Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Fracture stratigraphy and oil first migration in Triassic shales, Favignana

Island, western Sicily, Italy
S. Todaro a, F. Agosta b, N. Parrino a, *, F. Cavalcante c, P. Di Stefano a, f, R. Giarrusso d, F. Pepe a,
P. Renda a, f, E. Tondi e, f
a
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e del Mare, Università di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Scienze, Università della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy
c
Istituto di Metodologie per l’Analisi Ambientale, CNR, Tito Scalo, PZ, Italy
d
GEOLAB S.r.l., Via De Spuches, Carini, PA, Italy
e
Scuola di Scienze e Tecnologie, Università di Camerino, Camerino, Italy
f
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aims at evaluating the control exerted by fracture stratigraphy and diagenetic processes on oil first
Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic migration through an outcropping, mixed carbonate-siliciclastic succession. The present work included results of
Brittle deformation sedimentological, paleontological, mineralogical, petrographic, structural, and microstructural analyses carried
Diagenetic evolution
out on organic-rich shales exposed at the Favignana Island of Sicily, Italy. The analyses focus on Upper Triassic
Anoxic coastal lagoon
Upper Triassic
yellowish siltstones and greyish laminated dolomitic limestones, which form a 10’s of m-thick succession
Sicily exposed along the westernmost portion of the Sicilian fold-and-thrust belt. The studied succession deposited in a
coastal lagoon associated to a wide carbonate platform, in which anoxic bottom conditions allowed the pres­
ervation of the organic matter forming catagenetic patches and veins/fractures infill. In fact, two orthogonal
fracture sets perpendicular to bedding are pervaded by organic matter. They are hence interpreted as structural
elements that affected the paleofluid circulation and oil migration within the Triassic source rock. These two
orthogonal sets form the background fracture network predating the formation of three other sets infilled mainly
with calcite cements. The latest fracture set also includes barite cements implying a hydrothermal origin
(<200 ◦ C), as supported by the R1 and R3 mixed-layer Illite-Smectite (I–S) stacking. Data are consistent with a
burial depth of the sedimentary succession of about 3 ± 0.5 km. In light of these considerations, the study area
might represent an outcropping stratigraphic and structural analogue of the source rocks buried in the offshore of
western Sicily and northern Tunisia.

1. Introduction exploration (Horsrud et al., 1998).

Heterogeneous successions, including alternations of shale and sili­
ceous or carbonate facies, represent a significant target for hydrocarbon
exploration (Gale et al., 2017). Shales are rocks made up of fine-grained
argillaceous rocks containing variable amounts of coarser particles such
as quartz, feldspar, rock fragments, and a significant amount of organic
matter (Ougier-Simonin et al., 2016). However, the term shale is not
precisely defined for many geologists, comprising a range of rocks from
clay to siltstone (Horsrud et al., 1998). In petroleum systems, a peculiar
feature of shales is that they can act both as source rocks or as cap rocks,
and for this reason, they are an excellent target for petroleum
Commonly, shales are characterised by low permeability values due
to the small dimensions of pores which hamper the fluid circulation
(Kobchenko et al., 2011). Therefore, the shale permeability is firmly
controlled by the amount of fracture-related secondary porosity (Gale
et al., 2017). As a result, their mechanical properties, loading history,
and fluid content can be considered critical controlling factors for shale
permeability (Gale et al., 2017). Furthermore, the factors mentioned
above affect both nucleation and growth of fracture networks in shales
and therefore, also affect the subsequent rock-fluid interactions, rock
sealing capacities, and modalities of oil primary migration (Brantut
et al., 2008; Holland et al., 2006; Laubach et al., 2009a; Teixeira et al.,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nicolo.parrino@unipa.it (N. Parrino).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.105400
Received 23 July 2021; Received in revised form 21 October 2021; Accepted 25 October 2021
Available online 26 October 2021
0264-8172/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Todaro et al.
Fig. 1. A) Location of the Favignana Island in a schematic tectonic map of the central Mediterranean area; B) Geological map of the western portion of Favignana
Island, SC: Santa Caterina unit (mod. From (Abate et al., 1997); C) Detail of the Punta Faraglione study site, PF: Punta Faraglione unit; D) Geologic cross-section of
the Punta Faraglione study site (after Abate et al., 1997).
2017).
Primary migration occurs in source rocks during oil and gas forma­
tion phases of hydrocarbon systems implying that the organic-rich rock
is buried at depth and reaches the temperature conditions for hydro­
carbon formation under the so-called catagenic conditions (Bjørlykke,
2010; Selley, 1998). Primary migration is related to the effects of me­
chanical compaction of the organic-rich sediments and chemical
changes in it, which causes the expulsion of both interstitial fluids and
hydrocarbons. Commonly, due to non-hydrostatic conditions and to
increased pore pressure, primary migration is characterised by vertical
flow components. However, the possible differential mechanical
compaction of the sediments may also trigger lateral components of
hydrocarbon flow throughout the source rock.
Rock-fluid interaction implies dissolution-precipitation processes,
chemical reactions, and porosity obliteration or enhancement. They
could significantly impact the rock mechanical behaviour and the
diagenetic evolution of the rocks (Laubach et al., 2010; Todaro et al.,
2016 and references therein). Therefore, the analysis of the diagenetic
history of shales could provide valuable results to assess their mecha­
nisms of deformation and petrophysical properties. Furthermore, due to
the limited availability of shale samples from deep boreholes and the
frequent well-stability issues during drilling, the integrated field and
laboratory investigation of outcropping shales become essential to ac­
quire insights on their sealing capabilities/hydrocarbon primary
migration properties at depth (Horsrud et al., 1998; Panahi et al., 2013).
The present study aims at discriminating how the bulk diagenetic
evolution and the structural diagenesis controlled the oil first migration
processes in an Upper Triassic oil shale cropping out in the Island of
Favignana, Italy. We carried out sedimentological and structural field
surveys and laboratory analyses on a well-exposed alternation of dolo­
mitic limestones and siltstones cropping out at the study area of Punta
Faraglione, along the northernmost sector of the Favignana Island. Field
and laboratory data allowed us to characterise macro-and-microfacies
stacking patterns, fracture stratigraphy and diagenetic evolution of the
sedimentary succession. Results are discussed in light of the existing
2
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
literature in order to define the modalities of oil first migration
throughout the exposed source rocks.
2. Geological setting
The Favignana Island forms one of the westernmost outcropping
portions of the Maghrebian orogen in Italy, which derives from the
continental collision between the North African margin and the
Sardinian-Corsican block (Abate et al., 1995). As a result, the western
portion of the Maghrebian chain exposed in Italy is characterised by
south-verging thrusts and km-scale fault-propagation folds (Nigro and
Renda, 2000). In particular, the Favignana Island results from the late
Miocene compressional tectonics that was characterised by thrust faults
with typical flat/ramp geometries (Abate et al., 1995, 1997; Catalano
et al., 1993; Gugliotta and Gasparo Morticelli, 2012). Such compres­
sional tectonics produced two main tectonic units, respectively known
as Monte Santa Caterina Unit (upper one) and Punta Faraglione Unit
(lower one).
The high-angle faults of NW Sicily dissected the contractional cara­
pace and form a grid of strike-slip structures which are roughly striking
ca. E-W, ca. NW-SE, and ca. N–S, respectively (Gueguen et al., 2002;
Nigro and Renda, 2000; Pepe et al., 2000; Renda et al., 1999; Wezel,
1985). The E-W striking faults show predominant normal slip, whereas
the latter two fault sets are respectively characterized by predominant
right-lateral and left-lateral components of slip, respectively. As shown
by recent works conducted in the study area of the Favignana Island
(Tondi et al., 2012), and in the nearby San Vito Lo Capo Peninsula of
western Sicily (Tondi, 2007), the kinematics of the two sets of strike-slip
faults is compatible to the current regional stress field, which is char­
acterized by a NW-SE oriented, σhmax (Giunta et al., 2004, 2009).
Differently, the E-W striking normal faults either inverted the
pre-existing thrust faults or developed as newly formed structural ele­
ments (Tavarnelli et al., 2003a). The association of ca. N–S, NW-SE, and
E-W high-angle faults was interpreted as accommodating different
amounts of horizontal slip rates along the Egadian archipelago and
S. Todaro et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400

Table 1 rock succession. Microfacies, microstructural and petrographic analyses

Statistical properties of the detected fracture sets: N - number of fractures; % - are carried out on 30 thin sections obtained from 21 representative hand
the percentage of fractures oriented between Min and Max directions; Mean Vec specimens collected in the field. Thin sections are analysed by mean of a
– mean orientation of the fracture set and its related errors; Circ Var – circular Leitz Laborlux 12 Pol optical microscope and a Zeiss Supra 40 scanning
variance of each fracture set; K – fracture sets orientation density value. electron microscope using a backscattered electron detector.
Set N % Min Max Mean ± Circ K The structural analyses focus on the quantitative stereological
(deg) (deg) Vec (deg) Var characterisation of fractures in the studied area. Stereological fracture
(deg)
properties such as dip, dip direction, cut-off angle, abutting, and cross­
F1 34 100 1.0 15.0 8.7 1.4 0.007 50.242 cutting relationships are acquired through field survey of the mixed
F2 35 51.43 101.0 105.0 100.0 1.0 0.003 100.000
carbonate-siliciclastic succession exposed at the Punta Faraglione site.
F3 26 53.84 41.0 45.0 37.1 2.3 0.016 25.250
F4 35 34.29 61.0 65.0 67.0 2.8 0.034 17.766 Stereological fracture analysis is performed through the stereographic
F5 25 44 131.0 135.0 127.7 2.3 0.014 25.252 method (Allmendinger et al., 2011). The first selection of the main
fracture sets is based on contours plots of poles distribution through the
Kamb-contouring algorithm (Kamb, 1959) and their attitudinal
western Sicily during block uplift and exhumation from depth (Abate density-weighted rose diagrams circular frequency histograms. Subse­
et al., 1995; Gasparo Morticelli et al., 2016; Tavarnelli et al., 2003b). quently, the attitude dispersion within single fracture sets is identified
The study area of Punta Faraglione, along the northern edge of the considering the rose diagram plots and through a trial-and-error process
Favignana Island, is hence the result of the compressional activity of the based on the research of the highest computable Fisher K dispersion
N–S oriented major faults (Fig. 1). Numerous authors documented indices (Fisher, 1953, Table 1). Finally, the most representative plane of
recent reactivations of these strike-slip faults during the ongoing single fracture sets is assessed in terms of circular variance and mean
compressive phase in the area (Abate et al., 1995; Giunta et al., 2000; vector direction (Davis and Sampson, 1986 and reference therein).
Tavarnelli et al., 2003b; Tondi et al., 2006, 2012). Focussing on its Information on host rock diagenesis, and on the crosscutting rela­
stratigraphic setting, it includes thick peritidal and lagoonal carbonate tionship of the detected multiple generations of calcite vein filling are
successions formed by Upper Triassic blackish-to-greyish stromatolitic acquired through cathodoluminescence (CL) observations, carried out
dolostones with intercalations of terrigenous sediments in the lower­ via an Olympus, CITL 8200 mk3. A solution of 10% of HCl, alizarine
most portion and Lower Jurassic stromatolitic and algal limestones Red-S, and K-ferricyanide was used to discriminate calcite from dolo­
(Abate et al., 1995). The Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic carbonates are mite (Dickson, 1966).
unconformably overlain by condensed Upper Jurassic pelagic lime­ X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) analyses were carried out on three
stones (Rosso Ammonitico), Lower Cretaceous marly limestones (Hybla samples collected from yellowish siltstones (PF 11), dolomitic lime­
Fm.), and Upper Cretaceous-Eocene cherty, scaglia-type, lime mud­ stones (PF 1), and nodular limestones beds (PF 13, Figs. 2 and 3). XRPD
stones (Abate et al., 1995). Small patches of lower Miocene glauconitic analysis is performed using a Rigaku DMax 2200 diffractometer equip­
calcarenites cover unconformably the previous units. Pleistocene cal­ ped with an automatic sample holder, CuKα radiation, sample spinner,
carenites, which extensively crop out in the eastern part of the Island, graphite monochromator on secondary beam, and scintillation detector
overlap the Triassic to Miocene substrate through a deep, regional-scale, with the following instrumental conditions: power 40 kVx30 mA, 0.02◦
erosional surface. 2θ steps size, speed of 3 s/step. The diffractometric angle interval ranges
from 2 to 70◦ 2Ɵ and 2–32◦ 2Ɵ angle for the bulk sample and clay
3. Methods fraction, respectively. Mineralogical analysis of bulk samples is carried
out on random powders prepared using side loading of bulk specimens
Integrated sedimentological and structural analyses are combined (Środoń et al., 2001). The <2 μm grain-size fraction is separated by
with petrographic observations in order to fully characterise the studied gravitational-settling in distilled water after previous sodium acetate

Fig. 2. Panoramic view of the studied section at Punta Faraglione Promontory. Note the stacking pattern of yellowish siltstones and dolomitic limestones (people for
scale) and the single intercalation of the nodular limestone bed.

3
S. Todaro et al.
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic log of the Punta Faraglione section (left) and outcrop views of the alternations of dolomitic limestones and yellowish siltstones (right).
(NaOAC) treatment to remove carbonate minerals (Jackson, 1969).
Oriented mounts are prepared by settling a suspension after being
saturated with Mg2+ cations using 1 N MgCl2 solution. Each specimen
is analysed air dried, glycolated at 60◦ for 8h, and heated at 375 ◦ C for
1h following Moore and Reynolds (1989). The percentage of endmem­
bers and staking order (Reichweite, R) of mixed layers illite/smectite
(I–S) performed after (Moore and Reynolds, 1989). The decomposition
of the diffraction profiles is carried out using a Winfit computer program
(Krumm, 1999). Quantitative analyses are carried out on bulk sample
XRPD patterns using the area of the most intense peaks of both
non-phyllosilicates and phyllosilicates minerals (Cavalcante et al.,
2007).
Furthermore, chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) per­
formed at Actlabs laboratories (Ancaster, Ontario, Canada) on samples
PF 1 and PF 11 allowed the measurement of the concentration of major
elements within the bulk rocks (detection limits = 0.01 wt% or better).
For those samples, the results after XRPD are refined with whole-rock
XRF chemical data, using the vbAffina computer program (Cesarano
et al., 2018; Leoni et al., 1989, 2008). The major elements chemical
composition of the bulk sample and loss on ignition (LOI) are consid­
ered. The data were processed in a least-squares minimisation so that the
chemical composition calculated based on the percentage of phases
4
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
introduced into vbAffina (XRPD results) coincides as closely as possible
with the chemical data determined by XRF (Leoni et al., 1989, 2008).
4. Results
4.1. Stratigraphy and sedimentology
The Punta Faraglione section (37◦ 57′ 13.1 N, 12◦ 18′ 28.9 E) is located
along the northern edge of Favignana Island (Fig. 1). The age of the
exposed mixed carbonate/terrigenous succession is poorly defined
owing to the absence of reliable biomarkers. However, according to
previous authors, it can be attributed to the Upper Triassic (Abate et al.,
1995). The studied section, dipping about 35◦ SSE, has a stratigraphic
thickness of about 40 m and consists of metre-scale alternations of two
lithofacies, namely parallel-bedded yellowish siltstone and greyish to
dark-grey dolomitic limestone. A third lithofacies occurs in the middle
part of this succession as a single bed of fossiliferous nodular limestone
(Figs. 2 and 3).
The sedimentological characters of the three main lithofacies
recognized are hereinafter summarised, while a detailed mineralogical
characterization is reported in paragraph 4.3:
S. Todaro et al.
i) The dolomitic limestone consists of organic-rich beds whose
average thickness is ca. 1,5 m. Optical microscope analysis of
selected thin sections shows an internal texture made of lami­
nated microbial carbonates (laminae <2 mm-thick) lacking
skeletal remains. The dark colour is due to the kerogene that is
concentrated between laminae but also in patches, veins and
fractures (Fig. 4 A, B, C, D).
ii) The yellowish siltstone is organised in parallel beds up to 6 m
thick. It consists mainly of silt-size euhedral dolomite crystals and
subordinate clay minerals. Fish remains are common, together
with plant remains comparable to Araucaria.
iii) The 45 cm-thick single bed of nodular limestone that occurs in the
middle portion of the study succession consists of mudstone-
wackestone with fragments of thin-shelled bivalves, echino­
derms, crinoids, and gastropods (Fig. 4 E, F).
Even though it is challenging to calculate the cumulative thickness of
5
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
Fig. 4. A) Sample of the dolomitic
limestones lithofacies showing the
presence of fractures F1 filled; B) Rock
slice of the dolomitic limestones
showing the compartmentalisation of
kerogene due to fractures F1; C) and D)
Polarised photomicrograph of a thin
section of dolomitic limestones that
show catagenetic patches and fractures
and oil-filled veins; E) and F) Photomi­
crographs of thin sections of wacke­
stones pertaining to the nodular
limestones lithofacies. Samples include
thin-shelled bivalves and echinoid
spine. White arrows indicate primary
porosity filled by kerogene.
the Triassic-Miocene succession exposed in the Favignana Island, we
computed the burial history relying upon the available offshore bore­
hole data excluding the syn-tectonic (Terravecchia Fm.) and Plio-
Quaternary sediments (VIDEPI Project database, https://www.videpi.
com/videpi/videpi.asp). Different well logs were chosen to reconstruct
the burial history (i.e., Narciso, Nada and Tania, Fig. 5). Their Mesozoic
stratigraphy is comparable to that of Favignana Island and, in particular,
the Tania well records bitumen traces in the Upper Triassic dolostone.
The stratigraphic log of the Narciso well shows 1425 m of Lower Jurassic
(Inici Fm.) to Oligocene (top Fortuna Fm.) rocks, while in the Nada well
1600 m (up to the Nilde Fm. lower Miocene). To these successions, we
added 1263 m of Triassic carbonates as drilled in the Tania well. Ac­
cording to these data, it is possible to estimate an overall pre-orogenic
stratigraphic thickness of at least 2.8 km.
S. Todaro et al.
4.2. Field structural results
The Punta Faraglione succession is part of the footwall block of a
thrust dissecting the whole Triassic-Jurassic tectonic unit of the Favig­
nana Island (Fig. 1B, C, 5A, and 5B). The bedding planes are roughly sub-
parallel to each other throughout the whole Punta Faraglione outcrop,
showing an average attitude of N 125◦ E, 35◦ . Differently, the beds are
sub-horizontal in proximity to the ENE-WSW striking thrust dipping 40◦
SSE (Fig. 6A). Therefore, the exposed succession forms a large-scale
open syncline fold with hinge zones plunging at shallow angles to­
wards SSE, as documented for the small-scale folds highlighted in
Fig. 6A (cf. open circles). According to the cut-off angles, the back-thrust
forms a flat geometry with the hanging wall rocks and a ramp geometry
with the footwall rocks. We note that the back thrust fault plane and the
surrounding bedding interfaces are invaded by yellow sulphates, and
that the whitish calcite veins cluster around the thrust fault, forming two
6
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of borehole logs
labelled Narciso 001, Tania and Nada, respectively.
Black dots in the upper left inset represent the loca­
tions where each borehole was drilled, and the red
rectangle shows the Punta Faraglione peninsula.
Black wavy horizontal lines represent stratigraphic
discontinuities, while the red wavy horizontal line
indicates a tectonic discontinuity recorded in the
borehole stratigraphy. (For interpretation of the ref­
erences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)
main sets that are subparallel the hanging wall and footwall dolostone
beds, respectively. Similarly, the intraformational thrust fault exposed
along the northern edge of the study area forms a high cut-off angle with
the dolostone and siltstone beds forming tight, outcrop-scale syncline
and anticline folds at the footwall block and a flat geometry with the
dolomitic limestones of the hanging wall block (Fig. 6B). The thrust fault
mentioned above is made up of 10’s of cms thick assemblage of fault
breccia, cohesive cataclasites, and intensely fractured and fragmented
dolomitic limestone rocks. The siltstones are smeared all along the main
slip surface of the thrust fault, forming a laterally continuous level up to
a few cm thick. The folded dolostone and siltstone beds at the footwall
are characterised by sub-horizontal axes axes striking cca ENE-WSW.
Results of mesoscale fracture analysis conducted along the dolomitic
limestone beds are consistent with the presence of five main high-angle
fracture sets (Fig. 6A and B; Table 1). Hereinafter, the nature, main
strike direction, cut-off angles, and abutting/crosscutting relations of
S. Todaro et al.
Fig. 6. A) ENE-WSW striking, SSE dipping back thrust outcropping in the
southern portion of the Punta Faraglione succession; B) ENE-WSW striking,
NNW dipping, major intraformational thrust fault outcropping in the northern
portion of the Punta Faraglione succession. Geologist as scale.
single fracture sets are reported:
• The F1 set strikes N09E ± 1.4◦ (Fisher value higher than 50), and
includes open, bed-perpendicular fractures and veins sealed by
syntaxial calcite minerals (Figs. 6, 7A and 7B). F1 fractures and veins
are often stratabound (SB) within the single dolomitic limestone
beds. Along the survey outcrops, there are also non-stratabound
(NSB) sheared fractures, which are characterised by predominant
left-lateral components of slip (Fig. 8B). The Fracture set F1 show, in
Fig. 7. A) Mesoscale fracture network exposed in the study area. In green the fractures of the F1 set, in red the fractures of the F2 set, in light blue the fractures of the
F3 set, in purple the fractures of the F4 set, in blue fracture of the F5 set. B) Rose diagram showing the fractures circular distribution. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
7
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
outcrop, alteration halos related to an advancing redox front (Fig. 8.
B, C).
• The F2 set strikes N100E ± 1◦ (Fisher value ca. 100) and includes
open, bed-perpendicular fractures and veins cemented by syntaxial
calcite minerals (Figs. 6, 7C and 7D). F2 fractures and veins are
mainly compartmentalised within the individual dolomitic limestone
beds, forming SB structural elements. However, a few NSB sheared
fractures with predominant right-lateral components of slip are also
documented (Fig. 8A). Both F1 and F2 fracture sets show mutual
abutting relations (Fig. 7B).
• The F3 set strikes N37E ± 2◦ (Fisher K value 25.25). These fractures
show a quite significant dispersion of the strike direction and form
oblique cut-off angles with the bed interfaces (Fig. 7, Table 1). F3
fractures consist of open fractures and veins with syntaxial calcite
minerals. F3 fractures are commonly SB within the single dolomitic
limestone beds, even if NSB sheared fractures that crosscut multiple
beds are documented (Fig. 7A). In plain view, the F3 fractures abut
against both F1 and F2 fractures (Fig. 7 D) and displace left laterally
both F1, F2 and F4 (Fig. 8 C).
• The F4 set strikes N67E ± 2.8◦ (Fisher K value 17.766) and form
oblique cut-off angles with the bed interfaces (Fig. 7, Table 1). The F4
set includes open fractures and veins with syntaxial calcite, which
form both SB and NSB structural elements. The F4 fractures abut
against F3 fractures and veins (Fig. 8E).
• The F5 set strikes N128E ± 2◦ (Fisher K value 25.252) and form
oblique cut-off angles with the bed interfaces (Fig. 7A, Table 1). This
set includes both open fractures and calcite veins, which mainly form
SB structural elements abutting against all previous fracture sets
(Fig. 7E and F).
4.3. Mineralogical results
Outcome from the performed mineralogical analyses on the three
lithofacies are described in the following:
i) XRPD patterns of the random powder of the bulk of the dolomitic
limestone indicate the almost exclusive presence of carbonate
minerals. In detail, PF 1 sample mainly consists of calcite (61.5%)
associated with dolomite (31%) and a small amount of quartz
(2%); hematite and/or pyrite (1%) and goethite are present in
trace, in accordance with the chemical data showing high values
of CaO and LOI, low percentage of MgO and a meagre amount of
the other oxides (Table 2, Fig. 9 A). Clay minerals are present in a
small amount (4.5%). The XRD diagram of clay fraction records
the presence of mixed layers of illite/smectite and illite (Fig. 10 A
and B). Kaolinite and goethite are present in traces. The stacking
orders of mixed-layers I–S are R1 and R3. The percentages of illite
S. Todaro et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400

Fig. 8. Details on the crosscutting and

abutting relations among the fracture
sets. Top view of dolomitic limestone
beds. Pencils for scale. A) F2 sheared
fractures and veins showing minor
components of right-lateral slip (black
circle). B) F1 sheared fractures and
veins showing minor components of
left-lateral slip (black circles). F1 and F2
fractures and veins showing mutual
abutting relations (red circles). C) F3
fractures abutting against both F1 and
F2 fractures and veins (black circles). D)
F3 fractures showing left-lateral com­
ponents of slip (black circles). E) F4
open fractures abutting against F3 frac­
tures (red circle). F5 fractures abutting
against F4 fractures and veins (black
circle); F) F5 abutting against F2 (black
circles) and F3 (yellow circle), abutting
against F3 (yellow circle). (For inter­
pretation of the references to colour in
this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the Web version of this article.)

Table 2
Mineralogical and chemical composition of major elements (weight percentages) of bulk samples. PF1: dolomitic limestones. PF11: yellowish siltstones. PF13: nodular
limestones. Qtz = quartz; Crt = cristobalite; Cal = calcite; Dol = dolomite; Hal = halite; Hem/Py = hematite and/or pyrite; Gth = goethite; I–S (R1+R3) = mixed layers
illite/smectite R1 and R3; Ill = illite; Kao = kaolinite.
Mineralogical composition (weight % of the mineral phases)

Sample Qtz Crt Cal Dol Hal Hem/Py Gth Clay minerals

I/S (R1+R3) Ill Kao

PF 1 2.0 Tr 61.5 31.0 n.d. 1.0 tr 3.5 1.0 tr

PF 11 4.5 Tr 3.0 71.0 5.0 2.5 tr 11.0 3.0 tr
PF 13 n.d. n.d. 99 1 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Chemical composition (weight % of the major elements)

Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO MnO CaO K2 O Na2O P2O5 LOI

P1 4.01 0.05 1.27 0.63 6.97 0.02 43.98 0.27 0.03 0.05 42.5
P11 11.23 0.14 3.58 1.61 13.95 0.02 25.41 0.78 2.69 0.11 40.28

in I–S is about 65 and 85% for R1 and R3, respectively. The Full luminescence, while carbonates filling the fracture sets have
Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) of illite is 0.50◦ Δ2Ɵ. CL data different luminescence, suggesting the occurrence of different
show that dolomitic limestone always has a moderate cementation phases (Fig. 9 E). The organic matter, detected

8
S. Todaro et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400

Fig. 9. A) XRD of the dolomitic limestone lithofacies; B) normal polarised light images show the F1 set and C) SEM analyses of F1 set infill; D) normal polarised light
images; E) CL images; F) and G) SEM analyses of F3 set infill. Magnification 25× (B) and 40× (D and E).

9
S. Todaro et al.
Fig. 10. A) XRPD patterns representative of PF1 and PF 11 clay fraction; B) Decomposition of glycolate profile of clay minerals.
through SEM analyses, filling the F1 and F2 sets (Fig. 9 B and C),
together with the macro and micro-observations shown in Fig. 4,
highlight the existing relationship between these fracture sets and
the kerogen formation and migration-related features such as the
catagenetic fractures (sensu Price et al., 1997), oil-filled veins and
storage and compartmentalisation evidence. Differently, F3 and
F4 sets are filled only by calcite cement. In detail, CL observations
of the F3 set show multiple cementation phases, the later of which
shows non-luminescence while the previously formed phase
shows dull luminescence (Fig. 9 D - G). F5 set of fractures show a
bright luminescence and as documented by SEM, barite cemen­
tation as their infill (Fig. 11).
ii) The nodular limestone shows, at a microscale, veins filled with
calcite and dolomite minerals, as shown by the results of staining
(Dickson, 1966). In detail, coarse dolomite rhombs replace sparry
calcite crystals, indicating partial dolomitisation (Fig. 12 A, B).
The results of XRD analysis show that the nodular limestone is
almost totally made up of calcite (99%), with only a small amount
of dolomite (1%) (Fig. 12 C).
iii) SEM image of yellowish siltstone shows a euhedral shape of the
dolomite crystals (Fig. 13 A) whereas XRPD data confirm that it
mainly consists of dolomite (71%) with a small amount of calcite
(3%), quartz (4.5%), halite (5%), hematite and pyrite (2.5%).
Cristobalite and goethite are present in trace (Table 2, Fig. 13 B).
10
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
The other mineral phases are represented by clay minerals (14%).
Clay minerals assemblage is the same that characterise PF 1
sample. The stacking order and the percentages of illite in I–S are
about 65 and 85% for R1 and R3, respectively. FWHM of illite is
0.60◦ Δ2Ɵ.
5. Discussion
5.1. Depositional setting
Even though fine-grained, organic-rich rocks are commonly labelled
as oil shale, in the case of the Punta Faraglione section to achieve a
greater detail of the lithofacies has been needed to characterise their
depositional environment. Based on the results of paleontological,
mineralogical and petrographic analyses of the two main alternating
lithofacies, respectively dolomitic limestones and siltstones, the
following four main constraints are considered for the definition of the
depositional environment:
i) Presence of well-preserved specimens of marine fish in the silt­
stone indicate a marine sedimentary basin.
ii) Abundant terrigenous inputs consisting of silt-grade quartz,
feldspars and clay minerals pertaining to the illite group together
S. Todaro et al.
Fig. 11. A) thin section of dolomitic limestone facies showing F-5 set of fractures filled by barite cement (D); B) Normal polarised light images; C) CL images.
Magnification 40×
with the presence of terrestrial plants suggest that the deposi­
tional area was adjacent to an emergent land.
iii) Absence of bioturbation and the organic matter preserved within
the dolomitic limestones is consistent with disoxic/anoxic bottom
waters (Flügel, 2004).
iv) Absence of sedimentary structures controlled by waves and cur­
rents speaks in favour of a low-energy environment.
Taking into account the above considerations, the inferred paleo-
depositional environment can be envisaged as a coastal lagoon, part of
a wide carbonate platform, characterised by stagnant bottom waters
sheltered from open marine waters by submarine thresholds (Fig. 14).
The alternating siltstones and dolomitic limestones lithofacies reflect
periodic variations of the terrigenous supply, possibly related to sea-
level fluctuations in the band of 4th or 5th order. A forced run-off
from nearby landmass areas could have been induced by lowstand
phases (Fig. 14B), while highstand periods could have inhibited the
terrigenous supply allowing the deposition of the laminated carbonates
(Fig. 14A). The fully marine fossiliferous limestone was most probably
deposited during a high-stand phase of particular amplitude, making
inefficient the submarine thresholds.
A similar scenario was proposed for the Eocene “Pesciara di Bolca”
Lagerstätte (Papazzoni and Trevisani, 2006; Schwark et al., 2009)
characterised by fossiliferous rich lithofacies deposited in an anoxic
lagoon sheltered from open marine waters by submarine sandbanks. In
this coastal lagoon, the episodic terrestrial run-off led to the deposition
11
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
of terrigenous layers alternating with the limestone beds (Schwark et al.,
2009).
The dolomitisation of both lithofacies that alternate along the Punta
Faraglione succession could be therefore related to a reflux circulation
probably favoured by an adjacent sabkha environment (Warren, 2000).
This is supported by the euhedral shape of the dolomite crystals in the
yellowish siltstone (Fig. 13 A) that speaks in favour of an authigenic
origin of the dolomite. Moreover, an Upper Triassic sabkha is docu­
mented in the nearby Island of Marettimo by Abate et al. (1995) based
on pseudomorphs of evaporites and, in particular, of enterolithic
structures in coeval blackish dolostone.
5.2. Fracture stratigraphy
Mechanical stratigraphy represents a subdivision of layered rock
masses into discrete intervals according to their specific mechanical
properties (Bai et al., 2002; Bai and Pollard, 2000; Cardozo et al., 2005;
Cooke, 1997). The mechanical properties of single mechanical layers
drive the failure modes and amount of strain of each mechanical units
(Ferrill et al., 2017; Frost and Kerans, 2010; Gross, 1995). However, the
mechanical properties evolve with diagenesis so that the original char­
acteristics of individual mechanical units are no longer preserved within
the rock masses (la Bruna et al., 2020; Laubach et al., 2010; Shackleton
et al., 2005). Accordingly, the results of present-day laboratory analyses
may not provide any hints on the mechanical properties of the indi­
vidual units at the time of deformation. For this reason, in the last
S. Todaro et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400

Fig. 12. A) and B) Fractures filled by cement stained with Dixon solution that highlights the presence of subhedral dolomite crystals; C) PF 13 XRD pattern of bulk
sample representative of the nodular limestone showing the almost exclusive presence of calcite.

Fig. 13. A) SEM image and B) XRPD pattern of siltstone lithofacies (PF 11 sample).

decade, many studies focused on the characterisation of the fracture
distribution in layered carbonate rock masses (Corradetti et al., 2017;
Giuffrida et al., 2020; Lavenu and Lamarche, 2018; Panza et al., 2016,
2019), and the assessment of the fracture stratigraphy of layered suc­
cessions (sensu Laubach et al., 2009b). Thus, fracture stratigraphy sub­
divides rocks into discrete intervals according to the fracture trace
length, density, intensity, or other fracture properties throughout
layered rock masses. Hence, fracture stratigraphy reflects a specific
loading history and often does not coincide with the present-day vari­
ation of rock properties through a lithostratigraphic column.
According to the field structural analysis results, we document the
significant control exerted by the dolomitic limestone beds on the
nucleation and growth of multiple fracture sets throughout the studied
Punta Faraglione succession. According to the abutting and crosscutting
relations documented among the five main sets of fractures, we assess
that both F1 and F2 sets pre-dated the formation of the subsequent

12
S. Todaro et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400

Fig. 14. 3D schematic depositional model inferred for the Punta Faraglione succession. A) 4th or 5th order high-stand stage in a restricted lagoon. B) Subsequent
low-stand stage with the terrigenous influx.

fracture and vein sets. In fact, we document that the F3 to F5 SB sets abut
against both the F1 and F2 sets. The latter form a cross-orthogonal, bed-
perpendicular network, and show mutual abutting relations. They are
hence interpreted as coeval fracture sets. In order to justify their for­
mation, we invoke the stress-state transition mechanism (Bai and
Pollard, 2000), which may occur within rock slabs bounded by
bed-perpendicular systematic joints with spacing values somehow
similar to the bed thickness when the magnitude of the intermediate and
least principal stress axes do not strongly differ from each other (Bai
et al., 2002). Due to the subvertical orientation of the principal stress
axes we interpret both F1 and F2 fracture and vein sets as likely formed
during burial diagenesis (Giuffrida et al., 2019; Panza et al., 2016)
and/or foreland bulging of the carbonates (la Bruna et al., 2018; Tavani
et al., 2015). These fracture sets show, in outcrop, alteration halos
related to a redox front (Fig. 8. B, C). In case of low permeability rocks,
as the rocks forming the studied outcrops, the dissolved oxygen from the
fluids into the host rock occurs mainly by diffusion (Ortoleva et al.,
1986).
On the basis of their high cut-of angles the F3 and F4 fracture sets
could be formed as SB pressure solution seams during anticline flexural
slip folding related to the first Miocene thrusting phases. Later Miocene
anticline folding could be responsible for the shearing of pre-existing F1
and F2 sets and for the re-activation as sheared NSB fractures of the F3
set. Finally, we relate the F5 fracture set to the later transtensional

Fig. 15. Paragenetic sequence of diagenetic events assessed for the Punta Faraglione outcropping layered succession.

13
S. Todaro et al.
faulting which occurred in the northern sector of the Sicilian fold and
thrust belt.
5.3. Oil first migration
The burial history and related diagenetic events of the mixed
carbonate-siliciclastic succession exposed at the Punta Faraglione site
are summarised in Fig. 15. Considering the progressive burial of the
Punta Faraglione succession, hydrocarbon maturation and coeval
obliteration of the original primary porosity by kerogene might have
taken place during the onset of upper Miocene thrusting. This finding is
quite in agreement with the close relation between thrusting and oil
maturation documented throughout the Apennines fold-and-thrust belt
(Casero, 2004; Casero and Bigi, 2013; Mattavelli et al., 1993; Oppo et al.,
2013). Later fracture sets that formed within the study succession were
not invaded by kerogene and are hence interpreted as infilled during
later diagenetic phases.
Assuming a geothermal gradient of, at most, 25 ◦ C/km for accre­
tionary wedges, (Cavalcante et al., 2007; Merriman, 2005, based on the
sedimentary stacking reconstructed for the study area (3 km ± 0.5 km),
these results indicate that it was subjected to a temperature ≥75 ◦ C. Both
macroscopic and microscopic analyses highlight that F1 and F2 sets
behaved as conduits for Kerogene-rich fluids during the oil first migra­
tion. In plain view, these fracture sets formed a quite isotropic array
within the individual dolomitic limestone beds, and both coincided with
the oil first vertical migration from the shale beds underneath. Specif­
ically, they allowed the fluid migration, and, at the same time, they
blocked the flow in their perpendicular directions, creating areas char­
acterised by different organic matter concentrations (Fig. 4B).
Presence of I–S R1 and R3 with high illite percentage, both in
dolomitic limestone and siltstone lithofacies, points to the temperature
in an accretionary contest at about 130 ◦ C (Cavalcante et al., 2012, and
references therein) probably reached during the Miocene thrusting
phases and the F3 – F4 fracture set formation. Indeed, F3 and F4 veins
only include calcite cements, thus, these fracture sets are interpreted as
due to anticline folding and flexural slip, suggesting therefore their
precipitation during a diagenetic phase that post-dated the oil first
migration.
According to the presence of sulfates along the master thrust fault (cf.
Fig. 6), and the ordered (R1 and R3) mixed layer I–S documented for the
yellowish siltstones, a later hydrothermal fluid temperature ranging
from 150 to 190 ◦ C is assessed (Fulignati, 2020; Inoue et al., 2005). This
temperature range is in accordance with a wide FWHM of illite, which
suggests temperatures <200 ◦ C (Brockamp et al., 2015). Therefore, a
low temperature (<200 ◦ C) hydrothermal origin is envisioned for the
formation of barite minerals detected into the F5 veins (Hannington
et al., 1995; Tivey et al., 1999).
6. Conclusions
The data acquired in the frame of this study provides new insight into
the sedimentological, stratigraphic, and structural characterization of
the Upper Triassic rocks of the Egadian archipelago. This area was
interpreted as a surface analogue of the buried oil plays located offshore
northern Tunisia. Primary outcomes regard the sedimentary environ­
ment in which the organic matter was deposited, the role of fracture
stratigraphy in oil migration, and the burial depth estimation.
In particular, the following conclusions were achieved by the present
study:
• The study of Upper Triassic beds of yellowish siltstones and greyish
laminated dolomitic limestones shows that they were deposited in a
mixed carbonate-siliciclastic environment characterised by a coastal
lagoon, part of a wide carbonate platform, periodically subjected to a
reflux regime. Anoxic bottom conditions in the lagoon allowed the
preservation of organic matter between laminae and in patches.
14
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
• This stacking pattern resulted in significantly different mechanical
properties along the studied succession and, thus, controlled the
development of a fracture stratigraphy peculiar of each lithofacies. In
particular, five set of fractures and veins labelled as F1 to F5 ac­
cording to their relative age of formation were recognized in the
dolomitic limestone lithofacies. Differently, the yellowish siltstones
do not include any persistent fracture set.
• F1 and F2 are orthogonal fracture and vein sets. The oldest sets
which formed during burial diagenesis, played the role of hydraulic
conduits for oil first migration, which likely occurred during the
onset of Miocene compressional tectonics. Differently, calcite cement
in F3 and F4 fracture ad vein sets formed during later diagenetic
phases related to deep-seated thrusting and flexural-slip folding. F5
fractures and veins postdate all previous sets, and formed during
recent transtensional faulting of the whole Favignana Island. Barite
cement filling the F5 veins is consistent with a low temperature
(<200 ◦ C) hydrothermal origin, as confirmed by detected R1 and R3
mixed-layer I–S.
• The bulk diagenetic evolution can be summarised into three phases.
The first phase, in a shallow burial environment, results in the
pervasive dolomitisation by reflux regime. The second phase
occurred in a deep burial environment that allowed the maturation
of oil. A later diagenetic stage is related to a low temperature
(<200 ◦ C) hydrothermal fluid circulation testified by the precipita­
tion of barite minerals.
In light of these conclusions, the Favignana Island and the whole
Egadi archipelago of western Sicily, Italy, could represent a surface
analogue of central Mediterranean petroleum plays. In fact, the detailed
characterisation of the fracture stratigraphy and infill (kerogene,
mineralization) could provide very useful information to better under­
stand the modalities, timing, and burial conditions of oil first migration
in the Triassic source rocks.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
Data and results of this work were carried out with the financial
support of University of Palermo (R4D14-P5F5RISS_MARGINE) granted
to PDS and Reservoir Characterization Project granted to FA and ET. We
thank Prof. Luca Martire (University of Turin) for the opportunity to use
the experimental equipment for CL observation. We acknowledge the
reviewers for comments that improved an earlier version of the manu­
script, and editor for handling our submission.
References
Abate, B., Ferruzza, G., Incandela, A., Renda, P., 1995. Tettonica Trascorrente Nelle Isole
Egadi (Sicilia Occidentale).
Abate, B., Incandela, A., Renda, P., 1997. Carta Geologica delle Isole di Favignana e
Levanzo.
Allmendinger, R.W., Cardozo, N., Fisher, D.M., 2011. Structural Geology Algorithms:
Vectors and Tensors, Structural Geology Algorithms: Vectors and Tensors.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/
CBO9780511920202.
Bai, T., Maerten, L., Gross, M.R., Aydin, A., 2002. Orthogonal cross joints: do they imply
a regional stress rotation? J. Struct. Geol. 24, 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0191-8141(01)00050-5.
Bai, T., Pollard, D.D., 2000. Fracture spacing in layered rocks: a new explanation based
on the stress transition. J. Struct. Geol. 22, 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-
8141(99)00137-6.
Bjørlykke, K., 2010. Introduction to petroleum geology. In: Petroleum Geoscience.
Springer, pp. 1–26.
S. Todaro et al.
Brantut, N., Schubnel, A., Rouzaud, J., Brunet, F., Shimamoto, T., 2008. High-velocity
frictional properties of a clay-bearing fault gouge and implications for earthquake
mechanics. J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth 113.
Brockamp, O., Schlegel, A., Wemmer, K., 2015. Complex hydrothermal alteration and
illite K–Ar ages in Upper Visean molasse sediments and magmatic rocks of the
Variscan Badenweiler-Lenzkirch suture zone, Black Forest, Germany. Int. J. Earth
Sci. 104, 683–702.
Cardozo, N., Allmendinger, R.W., Morgan, J.K., 2005. Influence of mechanical
stratigraphy and initial stress state on the formation of two fault propagation folds.
J. Struct. Geol. 27, 1954–1972.
Casero, P., 2004. Structural setting of petroleum exploration plays in Italy. Spec. Vol.
Italian Geol. Soc. IGC 32, 189–199.
Casero, P., Bigi, S., 2013. Structural setting of the Adriatic basin and the main related
petroleum exploration plays. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 42, 135–147.
Catalano, R., di Stefano, P., Nigro, F., Vitale, F.P., 1993. Sicily mainland and its offshore:
a structural comparison. Geol. dev. Sicilian–Tunisian Platform. UNESCO Rep. Mar.
Sci. 58, 19–24.
Cavalcante, F., Belviso, C., Laurita, S., Prosser, G., 2012. PT constraints from
phyllosilicates of the Liguride Complex of the Pollino area (Southern Apennines,
Italy): geological inferences. Ofioliti 37, 65–75.
Cavalcante, F., Fiore, S., Lettino, A., Piccarreta, G., Tateo, F., 2007. Illite-Smectite mixed
layer in Sicilide shales and piggy-back deposits of the Gorgoglione Formation
(Southern Apennines): geological inferences. Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 126, 241–254.
Cesarano, M., Bish, D.L., Cappelletti, P., Cavalcante, F., Belviso, C., Fiore, S., 2018.
Quantitative mineralogy of clay-rich siliciclastic landslide terrain of the Sorrento
Peninsula, Italy, using a combined XRPD and XRF approach. Clay Clay Miner. 66,
353–369.
Cooke, M.L., 1997. Predicting fracture localization in folded strata from mechanical
stratigraphy and fold shape: case study of East Kaibab Monocline, Utah. Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. 34, 56-e1.
Corradetti, A., Tavani, S., Russo, M., Arbués, P.C., Granado, P., 2017. Quantitative
analysis of folds by means of orthorectified photogrammetric 3D models: a case
study from Mt. Catria, Northern Apennines, Italy. Photogramm. Rec. 32, 480–496.
https://doi.org/10.1111/phor.12212.
Davis, J.C., Sampson, R.J., 1986. Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology. Wiley, New
York.
Dickson, J.A.D., 1966. Carbonate identification and genesis as revealed by staining.
J. Sediment. Res. 36, 491–505.
Ferrill, D.A., Evans, M.A., McGinnis, R.N., Morris, A.P., Smart, K.J., Wigginton, S.S.,
Gulliver, K.D.H., Lehrmann, D., de Zoeten, E., Sickmann, Z., 2017. Fault zone
processes in mechanically layered mudrock and chalk. J. Struct. Geol. 97, 118–143.
Fisher, R., 1953. Dispersion on a sphere. In: Proceedings of the Royal Society A:
Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, vol. 217, pp. 295–305. https://
doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1953.0064.
Flügel, E., 2004. Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks: Analysis, Interpretation and
Application. Springer Science & Business Media.
Frost, E.L., Kerans, C., 2010. Controls on syndepositional fracture patterns, Devonian reef
complexes, Canning Basin, Western Australia. J. Struct. Geol. 32, 1231–1249.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2009.04.019.
Fulignati, P., 2020. Clay minerals in hydrothermal systems. Minerals 10, 919.
Gale, J.F.W., Laubach, S.E., Olson, J.E., Eichhubl, P., Fall, A., 2017. Natural fractures in
shale: a review and new observations. AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 101,
2165–2216. https://doi.org/10.1306/08121413151.
Gasparo Morticelli, M., Sulli, A., Agate, M., 2016. Sea–land geology of Marettimo (Egadi
Islands, central Mediterranean sea). J. Maps 12, 1093–1103. https://doi.org/
10.1080/17445647.2015.1127858.
Giuffrida, A., Agosta, F., Castelluccio, P., Panza, E., la Bruna, V., Rustichelli, A., Tondi, E.,
Eriksson, M., Torrieri, S., Giorgioni, M., 2019. Fracture stratigraphy and DFN
modelling of tight carbonates, the case study of Monte Alpi (southern Italy). In: Fifth
International Conference on Fault and Top Seals. https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-
4609.201902348.
Giuffrida, A., Agosta, F., Rustichelli, A., Panza, E., la Bruna, V., Eriksson, M., Torrieri, S.,
Giorgioni, M., 2020. Fracture stratigraphy and DFN modelling of tight carbonates,
the case study of the Lower Cretaceous carbonates exposed at the Monte Alpi
(Basilicata, Italy). Mar. Petrol. Geol. 112, 104045.
Giunta, G., Luzio, D., Agosta, F., Calò, M., di Trapani, F., Giorgianni, A., Oliveri, E.,
Orioli, S., Perniciaro, M., Vitale, M., Chiodi, M., Adelfio, G., 2009. An integrated
approach to investigate the seismotectonics of northern Sicily and southern
Tyrrhenian. Tectonophysics 476, 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tecto.2008.09.031.
Giunta, G., Luzio, D., Tondi, E., de Luca, L., Giorgianni, A., D’Anna, G., Renda, P.,
Cello, G., Nigro, F., Vitale, M., 2004. The Palermo (Sicily) seismic cluster of
September 2002, in the seismotectonic framework of the Tyrrhenian Sea-Sicily
border area. Ann. Geophys. 47, 1755–1770. https://doi.org/10.4401/ag-3373.
Giunta, G., Nigro, F., Renda, P., 2000. Extensional tectonics during Maghrebides chain
building since late Miocene: examples from Northern Sicily. Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol. 70,
81–98.
Gross, M.R., 1995. Fracture partitioning: failure mode as a function of lithology in the
Monterey Formation of coastal California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 107, 779–792.
Gueguen, E., Tavarnelli, E., Renda, P., Tramutoli, M., 2002. The geodynamics of the
southern Tyrrhenian Sea margin as revealed by integrated geological, geophysical
and geodetic data. Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 1, 77–85.
Gugliotta, C., Gasparo Morticelli, M., 2012. Using high-resolution stratigraphy and
structural analysis to constrain polyphase tectonics in wedge-top basins: inferences
from the late Tortonian Scillato Basin (central-northern Sicily). Sediment. Geol. 273
(274), 30–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.06.009.
15
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
Hannington, M.D., Jonasson, I.R., Herzig, P.M., Petersen, S., 1995. Physical and chemical
processes of seafloor mineralization at mid-ocean ridges. Seafloor Hydrother. Syst.:
Phys. Chem. Biol. Geol. Interact. 91, 115–157.
Holland, M., Urai, J.L., van der Zee, W., Stanjek, H., Konstanty, J., 2006. Fault gouge
evolution in highly overconsolidated claystones. J. Struct. Geol. 28, 323–332.
Horsrud, P., Sønstebø, E.F., Bøe, R., 1998. Mechanical and petrophysical properties of
North Sea shales. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 35, 1009–1020.
Inoue, A., Lanson, B., Marques-Fernandes, M., Sakharov, B.A., Murakami, T.,
Meunier, A., Beaufort, D., 2005. Illite-smectite mixed-layer minerals in the
hydrothermal alteration of volcanic rocks: I. One-dimensional XRD structure analysis
and characterization of component layers. Clay Clay Miner. 53, 423–439.
Jackson, M.L., 1969. Soil Chemical Analysis-Advanced Course. Soil Chemical Analysis-
Advanced Course.
Kamb, W.B., 1959. Ice petrofabric observations from Blue Glacier, Washington, in
relation to theory and experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 64, 1891–1909. https://doi.org/
10.1029/JZ064i011p01891.
Kobchenko, M., Panahi, H., Renard, F., Dysthe, D.K., Malthe-Srenssen, A., Mazzini, A.,
Scheibert, J., Jamtveit, B., Meakin, P., 2011. 4D imaging of fracturing in organic-rich
shales during heating. J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth 116, 1–9. https://doi.org/
10.1029/2011JB008565.
Krumm, S., 1999. The Erlangen geological and mineralogical software collection.
Comput. Geosci. 25, 489–499.
la Bruna, V., Agosta, F., Lamarche, J., Viseur, S., Prosser, G., 2018. Fault growth
mechanisms and scaling properties in foreland basin system: the case study of Monte
Alpi, Southern Apennines, Italy. J. Struct. Geol. 116, 94–113.
la Bruna, V., Lamarche, J., Agosta, F., Rustichelli, A., Giuffrida, A., Salardon, R.,
Marié, L., 2020. Structural diagenesis of shallow platform carbonates: role of early
embrittlement on fracture setting and distribution, case study of Monte Alpi
(Southern Apennines, Italy). J. Struct. Geol. 131, 103940.
Laubach, S.E., Eichhubl, P., Hilgers, C., Lander, R.H., 2010. Structural diagenesis.
J. Struct. Geol. 32, 1866–1872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2010.10.001.
Laubach, S.E., Olson, J.E., Cross, M.R., 2009a. Mechanical and fracture stratigraphy.
AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 93, 1413–1426. https://doi.org/10.1306/
07270909094.
Laubach, S.E., Olson, J.E., Cross, M.R., 2009b. Mechanical and fracture stratigraphy.
AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 93, 1413–1426. https://doi.org/10.1306/
07270909094.
Lavenu, A.P.C., Lamarche, J., 2018. What controls diffuse fractures in platform
carbonates? Insights from Provence (France) and Apulia (Italy). J. Struct. Geol. 108,
94–107.
Leoni, L., Lezzerini, M., Saitta, M., 2008. Calcolo computerizzato dell’analisi
mineralogica quantitativa di rocce e sedimenti argillosi basato sulla combinazione
dei dati chimici e diffrattometrici. Atti Soc. tosc. Sci. nat., Mem., Serie A 113, 63–69.
Leoni, L., Saitta, M., Sartori, F., 1989. Analisi mineralogica quantitativa di rocce e
sedimenti pelitici mediante combinazione di dati diffrattometrici e dati chimici.
Rend. Soc. It. Mineral. Petrol. 43, 743–756.
Mattavelli, L., Pieri, M., Groppi, G., 1993. Petroleum exploration in Italy: a review. Mar.
Petrol. Geol. 10, 410–425.
Merriman, R.J., 2005. Clay minerals and sedimentary basin history. Eur. J. Mineral 17.
https://doi.org/10.1127/0935-1221/2005/0017-0007.
Moore, D.M., Reynolds Jr., R.C., 1989. X-ray Diffraction and the Identification and
Analysis of Clay Minerals. Oxford University Press (OUP) (chapter 8).
Nigro, F., Renda, P., 2000. Un modello di evoluzione tettono-sedimentaria dell’avanfossa
Neogenica Siciliana. Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 119, 667–686.
Oppo, D., Capozzi, R., Picotti, V., 2013. A new model of the petroleum system in the
Northern Apennines, Italy. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 48, 57–76.
Ortoleva, P., Auchmuty, G., Chadam, J., Hettmer, J., Merino, E., Moore, C.H., Ripley, E.,
1986. Redox front propagation and banding modalities. Phys. Nonlinear Phenom.
19, 334–354.
Ougier-Simonin, A., Renard, F., Boehm, C., Vidal-Gilbert, S., 2016. Microfracturing and
microporosity in shales. Earth Sci. Rev. 162, 198–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
earscirev.2016.09.006.
Panahi, H., Kobchenko, M., Renard, F., Mazzini, A., Scheibert, J., Dysthe, D.,
Jamtveit, B., Malthe-Sorenssen, A., Meakin, P., 2013. A 4D synchrotron X-ray-
tomography study of the formation of hydrocarbon-migration pathways in heated
organic-rich shale. SPE J. 18, 366–377.
Panza, E., Agosta, F., Rustichelli, A., Vinciguerra, S.C., Ougier-Simonin, A., Dobbs, M.,
Prosser, G., 2019. Meso-to-microscale fracture porosity in tight limestones, results of
an integrated field and laboratory study. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 103, 581–595.
Panza, E., Agosta, F., Rustichelli, A., Zambrano, M., Tondi, E., Prosser, G., Giorgioni, M.,
Janiseck, J.M., 2016. Fracture stratigraphy and fluid flow properties of shallow-
water, tight carbonates: the case study of the Murge Plateau (southern Italy). Mar.
Petrol. Geol. 73, 350–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.03.022.
Papazzoni, C.A., Trevisani, E., 2006. Facies analysis, palaeoenvironmental
reconstruction, and biostratigraphy of the “Pesciara di Bolca”(Verona, northern
Italy): an early Eocene Fossil-Lagerstätte. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.
242, 21–35.
Pepe, F., Bertotti, G., Cella, F., Marsella, E., 2000. Rifted margin formation in the south
Tyrrhenian Sea: a high-resolution seismic profile across the north Sicily passive
continental margin. Tectonics 19, 241–257. https://doi.org/10.1029/
1999TC900067.
Price, L.C., Dyman, T.S., Rice, D.D., Westcott, P.A., 1997. Minimum thermal stability
levels and controlling parameters of methane, as determined by C15+ hydrocarbon
thermal stabilities. Geologic controls of deep natural gas resources in the United
States: US Geol. Surv. Bull. 2146, 135–176.
S. Todaro et al.
Renda, P., Tavarnelli, E., Tramutoli, M., 1999. La distensione tetidea ed il suo controllo
sulle strutture compressive delsistema appenninico-maghrebide: l’esempio dei monti
delle madonie (sicilia centro-settentrionale. Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 118, 179–190.
Schwark, L., Ferretti, A., Papazzoni, C.A., Trevisani, E., 2009. Organic geochemistry and
paleoenvironment of the early Eocene “Pesciara di Bolca” Konservat-Lagerstätte.
Italy. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 273, 272–285.
Selley, R.C., 1998. Elements of Petroleum Geology. Gulf Professional Publishing.
Shackleton, J.R., Cooke, M.L., Sussman, A.J., 2005. Evidence for temporally changing
mechanical stratigraphy and effects on joint-network architecture. Geology 33,
101–104.
Środoń, J., Drits, V.A., McCarty, D.K., Hsieh, J.C.C., Eberl, D.D., 2001. Quantitative X-ray
diffraction analysis of clay-bearing rocks from random preparations. Clay Clay
Miner. 49, 514–528.
Tavani, S., Storti, F., Lacombe, O., Corradetti, A., Muñoz, J.A., Mazzoli, S., 2015.
A review of deformation pattern templates in foreland basin systems and fold-and-
thrust belts: implications for the state of stress in the frontal regions of thrust wedges.
Earth Sci. Rev. 141, 82–104.
Tavarnelli, E., Renda, P., Pasqui, V., Tramutoli, M., 2003a. Composite structures
resulting from negative inversion : an example from the Isle of Favignana ( Egadi
Islands ). Boll. Soc. Geol. It. 122, 319–325.
Tavarnelli, E., Renda, P., Pasqui, V., Tramutoli, M., 2003b. The effects of post-orogenic
extension on different scales: an example from the Apennine-Maghrebide fold-and-
thrust belt, SW Sicily. Terra. Nova 15, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-
3121.2003.00466.x.
Teixeira, M.G., Donzé, F., Renard, F., Panahi, H., Papachristos, E., Scholtès, L., 2017.
Microfracturing during primary migration in shales. Tectonophysics 694, 268–279.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2016.11.010.
16
Marine and Petroleum Geology 135 (2022) 105400
Tivey, M.K., Stakes, D.S., Cook, T.L., Hannington, M.D., Petersen, S., 1999. A model for
growth of steep-sided vent structures on the Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca
Ridge: results of a petrologic and geochemical study. J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth
104, 22859–22883.
Todaro, S., Hollis, C., di Stefano, P., 2016. Spongy-like porosity in peritidal carbonates:
an interaction of cyclic sea-level oscillations, fresh water supply and sediment
texture. Sediment. Geol. 333, 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sedgeo.2015.12.005.
Tondi, E., 2007. Nucleation, development and petrophysical properties of faults in
carbonate grainstones: evidence from the San Vito Lo Capo peninsula (Sicily, Italy).
J. Struct. Geol. 29, 614–628.
Tondi, E., Cilona, A., Agosta, F., Aydin, A., Rustichelli, A., Renda, P., Giunta, G., 2012.
Growth processes, dimensional parameters and scaling relationships of two
conjugate sets of compactive shear bands in porous carbonate grainstones,
Favignana Island, Italy. J. Struct. Geol. 37, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jsg.2012.02.003.
Tondi, E., Zampieri, D., Giunta, G., Renda, P., Alessandroni, M., Unti, M., Giorgianni, A.,
Cello, G., 2006. Active faults and inferred seismic sources in the San Vito lo Capo
peninsula, northwestern Sicily, Italy. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 262, 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.262.01.22.
Warren, J., 2000. Dolomite: occurrence, evolution and economically important
associations. Earth Sci. Rev. 52, 1–81.
Wezel, F.-C., 1985. Structural features and basin tectonics of the Tyrrhenian Sea. In:
Geological Evolution of the Mediterranean Basin. Springer, pp. 153–194.