This PDF is from AAPG Memoir 117, which can be purchased at

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10
McClay, Ken, Nicola Scarselli, Javier Tamara, James Hammerstein, and Daniel
Torres, 2018, Structural styles of the Camisea fold-and-thrust belt, southeast
Peru, in G. Zamora, K. R. McClay, and V. A. Ramos, eds., Petroleum basins and
hydrocarbon potential of the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: AAPG Memoir 117,
p. 271–296.

Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-

Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru
Ken McClay, Nicola Scarselli, Javier Tamara, and James Hammerstein
Fault Dynamics Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London,
Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, United Kingdom (e-mails: k.mcclay@es.rhul.ac.uk; Nicola.Scarselli@rhul.
ac.uk; Javier.TamaraGuevara.2013@live.rhul.ac.uk; j.a.hammerstein@rhul.ac.uk)

Daniel Torres
Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico. Av. Canadá 1470 San Borja, Lima, Peru (e-mail: dtorres@
ingemmet.gob.pe)

ABSTRACT
The Camisea multi-trillion cubic feet (tcf) gas and condensate fields are located at the south-
ern edge of the Ucayali Basin of southeastern Peru. The Ordovician to Neogene sedimen-
tary succession was deformed by late Miocene to Present Day contraction related to the
Peruvian flat-slab subduction regime. This produced thin-skinned, north-northeast-vergent
thrust-fault-related folds that form the traps of the Camisea fields. The architecture of the
frontal thin-skinned thrust system is characterized by a faulted detachment fold system
at Cashiriari and a gently dipping north-northeast-vergent thrust ramp system and asso-
ciated kink-band hanging-wall anticlines and back-thrusts at San Martin. At San ­Martin,
these form brittle thrust wedge systems that terminate in triangle zones in the Paleogene–­
Neogene strata of the foreland basin at the leading edge of the fold-and-thrust belt. The
basal detachment of the thin-skinned system is located at the top of the Ordovician–­
Silurian synrift sequence and at the base of the Devono–Mississippian postrift units. Steep
­Ordovician–Silurian extensional faults offset the basement and form half-graben structures
that influence the ­topography of the postrift strata and the basal detachment geometry. The
Cashiriari Anticline is modeled as gentle inversion fault-propagation fold at the early stages
of the Andean deformation and then was amplified forming a detachment fold during the
late Miocene to Present Day phase of strong contraction. Small displacement limb-break
thrusts displace the Cashiriari fold limbs. In contrast, the San Martin fault-fold system is
modeled as a simple shear fault-bend fold that forms a wedge thrust and a triangle zone.
The San Martin folds are hanging-wall kink-band-style fault-bend systems where the posi-
tions of the underlying thrust ramps were controlled by the basement fault systems and the
topography of the postrift units.

Copyright ©2018 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

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 272 McClay et al.
The hinterland of the Camisea frontal thin-
skinned fold-and-thrust belt is interpreted to be
a system of large inverted basement fault blocks
that were uplifted and exhumed as the Andean
deformation moved outboard from the hinterland
to the foreland and transferred displacement onto
the thin-skinned sedimentary wedge at the edge
of the basin. This study shows how the underly-
ing basement fault architectures and rift basin ge-
ometries can control the styles of the thin-skinned
­Andean deformation in the sub-Andean system.
INTRODUCTION
The Camisea gas and condensate fields occur in the
sub-Andean frontal fold-and-thrust belt in southeast
Peru. Discovered by Shell in 1984 (Van Geuns, 1997),
the fields have total reserves of ∼ 15 tcf in multi-
ple stacked Mesozoic reservoirs located in four major
thrust fault-related folds, of which the Cashiriari and
San Martin structures are the most important (Espurt et
al., 2011). They remained undeveloped until 2003 when
Pluspetrol took over the fields and began produc-
ing the condensate. The Camisea Basin occurs in the
highly forested and low relief foothills on the western
edge of the Amazonian basin making exploration and
exploitation difficult. Two-dimensional seismic surveys
were conducted in the area between 1984 and 1996,
and a 3-D survey was acquired over the two main gas-­
condensate fields in 1984. Seismic quality is variable
and detail at depth is problematical. The Camisea Basin
forms the western edge of the Ucayali foreland basin
of the sub-Andean system. Strata range in age from
the Early Paleozoic through Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
The Paleozoic strata of the Andean cordillera under-
went extensional deformation in the Late Proterozoic–
Early Cambrian, in the Late Ordovician–Silurian, and a
well-documented phase of Triassic rifting (Ramos et al.,
2004; Perez et al., 2016; Horton, 2018). Andean contrac-
tional deformation was initiated in the Late Cretaceous
with the east-northeast subduction of the Nazca plate
beneath western South America (Ramos et al., 2002,
2004; Ramos, 2009). From the Late Cretaceous to the
Present Day, the contractional deformation migrated
eastward with the last phase of deformation in the
late Miocene from ∼6 Ma to Present Day in the eastern
frontal fold-and-thrust belt (Espurt et al., 2008, 2011;
Ramos, 2009, 2010; Mora et al., 2014; Horton, 2018).
Previous studies of the Camisea structures have in-
terpreted dominantly thin-skinned thrusting involv-
ing simple kink-band fault-bend fold styles without
significant basement influence (cf. Gil Rodriguez et al.,
2001; Espurt et al., 2008, 2011). In contrast Torres (2012)
and Torres and McClay (2014) proposed a stronger
13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 272
basement influence, particularly in the hinterland
with inversion of preexisting basement-involved
­extensional faults that drove the frontal thin-skinned
thrust structures. Basement uplift on inverted steep
extensional faults has been well documented in the
sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belts of South America
particularly in the Sierras Pampeanas in northwest
Argentina (Zapata and Allmendinger, 1996; Ramos,
2009) and in the frontal sectors of the Neuquén Basin
in western Argentina (Manceda and Figueroa, 1995;
Zamora et al., 2006; Giambiagi et al., 2009; Zamora
and Zapata, 2015; Fuentes et al., 2016).
Transfer of displacement from basement uplift
on steep inverted faults (e.g., thick-skinned thrust
deformation) onto thin-skinned thrust systems de-
tached above the basement in the foreland is lim-
ited by the dip of the inverted basement fault. On
inverted steep basement faults (dips of 45–65°),
most of the deformation is uplift and there is lim-
ited horizontal shortening of only a few kilometers
in the frontal thin-skinned thrust system (see exam-
ples from the Neuquén B ­ asin, Argentina; Giambiagi
et al., 2009; ­Ramos, 2009; Zamora and Zapata, 2015).
­B asement-cored uplifts commonly produce fron-
tal triangle zones and wedge thrust systems in the
transition from thick- to thin-skinned thrust styles
(e.g., Mount et al., 2011). ­B asement structural con-
trols have been invoked in many orogenic belts (see
review by Lacombe and Bellahsen, 2016), from the
Alps (Pfiffner, 2016) to the Pyrenees (Muñoz, 1992,
2002), the Apennines (Butler et al., 2004), Papua New
Guinea (Hill et al., 2004), as well as in the Sierras
Pampeanas (Ramos, 2009) and at the western margin
of the Neuquén Basin in Argentina (e.g., ­Giambiagi
et al., 2009; Zamora and Zapata, 2015; Fuentes et al.,
2016). Figure 1 summarizes the possible structural
geometries formed by a thick-skinned basement
thrust linking to thin-skinned s­ upra-basement thrust
systems. Basement fault systems underlying thin-
skinned fold-and-thrust belts may also produce
thickness variations and variable topography at the
decollement levels—for example, developed during
the postextensional thermal sag phase above rift
systems—and hence control the geometries and ramp
­locations of later overlying thin-skinned structures.
This chapter focuses on the structural styles of the
Camisea fold-and-thrust fault systems in southeast
Peru (Figure 2) and in particular on the relationships
with deeper, basement fault systems. This research
builds upon the M.Sc. thesis of Daniel Torres (­ Torres,
2012) and the subsequent conference presentation of
Torres and McClay (2014). Seismic data were reimaged
using amplitude and attribute displays and reinter-
preted with a focus on defining structures as well as
detachment levels and key stratal relationships.
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 Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  273

Figure 1. Geometric models for the evolution of a single inverted basement extensional fault illustrating three poten-
tial pathways for characteristic inversion geometries found in thick-skinned fold-and-thrust belts. A. Initial inversion of
a steep basement-involved extensional fault inversion (contraction < extension) produces reactivation and uplift of
the hanging-wall with the formation of a fault-propagation fold and steepening of the extensional fault. B. Increased
contraction with the amplification of the inversion fault-propagation fold and formation of footwall short-cut faults
to ­develop a frontal, basement-involved imbricate fan where contraction exceeds extension. C. Increased contraction
with the formation of a footwall shortcut fault in the basement linking to a thin-skinned frontal imbricate fan detached
above the basement. D. Increased contraction where the inverted extensional fault produces a basement cored anti-
cline and triangle zone linking to a thin-skinned imbricate fan detached above basement.

REGIONAL TECTONIC HISTORY
Plate Tectonic Setting
The Camisea Basin and the research area occur in the
external sector of the sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt
in southeast Peru (Figure 2) above the Present Day,
Peruvian flat-slab subduction regime (Gutscher et al.,
1999, 2000; Ramos, 2009). Regional east-northeast-di-
rected contraction was generated by the N ∼70°E
subduction of the Nazca plate beneath western South
America from the Late Cretaceous to the Present Day
(Figure 2; cf. reviews by Ramos, 2009, 2010; Ramos
and Folguera, 2009). Subduction and overriding of
the Nazca Ridge have led to the uplift of the Fitzcar-
rald Arch that forms a prominent low-relief broad
topographic high that extends into the foreland Ucay-
ali Basin in front of the sub-Andean fold-and-thrust
belt (Figure 2). The Andean cordillera ranges from
∼250 km 1155 mi2 wide in the northern part of Peru
to ∼4502500 km 12802310 mi2 wide in southeastern
Peru. It consists of the prominent central Andean vol-
canic plateau at around 4 km (2.5 mi) elevation above
sea level, and, in places, volcanic complexes have ele-
vations greater than 6 km (3.7 mi) above sea level (Fig-
ures 2, 3a). The western part of the Andean cordillera
slopes steeply into the forearc basin along the Peru-
vian coastal region whereas the eastern sector of the
cordillera is characterized by the eroded and dissected
Eastern Cordillera and sub-Andean fold-and-thrust
belt that slopes steeply northeastward into the Ucayali
foreland basin (Figures 2, 3a).

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 274 McClay et al.

Figure 2. Regional tectonic features and location of the Camisea Basin in southeast Peru. High elevations greater than
4 km (2.5 mi; reds to purple colors in the DEM) is the Andean Plateau. The Camisea Basin is located on the eastern
flanks of the Andean Cordillera in the southern part of the Ucayali Basin. 11 km 5 0.62 mi2.

Regional Tectonics and Evolution of the Camisea Basin
The Camisea Basin is bounded by the Ucayali foreland
basin to the north and northeast, the Otishi Cordil-
lera in the west, and the Madre de Dios Basin in the
south (Figures 2, 3a). The dominant strike of struc-
tures to the north of Camisea are northwest–­southeast
to north-northwest–south-southeast, whereas near
Camisea they change in to an almost east–west orien-
tation and to the southeast turn back to a northwest–­
southeast orientation in the Madre de Dios Basin
(Figure 3). This bend coincides with the imbricated
and curved Armihauri Complex and is probably
associated with the uplift caused by the overridden
Nazca Ridge and the formation of the Fitzcarrald Arch
(Figures 2, 3a; Roperch et al., 2006).
The stratigraphy of the Camisea Basin in this south-
ern part of the Ucayali Basin ranges in age from the
Lower Paleozoic to Late Ordovician and Silurian clas-
tics through Mesozoic sections of clastics and carbon-
ates to Paleogene and Neogene syn-kinematic clastics
produced by uplift and erosion of the fold-and-thrust

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 Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  275

(A)

(B)

Figure 3. A. Digital elevation model of the southern Peruvian Andes, the Eastern Cordillera, the Otah Cordillera, the
Armihuari Complex, the Ucayali Basin, and the Camisea Basin. The locations of the 2-D and 3-D seismic data used in
this study are also shown. B. Structural map of the Camisea Basin area (after Torres, 2012; Torres and McClay, 2014).
The locations of Figures 5, 6, 9 are also shown. 11 km 5 0.62 mi2.

13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 275 11/03/18 9:37 AM

 276 McClay et al.
belt of the Eastern Cordillera (Espurt et al., 2008,
2011). In the Camisea Basin the surface outcrops of the
­Paleozoic and Mesozoic stratigraphy are mainly lim-
ited to river sections and the deeper Lower Paleozoic
units are mainly interpreted from seismic sections.
Late Ordovician–Silurian Extension
The oldest event observed in the subsurface studies of
the southern Ucayali Basin are extensional faults and
associated Late Ordovician–Silurian growth strata
potentially related to back-arc extension associated
with a proposed Early to Middle Ordovician magmatic
arc in the Eastern Cordillera (Gohrbandt, 1992; Chew
et al., 2007; Ramos, 2009). This extensional event may
have reactivated even older extensional faults related to
the collision and rift episodes along the old continental
margin as a result of changes in the absolute motions of
Gondwana and global plate reorganizations during the
Proterozoic to the Early Paleozoic (Ramos, 2009).
Triassic Rifting
Widespread Triassic extension has been identified
throughout much of western South America with clas-
tic-filled rift basins (Ramos, 2009). This rift event has
been identified in the northern sub-Andean basins and
in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru (Sempere et al., 2002)
with the formation of deep rift basins infilled with up
to 3 km (1.8 mi) of Mitu Group volcano-clastics dated
at 242–233 Ma (Perez et al., 2016; Spikings et al., 2016).
This Triassic rift faulting, however, is not observed in
the 3-D seismic data or on 2-D seismic lines across the
Camisea Basin (Gil Rodriguez et al., 2001; Espurt et al.,
2011), and the synrift volcano-clastic deposits of the
Triassic Mitu Group are absent. In the Camisea region
of the southern Ucayali Basin, there was only deposi-
tion of condensed stratigraphy compared to the thicker
sections in hanging-walls of Triassic half grabens as
found in the Ene Basin to the northwest (Espurt et al.,
2008) and to the south in the Eastern Cordillera (Perez
et al., 2016; Horton, 2018). Jurassic postrift strata of the
Pucara and Sarayaquillo Formations were deposited
in the Ene Basin to the northwest of Camisea but are
absent in the Otishi Cordillera, the Shira Mountains,
and the Camisea Basin (e.g., Espurt et al., 2008). Where
absent they were most likely not deposited or eroded
as a consequence of synrift and postrift uplift of the
western margin of the Ene Basin or eroded as the Late
Cretaceous contractional deformation occurred. The
regional unconformity at the base of the Upper Creta-
ceous (Figure 4) indicates uplift and exhumation at the
onset of subduction of the Nazca plate (Ramos, 2009).
13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 276
Sub-Andean Contraction
The Mesozoic to Present Day Andean deformation
began in the Late Cretaceous with the onset of the
east-northeast subduction of the Nazca plate beneath
South America coupled with the opening of the South
Atlantic that moved the South American plate to the
northwest (Ramos, 2009, 2010; Ramos and Folguera,
2009). Episodic periods of contractional tectonics
resulted from periods of rapid, almost orthogonal
convergence and subduction (Horton, 2018). Gutscher
et al. (2000), Ramos (2009, 2010), Ramos and ­Folguera
(2009), and Horton (2018) have emphasized the
importance of flat-slab subduction on the eastward
­m igration and growth of the Andes particularly
through the reactivation and inversion of preexisting
structures and the development of major basement
uplifts forming “broken forelands” such as the Sierras
Pampeanas.
Recent studies have indicated that the formation
of basement cored uplifts during the Oligocene–Early
Miocene “broken foreland” stage to the east of the
uplifted Andean plateau produced high subsidence
rates and deep, clastic-filled, sedimentary basins prior
to the late Miocene to Pliocene deformation and thin-
skinned thrusting in the eastern foreland (DeCelles
and Horton, 2003; Hermoza et al., 2005; Chung et
al., 2006; Espurt et al., 2008, 2011; Roddaz et al., 2010;
­Horton, 2018).
The Camisea Basin lies above the southernmost
part of the large, Present Day, Peruvian flat-slab that
initiated at ∼11 Ma (Gutscher et al., 1999, 2000; Ramos,
2009; Ramos and Folguera, 2009). Recent thermochro-
nometric studies including apatite fission track anal-
ysis have shown that the Camisea Basin underwent
uplift and exhumation in the Late Cretaceous and
in the Neogene with the dominantly thin-skinned
thrusting having occurred over the last ∼6 Ma (Espurt
et al., 2011; Gautheron et al., 2013). Using balanced
section methodologies, Espurt et al. (2011) calculated
∼23 km 114.2 mi2 of horizontal thin-skinned shortening
across the Camisea Basin.
STRUCTURE OF THE CAMISEA BASIN
The four main thrust-related structures in the
­C amisea Basin are the San Martin, Cashiriari,
­Pagoreni, and Mipaya fold systems (Figures 3b, 5).
The ­hanging-walls of these structures form the main
traps for the Camisea gas-condensate accumulations.
The stratigraphic section of the Camisea 3-D Basin
summarized in Figure 4 shows nearly 8 km (5 mi) of
sedimentary strata above the basement (presumed
to be metamorphic and igneous units of Grenvillian
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 Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  277

Figure 4. Stratigraphic column for the Camisea 3-D modified from Torres (2012) and compiled from
Camisea well data. A total of ∼ 7.820 m 1∼ 25.656 ft2 of sedimentary section occurs above the basement of
which there is ∼ 2.900 m 1∼ 9.514 ft2 of Neogene to Recent sediments in the foreland ­basin. 11 m 5 3.28 ft2.

and Pampeanan age and possibly some Ordovician
arc-related intrusives (e.g., Ramos, 2009, 2010). The
late Paleocene and Neogene strata are likely to be
syn-contractional units deposited as the basement
deformation of the Eastern Cordillera transferred
eastward to thin-skinned thrusting in the strata above
the basement. However, the poor seismic quality
prevents detailed analysis of possible growth stratal
geometries particularly on the fold limbs. The pre-
thrusting units consist of ∼4.7 km 1∼2.9 mi2 of aniso-
tropic, interbedded sandstones and shales, siltstones,
and sandstones, with a 1.1 km (0.7 mi) thick section
of Upper Carboniferous to Permian carbonates and
shales (Figure 4).

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 278 McClay et al.

(A)

(B)

Figure 5. Regional cross sections across the Camisea Basin. A. Regional 2-D line A–A’ (location shown in Figure 3b)
showing extensional faulting in the basement with variable thicknesses of the Late Ordovician–Silurian strata. The
­syncline between the Cashiriari and the San Martin Anticlines is located above the Late Ordovician–Silurian rift half
­graben. B. Regional 2-D line B–B’ (location shown in Figure 3b) showing a simplified cross section with details of the
thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belt above the extensionally faulted basement. 11 km 5 0.62 mi2.

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 Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  279
2-D Structural Sections
Figure 5 shows two regional cross sections across the
Camisea Basin and the Camisea 3-D survey (locations
shown in Figure 3b). The seismic data are variable and
have very poor resolution where the underlying strata
are steeply dipping. Section A–A’ covers the Cashiriari
and San Martin anticlines and extends into the fore-
land of the Ucayali Basin (Figure 5a). The top of base-
ment shows an irregular topography, and a number of
extensional faults have been interpreted offsetting the
basement with significant increases in hanging-wall
thicknesses of the Late Ordovician–Silurian strata,
and at the northern end of the section, there is a clear
image of an inverted extensional fault with a promi-
nent inversion fault-propagation fold.
Figure 5a, b show the details of the thin-skinned
fold-and-thrust belt. The basal thrust detachment is in-
terpreted to be at the level of the upper part of the Late
Ordovician–Silurian strata, probably in the Silurian
shales or within parts of the Devonian units (Figure 4).
The broad synclines of Shihuayro and that between
the Cashiriari and San Martin anticlines are bound by
south-vergent back-thrusts and focused directly above
primary synclines formed in the hanging-walls of the
basement fault systems. The Timpia 1 and Timpia 2 an-
ticlines are tight detachment folds with rounded hinges
and with limbs breached by break thrusts (Figure 5b).
3-D Structural Sections
Five representative cross sections across the Cami-
sea 3-D volume over the Cashiriari and San Martin
anticlines are presented in Figure 6, and a 3-D view
is shown in Figure 7. In many places the 3-D seismic
data lack continuous reflectors at depth, and there is
no resolution of the steeply dipping strata on the fold
limbs. Attribute images including coherency, instan-
taneous phase and reflection strength were used to
reinterpret the seismic data. It was extremely difficult
to precisely locate the basal detachment unit above
the basement. In most sections it has been placed at
the top of the Ordovician–Silurian sequence, which
corresponds to the base of the Devono-Mississip-
pian Cabanillas Formation (Figure 6a–d); however, in
some sections it appears to be within the Ordovician–­
Silurian sequence (Figure 6e). The basal detachment
surface has an irregular topography following the
post Ordovician–Silurian strata draped over the rift
half grabens in the basement. Both north-northeast-­
vergent and south-southwest-vergent thrusts ramp up
section from the basal detachment surface (Figure 6).
The Cashiriari Anticline was formed above the slightly
13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 279
inverted extensional fault that forms the half-graben
under the Cashiriari–San Martin system (Figures 6, 7).
Here, there is thickening of the Devono-Mississippian
sequence and a back-thrust fault-propagation fold that
forms the Cashiriari Anticline. In Figure 6b an inverted
south-dipping extensional fault is interpreted to ele-
vate the basal detachment and the Cashiriari Anticline.
To the north, the basal detachment ramps up section
at the point where the south-dipping extensional
fault bounds the basement half graben (Figure 6a, b).
A series of small, south-vergent back-thrusts formed
above the ramp. Along strike to the west-northwest
(Figures 6c–e, 7), stacked wedge thrusts formed lead-
ing to a frontal triangle zone in the upper Paleogene–
Neogene growth strata at the leading edge of the San
Martin structure (Figure 6e).
FAULT-RELATED FOLD SYSTEMS
Figure 8 summarizes some of the key styles of the
Cashiriari and San Martin structures.
Extensional Fault Systems
Steeply dipping extensional faults that offset both the
top of basement and the Ordovician–Silurian strata
have been interpreted on both the 2-D and the 3-D
seismic lines (e.g., Figures 5, 6, 7, 8a). The ­Ordovician–
Silurian section shows thickening in half grabens
bounded, in particular, by north-dipping extensional
faults. The reflection strength image in Figure 8a
clearly shows a well-defined half graben and resultant
postextension topography in the prethrusting strata
between the Cashirairi and San Martin folds. The
topographic depression and the footwall sectors of the
extensional half grabens at the Ordovician–Silurian
level clearly influenced the thicknesses of the overlying
­Devonian-Mississippian units (Figure 7) such that the
geometries and changes in dip of the basal detachment
at the base of this sequence controlled the position of
both the Cashiriari detachment and fault-propagation
fold system as well as the ramp position of the San
Martin fault-bend fold system (Figures 6, 7).
Inversion Structures
Low-amplitude and subtle inversion structures have
been documented in the both the 2-D and 3-D seismic
data (Figures 5a, 6, 8a, b). Figure 8a shows an inter-
preted inverted south-dipping extensional fault that
forms a steep thrust that links upward to the basal
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(D)

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 284 McClay et al.

(E)

Figure 6. Representative seismic sections and interpretations, Camisea 3-D. Location of the sections are shown in
­Figure 3b. A. Line 401; B. Line 563; C. Line 726; D. Line 846; E. Line 1120. 11 km 5 0.62 mi2.

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13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 285

Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  285

Figure 7. 3-D oblique perspective view of the Camisea structure sections (Figure 6) showing along-strike variations in thicknesses and structural styles.
11 km 5 0.62 mi2.
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(C)

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 288 McClay et al.

(E)

Figure 8. Detail of faults and folds in the Camisea 3-D seismic data. A. Reflection strength image of part of the 3-D Line
563 showing extensional fault systems in the basement, the overlying basal detachment, and Cashiriari Anticline. The
basal detachment and Cashiriari Antlicine appear to be uplifted by a moderately south-dipping thrust fault (inverted ex-
tensional fault?). B. Grey scale plus high amplitude image of part of 2-D line UB 34a showing an inverted north-dipping
extensional fault and associated tip-line fault propagation fold in the foreland (Ucayali Basin). C. Amplitude image of
Camisea 3-D line 1200 showing a gently dipping thrust ramp that cuts up stratigraphic section in both the hanging-
wall and the footwall. The thrust fault terminates with a back-thrust forming the wedge thrust triangle zone of the San
Martin Anticline. D. Instantaneous phase image of the Timpia 1 and Timpia 2 folds in 2-D line PE96–24. The folds are
nearly symmetric with steep limbs with a narrow, poorly imaged core characteristic of detachment folds. Poorly resolved
growth strata occur in the syncline between the two folds. E. Amplitude image of 3-D line 1200 showing the Cashiriari
detachment fold system formed above the north-dipping extensional fault that offsets the basement. The thickening of
the strata above the basement offset and the thickening of the units in the core of the fold suggest a detachment fold
with minor offset of the northern limb by a break thrust. 11 km 5 0.62 mi2.

detachment. Figure 8b, to the north of main San Martin
fold system (Figure 5a), shows an inverted half-graben
system with an upward-widening fault-propagation
anticline with a steep front limb and a gently dipping
back limb. Although the seismic data quality is not
sufficient to distinguish subtle, syn-inversion growth
stratal packages, the inversion fold widens upward
and extends to the top of the seismic section within
the late Miocene to Pliocene units indicating that the
inversion occurred in the late-stage Andean phase of
deformation of the Camisea region (e.g., Figure 4). At
the position of the Cashiriari fold, there is a marked
increase in thickness of the Devonian-Mississippian
package (Figure 6a–c) possibly indicating a preexist-
ing inversion fold that was later breached and trans-
ported on the Cashiriari back-thrust system.

13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 288 11/03/18 9:38 AM

 Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  289
Fault Bend Folds, Wedge Thrusts, and Triangle Zones
The San Martin fault and fold system is character-
ized by low-angle thrust faults that ramp across the
strata with hanging-wall kink-band style folds (e.g.,
­Figures 6, 8c). The thrust cuts up section across the
hanging-wall stratigraphy, and the footwall units are
not deformed (Figure 8c). These geometries are char-
acteristics of shear fault-bend fold systems first pro-
posed by Suppe et al. (2004) to model this style of
hangingwall kink-band fold geometries. The frontal
termination of these ramp thrusts is commonly a tri-
angle zone and retro-vergent thrust at the level of the
Paleogene to lower Neogene strata (Figures 6, 8c). This
geometry produces a wedge structure and triangle
zone (e.g., Mount et al., 2011) at the very frontal limit
of the thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belt (Figures 5, 6).
Detachment Folds
Figure 8d, e show the Timpia and the Cashiriari
fold systems. The Timpia folds are rounded with
steep limbs, tighten downward, and have narrow,
poorly imaged cores (Figure 8d). The limbs are off-
set by poorly imaged, relatively low displacement
break thrusts that probably link downward to the
basal detachment. The Cashiriari Anticline shown
in ­F igure  8e is symmetric, relatively open with a
rounded hinge and a limb-break thrust. These geom-
etries are characteristic of detachment folds developed
above a weak decollement unit (e.g., the Devonian-­
Mississippian strata in the Camisea Basin; Poblet and
McClay, 1996; Suppe, 2011). In the case of the Cashiriari
Anticline in Figure 8e, the initial thickening above the
basement extensional fault was probably triggered by
inversion at the early stages of the Andean contraction
and served as a focus for the formation of the overly-
ing detachment fold. Continued contraction in the last
phase of Andean deformation would have tightened
these folds, which then became faulted by limb-break
thrusts (e.g., Mitra, 2002). Significant translation on a
break-thrust would lead to a transported detachment
fold with many of the geometric characteristics similar
to a thrust fault-propagation fold.
DISCUSSION
The influences of preexisting basement fabrics and
inversion of precontraction rift faults on thrust fault
geometries have long been recognized in many oro-
gens (e.g., Cooper and Williams, 1989; Buchanan and
13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 289
Buchanan, 1995; Lacombe and Bellahsen, 2016), partic-
ularly in the interior sectors where basement units are
exposed. Many cross sections constructed across the
frontal fold-and-thrust belts of the sub-Andean sys-
tems in southeast Peru show thin-skinned geometries
characterized by kink-band fault-bend fold geometries
with a planar basal detachment above the basement
(Gil Rodriguez et al., 2001; Viera et al., 2003; Disalvo
et al., 2008; Espurt et al., 2008, 2011; Gautheron et al.,
2013). These cross sections commonly have a hinter-
land antiformal stack up to 10215 km 16.229.3 mi2
in height formed by imbricated Paleozoic strata in
stacked duplexes. Figure 9a shows a regional bal-
anced cross section with a Paleozoic antiformal stack
and internal duplexes behind the sub-Andean thin-
skinned thrust wedge (after Espurt et al., 2011). Upon
reconstruction this gives a minimum of 53 km (33 mi)
shortening after restoration of the antiformal stack
and an additional ∼23 km 1∼14.3 mi2 of shortening in
the frontal thin-skinned thrust wedge (Espurt et al.,
2011). An alternative, simplified, and mechanically
more viable cross section (Figure 9b) from ­Torres
and McClay (2014) eliminated the antiformal stack
at the rear reducing the total equivalent shortening
to ∼19221 km 111.8213 mi; modeled both with Move
and Dynel) with basement uplift and exhumation on
steep inverted basement faults. In this interpretation
contraction and uplift on the steep basement faults
were transferred into horizontal shortening of the fore-
land in the thin-skinned frontal fold-and-thrust belt
similar to the model shown in Figure 1d. The uplift of
the Shira mountains to the northwest of the Camisea
Basin (Figure 3a) is the result of a steep basement fault
and similar basement inversion structures and associ-
ated hanging-wall inversion-related fault-propagation
folds have been documented in the Ucayali Basin to
the north of the Camisea Basin (Hermoza et al., 2005).
Contractional Fault and Fold Styles in the Camisea Basin
This analysis has shown that the structures in the
Camisea Basin are not simple kink-band fault-bend
folds (cf. Suppe, 1983) but rather include shear fault-
bend folds where the thrust ramp cuts across the
hanging-wall strata (e.g., Figures 6, 7, 8c) similar to the
model developed by Suppe et al. (2004; Figure 10a).
The triangle zone formed where the San Martin ramp
structure terminated in the Paleogene–Neogene fore-
land basin strata are essentially thin-skinned wedge
systems as shown in Figure 10b. Detachment fold
geometries are observed in the Timpia 1 and 2 struc-
tures (Figures 5a, 8d) and the Cashiriari fold is also
interpreted as a faulted detachment fold (Figure 8a, e).
11/03/18 9:38 AM
 290 McClay et al.

Figure 9. Regional cross sections. A. Regional cross section showing duplexing of the Paleozoic strata (modified from Gil
Rodriguez et al., 2001; Espurt et al., 2011). B. Regional cross section showing inverted domino-style basement faults
linking to thin-skinned thrust-related folds in the Camisea frontal fold belt (modified from Torres and McClay, 2014).
11 km 5 0.62 mi2.

These are similar to the conceptual models of faulted
asymmetric detachment folds proposed by Mitra
(2002; Figure 10c). Basement-involved wedge thrusts
(Figures 1d, 10d; Mount et al., 2011) may be invoked
as a general model to illustrate the formation of the
hinterland basement uplift and formation of the tri-
angle zone—Pongo de Mainique back-thrust and the
­Shihuayro syncline in front of it (Figure 9b).
Basement Structures and Inversion
The seismic sections show minor extensional fault
systems in the basement (Figures 5, 6, 8) with both
steeply north-northeast and south-southwest dip-
ping faults and increased Late Ordovician–Silurian
strata in their hanging-walls. On the footwall blocks
the synrift strata are generally thin, whereas in the
half grabens TWT thicknesses up to 1 sec have been
interpreted (Figures 5, 6). There is clearly deeper
offset in the basement, and these extensional faults
may have experienced displacements related to Late
Proterozoic–Early Cambrian tectonics or older (cf.
Ramos, 2009).
This research shows that even slight topographic
variations in the basement and in prekinematic
strata have influenced the late-stage Andean folding
1∼6 Ma2Present Day2 and thrust fault trajectories
(Figures 5, 6, 8). In particular the hanging-wall ther-
mal sag topography over the basement extensional
faults has controlled the positions of the major syn-
clines between the San Cashiriari and San Martin
Anticlines (e.g., Figures 5b, 6a) and the Shihuayro
syncline (Figure 5b). Low amplitude inversion fold-
ing and thickening of the Devonian-Mississippian
package can be seen at the position of the Cashiriari
Anticline in Figure 6a–c and in front of the main San
Martin Anticline in Figures 5a, 8b.

13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 290 11/03/18 9:38 AM

 Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  291

Figure 10. Idealized geometries of thrust fault-related folds characteristic of the Camisea fold-and-thrust belt. A. Simple
shear fault-bend fold (after Suppe et al., 2004). B. Brittle wedge thrust system and triangle zone (after Mount et al.,
2004). C. Evolution of an asymmetric detachment fold evolution to a faulted detachment/fault-propagation fold (after
Mitra, 2002). D. Basement-involved inversion fold (after Mount et al., 2004).

Detachment Systems many of the characteristics of fault-­propagation folds.

Thickness changes in the Devono-Mississippian shale
dominated sequences above the main detachment
system together with the subrounded shapes of the
Cashiriari Anticline (Figures 6, 8e), and the Timpia
folds (Figures 5b, 8d) argue for the formation of detach-
ment folds (Poblet and McClay, 1996; Mitra, 2002;
Suppe, 2011) with an important element of thickening
of the Ambo Formation in their cores. With increased
contraction, the limbs of these detachment folds were
cut by limb-break thrusts (e.g., Figure 10c) and in
places became transported detachment folds that have
Folding prior to thrusting was therefore an important
element if the formation of the Camisea structures and
needs to be accounted for in any section balancing and
restoration.
In general, a foreland-vergent and forward-­
propagating sequence of thrusts and related folds have
been proposed using balanced sections and thermo-
chronology (Espurt et al., 2011; Gautheron et al., 2013).
Unfortunately, detailed analysis of thrust displace-
ments and fold evolution has not been possible due
to the variable resolution of the available seismic data.
Growth strata are discernible in the Neogene sequence

13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 291 11/03/18 9:38 AM

 292 McClay et al.
in a few seismic sections across the Timpia folds
(Figure 8d) and also on the flanks of the Cashiriari fold
(Figure 8e), but these could not be mapped in detail
to utilize the growth stratal architectures formed by
­detachment folds (Poblet et al., 1997).
Evolutionary Model for the Camisea Structures
A 2-D evolutionary model for the main Andean
phase of deformation in the Camisea Basin is shown
in Figure 11. This emphasizes the early rift basin
and thermal sag deposition that produced an irreg-
ular topography for the basal detachment system
(Figure 11b) probably in the weak shale layers of the
Devono-Mississippian units (basal Ambo Formation;
Figure 4). Inversion folding and thickening initiated
detachment folds cored by the Devono-Mississippian
strata (Figure 11d). The main Andean phase of defor-
mation during the development of the Peru flat-slab
subduction (11 Ma–Present Day; Gutscher et al., 1999,
2000; Ramos, 2009, 2010; Horton, 2018) was driven
by basement uplift in the hinterland (Figure 9b) that
linked to the frontal thin-skinned thrusting and fold-
ing above the basement (Figure 11e). The Cashiriari
fold was cut by a west-vergent, limb-break thrust,
whereas the frontal ramp system of the San Martin
anticline climbed into higher stratigraphy above the
bounding fault of the half-graben system. This system
produced a wedge thrust shear fault-bend fold system
terminating in a frontal triangle zone.
Implications for the Petroleum Systems
The main petroleum system within the Camisea Basin
is late Miocene in age with the shales of the Ambo For-
mation as a source; the Noi, Nia, and V
­ ivian Formations
as reservoirs; and the Charophytes and Shinai Forma-
tions as seals (Figure 4). The late Miocene–­Present Day
Andean deformation generated well-formed detach-
ment fold structures such as the Cashiriari Anticline
and gentle fault-bend and wedge thrust folds in the
San Martin structure (Figures 6–8). Migration path-
ways were provided by the detachment system that is
below the main source section of the Mississippian as
well as ramp thrusts that branch off the basal detach-
ment. Structural changes along the strike of the San
Martin structure have compartmentalized the system.
There are most likely lateral ramps that have added
to the complexities of the Camisea structures but are
extremely difficult to define with the poor quality of
the available seismic data. Better seismic data and
3-D section balancing and reconstruction are vital for
13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 292
future exploration for both thrust-related traps as well
as for sub-thrust traps in the Camisea Basin.
CONCLUSIONS
This study has shown that the main Camisea Basin
anticlines of Cashiriari and San Martin are com-
plex thin-skinned structures where their location
and structural styles are controlled by the underly-
ing Ordovician–Silurian rift system in the basement.
The main decollement is placed at the top of the Late
Ordovician–Silurian synrift strata and at the base of
the postrift Devonian–Mississippian units. The main
deformation of the Camisea Basin was the late Andean
phase of contraction ∼6 Ma to the Present Day.
The Cashiriari Anticline is interpreted as a faulted
detachment fold that initiated on an early inversion
fold that had thickened the Devono-Mississippian
sequence and subsequently amplified during the late
­Andean contractional phase. The San Martin struc-
tures are thrust wedge, hanging-wall anticlines formed
where the basal detachment ramped upward at the
bounding fault of the half graben formed by the Late
Ordovician–­Silurian extension. These ramp anticlines
are interpreted to be shear fault-bend folds. This sys-
tem commonly terminates in a wedge-triangle zone in
the Paleogene–Neogene units. A forward-breaking se-
quence of north-northeast-vergent thrusts is generally
interpreted, but back-thrusts formed by thrust wedges
are common. The available seismic data do not have
the resolution needed to perform detailed analyses
of thrust-fold timing and geometries using growth
stratal patterns.
The preferred model for the hinterland system that
drives the Camisea frontal thin-skinned fold-and-
thrust belt is a system of large, uplifted, and inverted
basement extensional fault blocks that transferred dis-
placement onto the frontal thin-skinned thrust wedge
that forms the leading edge of the sub-Andean system.
This study shows how the underlying basement fault
architectures and older rift basin geometries can control
the style of the thin-skinned Andean deformation, and
the results have implications for overall shortening cal-
culations and most important for section construction
and restoration elsewhere in the sub-Andean basins.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank PeruPetro for providing the seismic data used
for Daniel Torres M.Sc. research and for this c­ hapter.
The Fault Dynamics Research Group is ­acknowledged
for the fundamental support, w ­ orkstations, and
­research facilities. Schlumberger and DUG (Down
11/03/18 9:38 AM
 Structural Styles of the Camisea Fold-and-Thrust Belt, Southeast Peru  293

Figure 11. Evolutionary model for the Camisea thrust fault and fold system. A. Late Ordovician–Silurian extension
forming half grabens and extensional faults that offset the basement. B. Devonian-Mississippian postrift thermal
sag basin, followed by Permo-Triassic (Jurassic sedimentation either not deposited or not preserved), Cretaceous
uplift and exhumation, base U Cretaceous unconformity and Late Cretaceous sedimentation. C. Late Cretaceous
to Miocene—initiation of contraction and gentle inversion of preexisting extensional faults. d. Oligocene to Mio-
cene layer-parallel contraction and detachment folding focused on inversion folds. e. Late Miocene–Present Day
contraction with thin-skinned thrusting, faulted detachment folds, and shear fault-bend ramp folds and back-
thrust systems.

13972_ch10_ptg01_271-296.indd 293 11/03/18 9:38 AM

 294 McClay et al.
Under Geosolutions) are thanked for seismic software
support and Schlumberger and Midland Valley for
the licenses for Dynel and Move, respectively. We are
grateful for Gonzalo Zamora’s insightful review and
comments that greatly improved this chapter.
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