis force.
Climate
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• According to the International Institute of Meteorology, the average of 31 years of weathere’s

different elements is called climate.
• In simple words, the long-term average of the day-to-day weather of a place is called its climate.
Weather
• The weather of a place is the short term sum of its atmospheric conditions (temperature, air
pressure, wind, humidity, and rain).
• Weather is a transient state of the atmosphere.
Wind system
Wind refers to the horizontal movement of air which acts parallel to the pressure gradient and
perpendicular to the isobars, whereas wind current refers to the vertical uplift of air.
Factors of wind generation

Pressure gradient force
Proportional to wind speed and pressure gradient force of 20 C) - 36 km/h
1. Coriolis force
• Negligible at the equator, more at the poles

• Deceptive not real
• left and right in the southern hemisphere
• decreases with height.
• After 32 km altitude, the effect of Coriolis weakens.
2. Friction
This force reduces the effect of Coriolis and the speed of air.
3. Geo-strophic force
It is a resultant force which is the product of the Earth and Coriolis forces and the frictional
forces.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
If the force of friction is less then the Coriolis effect will be more and the wind protection becomes
almost parallel to the isobars, which is called deflection.
Humidity
• Water vapour present in the air is known as Humidity.
1. Absolute Humidity
• The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute
humidity.
• It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per
cubic metre.
2. Relative Humidity
• The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given
temperature is known as the relative humidity.
• Relative humidity is greater over the oceans and least over the continents (absolute humidity is
greater over oceans because of greater availability of water for evaporation).
• The relative humidity determines the amount and rate of evaporation and hence it is
an important climatic factor.
3. Specific Humidity
• It is expressed as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of air.
Forms of condensation
1. Fog
• Visibility is 1 km. are less than
• Fog is actually a low level cloud which is formed at 4 am in winter because due to the intense
long-wave radiation of the surface, a condition of inversion of temperature is created and
condensation takes place on the surface.
2. smog
• Visibility is few meters.
• Occurred in urban landscape because aerosols, pollutants, carbon particles are present in the
atmosphere which mixes with fog to form smog fog.
3. Mist
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• The visibility of the mist is 2-3 km.

• Mist is formed by suspension of tiny or fine water particles in air.
• Raindrops before falling on the ground, break into a size of about 10 microns and remain in the
suspended state in the air.
3. Haze
• Visibility 3-5 kms.
• It forms due to spread of dust particles in the atmosphere or the effect of methane on paddy fields
or short-term condensation actions
5. Smaze
Air pressure
Like other material substances, air also carries weight. Due to which it puts pressure on the
ground. This is what we call air pressure.
Precipitation
• The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to grow in size.
When the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on to the
earth’s surface.
• So after the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as precipitation. This
may take place in liquid or solid form.
Rainfall
• Precipitation in the form of drops of water is called rainfall
Types of rainfall
1. Convectional rainfall
• It is a type of rainfall that involves the formation of convection currents.
• This rainfall occurs when the temperature gets high and the warmer air rises up in the atmosphere
• On expansion, this air cools down and clouds are formed, which are generally cumulus clouds.
• Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localized
• common over equatorial doldrums
2- Orographic rainfall
• When the saturated air mass comes across a orographic barrier, it is forced to ascend and as it
rises, it expands (because of fall in pressure); the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall.
• After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend,
and their temperature rises.
• These leeward slopes remain rainless and dry.
• The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area
• The Wind Descending on the Leeward Side is called Katabatic Wind.
Frontal rainfall
When two air masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent conditions are produced. Along
the front convection occurs and causes precipitation
Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale.
This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds which carry oceanic
moisture
Distribution of rainfall in world

Lattitudinal change
• Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that
too in different seasons.
• In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing
steadily.
Continental effect
• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the
continents.
• The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great
sources of water.
Effects of planetary winds

• Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern
coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west.
• But, between 45° and 65° N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received
on the western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
Effects of relief
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the
windward side and it decreases towards the leeward side.
• On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the
world are identified as follows.
1- The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool
temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm
per annum.
2- Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 – 200 cm per annum. The
coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of rainfall.
• The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands
receive rainfall varying between 50 – 100 cm per annum.
3. Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive
very low rainfall – less than 50 cm per annum.
• Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an important aspect to judge its effectiveness.

In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in
the western parts of cool temperate regions.
Classification of climate
• Koeppen recognized five major climatic groups, four of them are based on temperature and
one on precipitation.
• The capital letters : A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.
• The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality
of precipitation and temperature characteristics.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s, where f corresponds to
no dry season, m – monsoon climate, w – winter dry season and s – summer dry season.
• The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
1- Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate’, ‘Equatorial Rainforest Climate

• The regions are generally referred as ‘Equatorial Rainforests’, ‘Equatorial Evergreen Forests’,
‘Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forest
Distribuiton
• Mostly between 5° N and S of Equator.
• Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East
Indies.
Temperature
• Temperature is uniform throughout the year.
• The mean monthly temperatures are always around 27° C with very little variation.
• There is no winter.
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderate the daily temperature.
• Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintaining a truly equable climate.
• The diurnal range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Precipitation
• Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
• Annual average is always above 150 cm.
• In some regions the annual average may be as high as 250 – 300 cm.
• There is no month without rain
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October. [shortly after the equinox].
• Least rain fall occurs in June and December [solstice].
Vegetation
• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood,
e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
• Many parts of the tropical rain forests have been cleared either for lumbering or shifting
cultivation.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
• All plants struggle upwards (most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer
arrangement.
• Though the tropics have great potential in timber resources, commercial extraction is difficult.
• Multiple species of trees occur in a particular area (trees do not occur in homogenous stands or
pure stands) making commercial exploitation a difficult task.
• Many of the tropical hardwoods (very heavy) do not float readily on water and this makes
transportation an expensive matter.
• It is therefore not surprising that many tropical countries are net timber importers.
Agriculture
1- In the Amazon basin the Indigenous tribes collect wild rubber,
2- In the Congo Basin the Pygmies gather nuts
Soil
• The fertility of top soil in rainforest regions is very poor. Torrential downpours wash out most of
the top soil nutrients [leaching or percolation and draining way of nutrients due to rain water
action].
• The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent soil erosion and soil impoverishment.
• It takes decades to replenish the soil of lost nutrients.
2.Tropical Monsoon climate

Distribution
• Occur within 5° to 30° N and S of the equator.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• On-shore [sea to land] tropical monsoons occur in the summer and off-shore [land to sea] dry
monsoons in the winter.
• They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of
Vietnam and south China and northern Australia.
Climate
• In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, a low pressure is created in
Central Asia.
• The seas, which warm up much slower, remain comparatively at high pressure. At the same time,
the southern hemisphere experiences winter, and a region of high pressure is set up in the
continental interior of Australia.
• Winds blow outwards as the South-East Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the equator are
drawn towards the continental low pressure area reaching the Indian sub-continent as the South-
West Monsoon (Coriolis force).
• In the winter, conditions are reversed.
Temperature
• Monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C.
• Temperatures range from 30 - 45° C in summer.
• Mean summer temperature is about 30°C.
• In winters, temperature range is 15-30° C with mean temperature around 20-25° C.
rainfall
• Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. In some regions it is around 350 cm.
• Places like Cherrapunji & Mawsynram receive an annual rainfall of about 1000 cm.
Seasons
• Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon climate.
1- Cool dry season (October to February)
2- Hot dry season (March to Mid June)
3- Rainy season (Mid June to September)
Vegetation
• Drought-deciduous forest dry /dry deciduous forest.
3 .Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate or Sudan Climate
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• This type of climate has alternate wet and dry seasons similar to monsoon climate but
has considerably less annual rainfall.
• Also, there is no distinct rainy season like in monsoon climate.
• Only two seasons – winter and summer.
• Rains occur in summer
Distribution
• It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in Sudan, hence its name the Sudan Climate.
• It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial rain forests and hot deserts.
Rainfall
• Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 – 160 cm [Rainfall decreases with distance from equator].
• Mean annual temperature is greater than 18° C.
• Days are hot and nights are cold. This extreme diurnal range of temperature is another
characteristic feature of the Sudan type of climate.
Vegetation
• The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees.
• The grasslands are also called as ‘bush-veld’.
• The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent excessive loss of
water through transpiration, e.g. acacias.
Animals
• The savanna is known as the ‘big game country’ as thousands of animals are trapped or killed
each year by people from all over the world.
• There are two main groups of animals in the savanna, the grass-eating herbivorous animals and
the fleshing-eating carnivorous animals.
• The herbivorous include the zebra, antelope, giraffe, deer, gazelle, elephant etc.
4.Hot desert climate

• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds , hence they are
also called Trade Wind Deserts.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between
latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S
Distribuiton
• They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great Australian Desert,
Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by different names at
different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert (rain shadow effect and off-shore trade winds)
is the driest of all deserts with less than 2 cm of rainfall annually.
Rainfall
• Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of less than 25 cm.
• Causes of Hot deserts located between 20-30 degree
• The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts where the
air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take place.
• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside
the desert limits.
• Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative humidity
is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
• There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely low,
decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert interiors.
Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus regions of
permanent drought. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-
coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls. The
desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the
mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.
Temperature
• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is high around
30°C.
• High diurnal temperature range is a typical feature of hot deserts. Average diurnal range varies
from 14 to 25° Celsius.
• Frosts may occur at night in winter.
Vegetation
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-
resistant.
• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of date palms.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for
ground water.
• Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to
reduce the loss of water through transpiration.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they
lie dormant.
5.Steppe Climate or Temperate Continental Climate or Temperate

Grassland Climate
Distribution
• They lie in the interiors of the continents.
• Lie in the Westerly wind belt [mid-latitudes or temperate region].
• Grasslands are practically treeless due to continentiality .
• In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes.
Name of the Temperate

Region
Grassland
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
North America [between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great
Prairies
Lakes]
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay [Rain-shadow effect]
Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa
High Veld (more temperate) Southern South Africa
Downs Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia
Canterbury New Zealand
Temperature
• Climate is continental with extremes of temperature.
• Temperatures vary greatly between summer and winter.
• The summers are hot and the winters are cold.
• Summers are very warm, over 18 – 20° C.
Rainfall
• The average rainfall may be taken as about 45 cm, but this varies according to location from 25
cm to 75 cm.
• The heaviest rain comes in June and July (late spring and early summer).
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Most of the winter months have about an 2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the occasional
depressions of the Westerlies and coming in the form of snow.
• The maritime influence in the southern hemisphere causes more rainfall.
Chinooks [Snow eaters]

• On the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Canada and U.S.A. a local wind, similar to the Fohn in
Switzerland, called the Chinook, comes in a south-westerly direction to the Prairies and has a
considerable effect on the local pastures.
• It actually comes with the depressions in winter or early spring from the Pacific coast ascending
the Rockies and then descending to the Prairies [katabatic wind].
• It is a hot wind and may raise the temperature by 5° C within a matter of 20 minutes.
• It melts the snow-covered pastures and animals can be driven out of doors to graze in the open
fields. The agricultural year is thus accelerated.
• Local farmers welcome the Chinook for frequent.
Vegetation
a- Grasses
• Greatest difference from the tropical savanna is that steppes are practically treeless and
the grasses are much shorter.
• Grasses are tall, fresh and nutritious. This is typical of the grass of the wheat-lands in North
America, the rich black earth or chernozem areas of Russian Ukraine and the better watered areas
of the Asiatic Steppes.
• Where the rainfall is light or unreliable, or the soil is poor, as in the continental interiors of
Asia the short steppe type of grass prevails.
• The grasses are not only shorter but also wiry [lean, tough] and sparse [thinly dispersed or
scattered].
• These areas are less suitable for arable farming and are used for some form of ranching as in
the High Plains of U.S.A.
• The growth of grasses is not abruptly checked by summer droughts or winter cold.
b- Trees
• Polewards, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded steppes
where some conifers gradually appear.
• In the cultivated regions, such as the wheat farms of the Prairies, double rows of trees are
planted around the house to shield the occupants from the strong wind.
6.Mediterranean Climate or Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate or

Warm Temperate West Coast Climate
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Distribution
• Entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses, between 30° and 45° north and
south of the equator.
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts.
• Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of ‘winter rain climate’, and gives rise to the
name Mediterranean Climate.
Climate
• Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.
• Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm.
Temperature
• Temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10⁰ C.
• Temperature of coldest month is less than 18⁰ C but greater than –3⁰ C
• Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies
Rainfall
• The Mediterranean lands receive most of their precipitation in winter when the Westerlies shift
equator wards.
• In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic rain from the
Atlantic (Typical to Mediterranean Climate).
Local winds
I. Sirocco
• This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates in the Sahara Desert.
• The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly direction (south to north) from the desert interiors
into the cooler Mediterranean Sea.
• After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption of the
water vapour.
• This may be ‘blood rain’ because the wind is carrying the red dust of the Sahara Desert.
II. Mistral
• Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing down the Rhone valley
III. Bora
• A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along the Adriatic coast is called the Bora.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Vegetation
• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
7.Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate/ China Type Climate

• Found between 20° and 35° N and S latitude (warm temperate latitudes just outside the tropics);
on the east coast in both hemispheres.
Climate
• Characterized by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter
• The mean monthly temperature varies between 4° C and 25° C and is strongly modified
by maritime influence.
Rainfall
• Rainfall is more than moderate, from 60 cm to 150 cm.
8.British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin

Climate
• The cool temperate western margins are under the influence of the Westerlies all-round the
year.
• They are the regions of frontal cyclonic activity
• Confined mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia , Southern Chile, Southern Australia,
Tasmania and most parts of New Zealand.
Temperature
• The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5° C and 15° C.
• Winters are abnormally mild. This is because of the warming effect brought by warm North
Atlantic Drift.
Rainfall
• The British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a
slight winter maximum (due to frontal cyclones).
• Western margins have the heaviest rainfall due to westerlies.
9.Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Intermediate type of climate between the British Type Climate (moderate) and the Taiga Type
Climate (extreme) of climate.
Distribution
• Laurentian type of climate is found only in two regions and that too only in the northern
hemisphere
• North-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A., and Newfoundland
• Eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and
northern Japan.
Distribution
• In the southern hemisphere only a small section of continents extends south of 40°S latitude.
Climates
• Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.
• Winter temperatures is below freezing-point and snow fall is quite natural.
Rainfall
• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summer maxima
• The predominant vegetation is cool temperate forest.
10.Boreal Climate OR Taiga Climate OR Siberian Climate OR Cool

Temperate Continental Climate OR Continental Sub-Polar Climate
• Found only in the northern hemisphere [due to great east-west extent.
• Absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness in the high latitudes].
• Experienced in the regions just below Arctic circle.
• On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra.
• The climate fades into the temperate Steppe climate.
Distribution
• It stretches along a continuous belt across central Canada, some parts of Scandinavian
Europe and most of central and southern Russian. [50° to 70° N]
Temperature
• Summers are brief and warm reaching 20-25 °C whereas winters are long and brutually cold –
always 30-40 °C below freezing.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Precipitation
• Maritime influence in the interiors is absent.
• Frontal disturbances might occur in winter.
• Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm.
Natural Vegetation of Taiga Climate

o Softwood trees
• The predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest.
Characteristics of Coniferous forests

• Unlike the equatorial rain forests, Coniferous forests are of moderate density and are more
uniform. The trees in coniferous forests grow straight and tall.
• Almost all conifers are evergreen.
• Conifers are conical in shape. Their conical shape and sloping branches prevent snow
accumulation. It also offers little grip to the winds.
• Transpiration can be quite rapid in the warm summer. So, leaves are small, thick, leathery and
needle-shaped to check excessive transpiration.
Lumbering in Taiga Region

Factors that favor lumbering-
• The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce and fir in the northern forests and larch in the
warmer south are the most important.
• Unlike rainforests, they occur in homogeneous groups
11.Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate

Distribution
• Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
• The ice-caps are confined to highlands and high latitude regions of Greenland and Antarctica.
Climate
Temperature
• The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature.
• In mid-winter temperatures are as low as 40 – 50 °C below freezing.
• Summers are relatively warmer.
Precipitation
• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet and being drifted about during blizzards.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Natural Vegetation
• There are no trees in the tundra.
• Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are found
Human Activities
• Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the coast.
• People live a semi-nomadic life.
• In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos.
• During winter they live in compact igloos.
Front
• When two different air masses with distinct properties (temperature, moisture, density, pressure
etc.) meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front.
• These air masses are brought together by converging movements in the general atmospheric
circulation.
• The process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis while Frontolysis is the end stage
of a front
• The fronts do not mix readily.
• They come in contact with one another along sloping boundaries.
Warm Front
• When a warmer and lighter air mass moves against an existing cold and dense airmass, it rises
over the coldet and denser air mass.
• This type of front is known as warm front.
• As the warm air gradually ascends the gently sloping surface of the wedge of cold air lying ahead,
it cools.
• This cooling leads to the cloudy condensation and precipitation.
• Unlike the cold front, the changes in temperature and wind direction are gradual.
Cold Front
• When a cold and dense airmass forces its way under warm and lighter airmass it makes the warm
and lighter airmass to ride over it.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• This type of front is called cold front.

• The effect of friction retards the air motion near the ground, while the free air aloft has a higher
velocity.
• This causes the cold front to become much steeper than the warm front.
Stationary Front
• A stationary front forms when a cold front or warm front stops moving.
• This happens when two masses of air are pushing against each other but neither is powerful
enough to move the other.
Occluded Front
• A warm air mass pushes into a colder air mass (the warm front) and then another cold air mass
pushes into the warm air mass (the cold front).
• Because cold fronts move faster, the cold front is likely to overtake the warm front. This is known
as an occluded front.
• At an occluded front, the cold air mass from the cold front meets the cool air that was ahead of the
warm front.
• The warm air rises as these air masses come together.
• Occluded fronts usually form around areas of low atmospheric pressure.
• The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in temperature and
pressure.
• They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form clouds and cause
precipitation
• There are two types of occlusion namely, cold front occlusion and war front occlusion.
Cyclone
• It is an area of low-pressure area with winds spiralling inwards
• Cyclones rotate anti-clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and rotate clockwise in Southern
Hemisphere.
• The process of Cyclone formation and intensification is called Cyclogenesis.
Types of cyclones
▪ Temperate or mid-latitude cyclones
Stages of Cyclogenesis
Stage A
• the first stage involves the convergence of two air masses of contrasting physical properties and
direction.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Stage B
• It is called ‘incipient stage’ during which the warm and cold air masses penetrate into the
territories of each other.
Stage C
• it is mature when the cyclone is fully developed and isobars become almost circular.
Stage D
• warm sector is narrowed in extent due to advancement of cold front at a faster rate than a warm
front, and cold front comes nearer to warm front.
Stage E
• This stage starts with the occlusion of cyclone when the advancing cold front finally overtakes the
warm front and occluded front is formed.
Stage F
• In the final stage, warm sector completely disappears, occluded front is eliminated and ultimately
cyclone dissipate.
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclone

1- Dynamic in Origin
2- Latitudinal extenstion 350-650
3- formation is due to frontogenesis.
4- Its can forms on both seas as well as land.
5- They cover a larger area.Typical size: 300 – 2000 kms in diameter
4- Inverted ‘V’ shaped
5- Energy depends on the thermal contrast of the air masses
6- Formation occurs in both winter and summer but in winter it is more active.
7- rainfall is slow and continues for many days, sometimes even weeks.
8- It affects the western coasts of the continents, driven by westerly winds.
9- Their direction of propagation is towards the poles.
10- Non-destructive in nature.
11- move at a gentle pace of 5-25km per hour
12- The isobars are elliptical in shape
13- Lifespan is 1 to 2 weeks.
b. Tropical or low latitudinal cyclone
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
1- In the western North Atlantic, central and eastern North Pacific, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of
Mexico, such a weather phenomenon is called “hurricanes“.
2- In the western North Pacific, it is called “typhoons“
3- In the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, it is called “cyclones
The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are
1- Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
2- Presence of the Coriolis force
3- Small variations in the vertical wind speed
4- A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation
5- Upper divergence above the sea level system
Structure of Tropical cyclone

1- Eye
• it is the centre of cyclone around which strong spirally winds circulate in a mature tropical
cyclone.
• It is a region of calm with subsiding air.
2- Eye Wall
• There is a strong spiraling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause.
• The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
• Torrential rain occurs here.
• From the eye wall rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may
drift into the outer region.
• The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
• The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean is between 600 -
1200 km.
• The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclone

▪ Thermal in Origin
▪ Confined to 100 – 300 N and S of equator.
▪ Tropical cyclones do not form between 50N-50S, because the effect of Coriolis is negligible
▪ Formation is possible only on water, where temperatures is on average 270C
▪ The isobars are generally circular, and close to each other resulting into steep pressure gradient.
▪ They do not have fronts
▪ They derive their energy from the latent heat
▪ The clouds in the cyclone are cumulonimbus having vertical extension up to about 12- 15km.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
▪ They give torrential rainfall.

▪ Majority of tropical cyclones decay when they come over the land or when they recurve
northward over oceans.
▪ Maximum rainfall is in the eye wall , while the eye is an inert and quiet area.
▪ Driven by trade winds, affects the eastern coasts of continents.
▪ The direction of transmission of cold is only towards the poles because the direction of Coriolis is
the same, so the moment of force is the same.
▪ Destroyer in nature
▪ Speed - 120-420 km/ hour.
▪ Life span is 24-48 hours
▪ Limited to small area.Typical size: 100 – 500 kms in diameter.
Naming of Cyclones
• Cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world are named by the regional specialized
meteorological centers (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs).
• There are six RSMCs in the world, including the India Meteorological Department (IMD), and
five TCWCs.
Difference between extra-tropical cyclone and tropical cyclone

Extra-tropical cyclone Tropical cyclone
have a clear frontal system and get energy from Fronts are not present and get energy from
the horizontal temperature contrasts that exist warm and moist air of ocean
in the atmosphere
Large size (1500-3000km) Relatively small in size
can originate over the land and sea originate only over the seas
Travel both on oceans and land on reaching the land they dissipate.
Affects a much larger area as compared to the

tropical cyclone
Wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much

higher and it is more destructive
move from west to east move from east to west
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Anticyclone
• An anti-cyclone also known as a high pressure area is a large atmospheric circulation system
with the wind flowing clockwise around it in the Northern Hemisphere, an counter-clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• The sinking air spreads out when it reaches the ground, producing a divergence at the surface
• Anticyclones produce a stable atmosphere.
Climate change
• The change in the average weather conditions of a place with time is called climate change which
causes global warming , acid rain and Ozone depletion
Responsible factors
A- Natural factors
• The following natural phenomena are responsible for climate change.
1. Plate Tectonics
• According to plate tectonics theory , climate change occurs in those parts due to the displacement
of plates.
2. Changes in Earth's Orbit

• Climate change is caused by changes in the location of the Earth's axis, inclination on the axis, etc.
3. Change in the number of sun spots

• The number of solar spots changes every 11 years, which leads to climate change.
4. Volcano
• During the eruption of a volcano, a large amount of heat is released.
Anthropogenic (Human Caused) Factors

1. Combustion of fossil fuels (coal, petrol)
2. Deforestation
3. Lack of waste Management
4. Shifting cultivation.
5. Encroachment on wetlands
6. Animal Husbandry
7. Use of Nitrogenous Fertilizers
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
Effects of climate change

A. Global warming
• Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the greenhouse
effect caused by greenhouse gasses.
The main greenhouse gases

a- Water vapour
• It is the most abundant greenhouse gas (GHG), however it spends just a short time in the
atmosphere.
• The amount of water vapour varies drastically with time, region and altitude.
• It is not considered the most important GHG.
b- Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• It is the most important GHG and is produced both naturally and through human activities.
Natural sources of CO2

• volcanic eruptions
• animal respiration.
Anthropogenic sources
• deforestation
• burning of fossil fuels for energy.
c- Methane
• The large sources of Methane come from the decomposition of organic matter e.g. in landfills and
in agriculture and from the digestion of ruminants (cows, goats etc).
• It is a stronger GHG than CO2 because it can absorb more heat.
• However it is much less abundant in the atmosphere.
d- Nitrous oxide
• It is considered as a very powerful greenhouse gas which is abundantly produced in the
agriculture sector, specifically in the production and use of organic fertilizers.
• It is also produced when burning fossil fuels.
e- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• These man-made compounds were produced for industrial use, mainly in refrigerants and air
conditioners.
Effects of Global warming

1- Increased levels of melting of glaciers
• The melting of glaciers will caused flooded the rivers dependent on them.
• The release of the stored CO2 in them will further increase global warming.
• Sea level will rise
2- Impact on marine ecosystem

• Due to global warming, sea water temperature will increase resulting in migration of organisms
towards the poles.
• Expansion/dispersion of sea water will lead to the submergence of towns, countries and islands
situated on the coast, resulting in migration of human being.
• Rise in sea water temperature will lead to coral bleaching while rise in sea level will submerge
mangroves.
• Acidity will inhibit the formation of calcium carbonate which adversaly affect the calcification
process.
3- Loss of biodiversity
• Species are not displaced quickly at the time of climate change, which has threatened their
existence.
4- Decreased agricultural productivity

• Agricultural productivity will decreased by 25-30 % due to increase in 10C temperature in tropical
areas.
• However, agricultural productivity will increase in higher latitudes.
5- Increase in extreme weather events

• Due to global warming, the intensity and frequency of natural disasters like floods, droughts,
cyclones will increased.
6- Impact on human health

• Due to global warming, the outbreak of heat wave is increasing.
• In 2019, 184 people have died in Bihar alone.
• If the increase in global temperature continues like this, then their outbreak can increase 2000
times.
• Global warming will lead to increase in communicable diseases like malaria, dengue etc.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
7- Political struggle
• Due to global warming, water resources will be scarce in quantity, which will increase conflicts
between countries (over international rivers) and between states over inter-state rivers.
8- Economic Losses
• Research says that if no action is taken to curtail the global carbon emissions, climate change
could cost between 5 and 20 percent of the annual global gross domestic product.
A- Acid rain
• When the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen react with the moisture of the atmosphere, then rain with
less than 5.6 °C is called acid rain.
Sources of sulfur
a- Natural resources
1. Volcanic Eruption
2. Decomposition of organic matter
3. Seas and Oceans
b. Anthropogenic sources
• Sulfur recovery from coal combustion
• 30 percent from combustion of petroleum
• remaining sulfur ore from manufacturing of H2SO4 and fertilizer industry
Sources of nitrogen
4- Natural resources
• Lightning, Volcanic eruptions, Biological activities
5- Anthropogenic sources
• Combustion of fossil fuels, Dawagin/Davanal (forest fire), Fertilizer industry
Effects of acid rain

a- On humans
• Skin irritation
• low visibility
• difficulty in breathing
• carcinogenic food poisoning.
• Earlier ageing.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
b- On other organisms
• Color blindness of trees and animals.
b- On soil
• Infertility of soil due to leaching of nutrients.
c- On marine ecosystem
• Damage to the Shell of animal’s eggs.
• Acidification of the Oceans and Seas.
Acidification of oceans
• The decrease in the surface of water due to increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the ocean
water is called acidification of the oceans.
Effects
• The process of calcination slows down.
• Due to the impact of the seafood chain, the fish industry is affected.
• Coral bleaching
Effect on microorganisms
• Decreased activity of microorganisms
• Decreased rate of decomposition of dead organisms
• Decreased soil fertility due to lack of organic matter
Effects on buildings, monuments and materials

• Adversely affected.
• Limestone, marble gets destroyed and yellow color starts to climb.
B- Ozone depletion
• The layer of ozone gas is found at an altitude of 25-30 km in the stratosphere level of the
atmosphere.
• It prevents the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth, thereby protecting us
from the dangers of skin cancer etc.
• Generally, the formation and dissolution of ozone remains in2 equilibrium, but due to ozone
depleting substances, the rate of ozone decomposition has exceeded the rate of its formation.
• This is called ozone depletion.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• It was first observed in 1985 over Antarctica where the amount of ozone was reduced to 50 percent
of the actual amount.
Major ozone depleting substances

CFC (Chloro Fluoro Carbon)
• Chemically stable
• Inflammable
• Being non-toxic, it is used in refrigerators, ACs, foams.
• It’s life span is 40-150 years.
• When the vapor reaches the atmosphere, then its Chlorine molecule is released under the influence
of Ultraviolet rays.
• This free chlorine molecule reacts with ozone to form Chlorine monoxide.
Other ozone-depleting substances (ODS)

• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
• Halons
• Methyl bromide
• Carbon tetrachloride
• Methyl chloroform.
Effect of polar stratosphere clouds

• Polar stratosphere clouds are found at an altitude of 50-60 km above the poles.
• Chlorine reacts with Methane in the upper atmosphere and converts to Chlorine nitrate by
reacting with nitrogen dioxide.
• The polar stratosphere acts as their storage, due to which the depletion of ozone is enhances.
Effect of ozone depletion

• Skin cancer, Eye diseases, Respiratory diseases
• Inhibition of growth and development in plants.
• Decreased life span of phytoplankton.
• Increase in concentration of Hydrogenperoxides (H2O2) in air.
International efforts to stop climate change
United Nations Enviremetal Programme

• It was established in 1972 at the Stockholm Conference (Sweden).
• Headquarter - Nairobi, Kenya
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• Its main function is to coordinate programs related to sustainable development within the United
Nations system.
It’s work areas

1. Climate Change
2. Disaster and Conflicts
3. Ecological Management
4. Environmental governance
5. Environment under review
6. Harmful substances
7. Efficient use of resources
Inter Governmental Pannel On Climate Change

• It was established in 1988 by UNEP and WMO (World Meteorological Organization).
• It’s main function is to publish research and journals related to climate change around the world.
UNFCC (United Nation Framework Convention On Climate Change)

• It was founded in 1992 in Rio-de Janeiro, Brazil.
• It was signed in June 1992 and came into force in 1994.
• It’s main objective is to control human-caused emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
• It has 197 parties.
• Every year of these parties organize a meeting since 1995 which is called COP (Conference of
Parties)
It has 6 major work areas

1. Energy Conservation
2. Climate financing
3. Industry Transition
4. Nature Based Solutions
5. Action at the City and Local Level
6. Flexibility
• It covers following major agreements .
Kyoto Protocol
• This was approved in COP-3 in 1993.
• It was signed by India in 2002 and is in force since 2005.
• This agreement mentions 2 commitment periods.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
1. 2008-2012
• In this period, the emission of 6 greenhouse gases (CO2, water vapor, CH4, N2O, HFC,PFC,SF6) is
to be reduced by 5 % from 1990 levels.
• USA never signed the Kyoto Protocol, while Canada withdrew in 2012.
2. 2013-2020
• It was implemented after the Doha Round of 2012.
• It has set a target of reducing the greenhouse level of 1990 by 20 % till 2020.
• Russia, Japan and New Zealand did not sign it.
• It included 7 green house gases – CO2, water vapour, CH4, N2O, HFC,PFC,SF6,NF3
Mehcanisms of Kyoto Protocol
1- Carbon trading
• When a developed (Annexure) country exceeds their emission limit, then they have to buy carbon-
credits.
• One ton of carbon is called one carbon unit.
2- Clean Development Management

• In this, a developed (Annex) country helps in reducing greenhouse gas emissions of a developing or
underdeveloped country (Non- Annex) .
3- Joint Implementation
• When a developed (annex) country helps another developed (annex) country to reduce it’s
greenhouse gas emissions.
Paris Agreement
• Agreement on Green House Gases was signed in Paris, France during COP- 21 in 2015.
• It was signed by 175 countries in Newyork on 22 April 2016.
• It came into effect from 4th November 2016.
• It will replace the Kyoto Protocol on 31 January 2020
Major Provisions
1. The target has been set to keep the average global temperature at 20C above pre-industrial
temperatures and 1.5 0C, if possible, by the end of the 21st century.
2. In this, agreement while the provisions of historical responsibility eliminated
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
3- The provision of common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR) was included.

4. In this, each country has to declare its own commitment, which is called Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions (INDCs) .
India's INDCS
1. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from 2005 by 33-35 % by 2030.
2. By 2030, 40% of the total energy generated from renewable sources
3. Collection of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 by 2030 through afforestation.
Major convention for the protection of the ozone layer

1. Vienna Agreement
• It was held in Vienna in 1985
• This conference pave the way of Montreal Protocol
2. Montreal Protocol
• It was held in Montreal, Canada in 1987
• It’s main goal was to eliminate 100% in a phased manner by 2010 the use of Chlorofluorocarbons,
Halons and other Ozone depleting substances.
• It was successful in achieving it’s goal.
3. Kigali Agreement
• The agreement for the next round of the Montreal Protocol was signed in Kigali (Rwanda) in 2016.
• It has come into force on 01 January 2019 in place of Montreal.
• It aims to eliminate hydrofluorocarbons by 2040.
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

▪ The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in 2008 by the Prime
Minister's Council on Climate Change.
▪ It aims at creating awareness among the representatives of the public, different agencies of
the government, scientists, industry and the communities on the threat posed by climate change
and the steps to counter it.
▪ There are 8 national missions forming the core of the NAPCC which represent multi-
pronged, long term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in climate change. These
are-
1- National Solar Mission
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
2- National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

3- National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4- National Water Mission
5- National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
6- National Mission for A Green India
7- National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8- National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
1- National Solar Mission

• The program was inaugurated in 2010 with a target of 20GW by 2022.
• It was later increased to 100 GW (100,000 MW) in 2015.
• MNRE has proposed to achieve 60 GW from large and medium scale solar projects, and 40 GW
through rooftop solar projects.
• Committed to Nationally Determined Contributions (Paris Accord), India made a pledge that by
2030, 40% of installed power generation capacity shall be based on clean sources.
• It was determined that 175 GW of renewable energy capacity will be installed by 2022.
• This includes 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from bio-power and 5 GW from
small hydro power.
2- National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

• NMEEE includes four specific energy efficiency initiatives
a- Perform achieve and Trade
b- Market transformation for energy efficiency
c- Energy efficiency financing platform
d- Framework for Energy efficiency Economic development
3- National Mission on Sustainable Habitat

• approved in 2010
•
4- National Water Mission

• This mission was launched in 2011.
• Objective - increase water use efficiency by 20%.
5- National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• It was launched in 2010 but was formally approved by the government in 2014.
Objective of NMSHE
• Develop in a time-bound manner a sustainable national capacity to continuously assess the health
status of the Himalayan ecosystem
• Assist states in the Himalayan region with the implementation of actions selected for sustainable
development.
5- National Mission for A Green India

Objectives of Green India Mission (GIM)
• Growth in forest or tree cover to 5 million hectares (mha) and increase the quality of forest cover
in another 5 million hectares of forest or non-forest lands. There are separate sub-targets for a
variety of forests and their ecosystems namely, grassland, dense forest, wetland etc.
• Increase the quality of degrading moderately dense forests – 1.5 million hectares (ha).
• Ecologically restore open forests which are being degraded – 3 million hectares (ha)
• Grasslands revival – 0.4 million hectares
• Wetlands revival – 0.10 million hectares
• Ecological restoration of shifting cultivation areas, mangroves, scrub, ravines, cold deserts, &
abandoned mining areas – 1.8 million hectares with different sub-targets.
• Increase in forest cover in urban areas and its outskirts – 0.20 million hectares.
• Increase in forest and tree cover on marginal agricultural lands/fallows and other non-forest lands
which comes under agroforestry – 3 million hectares.
• Increase forest-based livelihood income for about 3 million households in and around these forest
areas.
• Increase Carbon Dioxide sequestration to a range of 50 to 60 million tonnes by 2020.
6- National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

• NMSA has been formulated for enhancing agricultural productivity especially in rainfed areas.
• 60% of the country’s net sown area is rainfed and accounts for 40% of the total food production.
8.National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

• Governed by the Department of Science and Technology.
• It identifies challenges and requisite responses to climate change. This will be done through open
international collaboration and would ensure sufficient funding for this research.
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change

Establishment - 2015
Objective
• Meeting the cost of climate change for the States and Union Territories vulnerable to climate
change.
Impact of climate change on india

1. The increase in temperature of the Himalayas by 1.3 °C between 1952 - 2014
2. An increase of 1 °C in the surface temperature of the Indian Ocean (global average 0.7 C)
3. 75 % districts of the country suffer from extreme climatic events (cyclone, flood, Drought, cold
and heat wave).
4. The pattern of climate disasters has changed in 40 % of the districts in the country. For
example, flood-prone districts, turned into drought-prone districts and drought-prone districts
turned into flood-prone districts.
5- monsoon has been affected due to abnormal heating of the Arabian Sea.
Climate Funding
1. Global Environmental Facilities(GEF)
• It was established in 1990.
• It provides grants and concessional funds to underdeveloped and developing countries for
undertaking projects in the context of biodiversity, climate change, international water, land
degradation, ozone depletion, permanent organic pollutants, international water, land
degradation, ozone depletion, etc.
• It also administers LDCF and SCCF.
LDCF(Least Developed Countries Fund )

• It provides grants for adaptation programs of the least developed countries.
SCCF (Special Climate Chang Fund)

• It was established in 2001 during Marrakesh round (Morocco)
• It provides funds for adaptation, technology transfer, capacity building, energy, transportation,
industry, agriculture, forestry, waste management projects and economic diversification in
countries heavily dependent on income from fossil fuels.
2. Adaptation Fund
• Founded in 2001, it receives funding from Clean Development Managment (CDM).
|P a g e
For- UPSC / MPPSC
• It finances adaptation programs for developing countries that are participating in the Kyoto
Protocol.
3. Green Climate Fund

• It comes under paris agreement.
• It was proposed in 2009 Copenhagen(COP-15) and approved at the 2011 Durban
Conference(COP-17) .
• A sum of $100 billion was approved at the COP- 16 Cancoon Conference.
• The World Bank served as the interim trustee of the GCF
Geo Engineering
• Under this, global temperature is reduced by removing the CO2 from atmosphere or by reducing
the amount of sunlight on the earth.
A- CO2 removal methods

a- Carbon Capture And Storage
• The emitted CO2 is collected and stored elsewhere.
b- Carbom Capture Utilization Storage

• In this, CO2 is collected from thermal power stations and stored for other uses.
B- Methods of reducing the amount of sunlight on Earth

Stratospheric Aersol Injection
• Aerosols are used for dimming effect, so that most of the sunlight can be stopped in the upper
atmosphere .
Cirrus Cloud Mainpulator

• In this method, by removing or thinning the perigee clouds occur for reducing the amount of
terrestrial radiation absorption by them.
|P a g e

World Geography by - Dr. Kuldeep Sir

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

World Geography by - Dr. Kuldeep Sir

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WARRIOR BATCH

By:-Dr. Kuldeep Sir

Sources to study the earth’s interior

1.'P' or primary or longitudinal waves

2. "S" or Transverse Waves

Earth's interior on the basis of Seismic waves

Mohorovic (Moho) discontinuity

Causes of the earthquake

1. Plate Tectonic Theory

4- Unscientific infrastructural construction

A. Depending on the location of the foci of earthquake

3. Deep Center Earthquakes

B. Depending on the location of earthquake

Pacific oceanic belt

Mid continental plate or Alpine earthquake belt

Scale for measurement of Earthquake

Causes of tsunami origin

• Tsunami waves are mostly born in the Pacific Ocean

Factors that lead to volcanism

Ocean floor spreading

Weak Earth Surface

A decrease in external pressure

Basic or Basaltic or Sheild Lava

Distribution of volcanoes based on plate tectonics

• The Hawaiian Islands are an example of hot spot volcanoes.

e- Vesuvius or Plinian type

2. According to the Periodicity of Eruption

Landforms associated with Volcanoes are broadly of two types:

Q- geophysical characteristics of Circum- Pacific Zone.

Composition of the atmosphere

• It also preserves the earth’s the earthis radiated heat.

Different layers of the atmosphere

• The temperature in this layer starts decreasing again with altitude.

Mechanism of heating and cooling of the atmosphere

1- The atmosphere of earth is retained by

2- The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth

4- The study of Earth’s atmosphere and its processes is called

6- Which of the following contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth

7- The highest layer that can be accessed by jet powered aircraft.

8- Which of the following contains roughly 80% of the Earth’s atmosphere

9- The Ozone layer is contained within the

10- The density of air at sea level is about

Sao Tome & Principe

North America Bahamas (Archipelago), Mexico

• Tropic of Capricorn passes through 10 countries, 3 continents and 3 water bodies.

Africa Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar

Water Bodies Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean

Prime meridian line/ Greenwich line

International Date Line

Factors affecting insolation

2- Rotation of the earth on its axis

4- Variation in the amount of solar radiation

5- Revolution of Earth around Sun

6- Transparency of the atmosphere

Reflected by ice-fields on earth 02 units

Scattered by the atmosphere 06 units

Total Reflected radiation 35 units

• The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth

Absorbed by the earth 51 units

Total absorbed radiation 65 units

Radiated to atmosphere 34 units

Absorbed through convection and turbulence 09 units