23

Ballard, Jean-Francois, Vincenzo Spina, Francis Clément, Pierre-Emmanuel Lardin,

Jean-Marc Moron, Jean-Marc Fleury, and Patrick Chaffel, 2018, An
integrated approach to de-risking exploration and appraisal in structurally
complex ­fold-and-thrust belts: Application to the Incahuasi Field (Bolivia),
in G. Zamora, K. R. McClay, and V. A. Ramos, eds., Petroleum basins and
hydrocarbon potential of the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: AAPG Memoir 117,
p. 633–656.

An Integrated Approach to De-Risking

Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally
Complex Fold-and-Thrust Belts: Application
to the Incahuasi Field (Bolivia)
Jean-Francois Ballard, Vincenzo Spina,* Francis Clément, Pierre-Emmanuel Lardin,
Jean-Marc Moron, Jean-Marc Fleury, and Patrick Chaffel
Total E&P, CSTJF—Avenue Larribau, 64000 Pau, France (e-mails: jean-francois.ballard@total.com;
vincenzo.spina@total.com; francis.clement@total.com; pierre-emmanuel.lardin@total.com; jean-marc
.moron@total.com; jean-marc.fleury@total.com; patrick.chaffel@total.com)

ABSTRACT
The south sub-Andean zone of Bolivia is characterized by east-verging thrusts, detaching
within Silurian and Devonian series, and associated to a series of north–south to north-north-
east–south-southwest regional anticlines and synclines holding large gas accumulations. This
chapter is a case history of the multi-TCF (trillion cubic feet) Incahuasi discovery and how an
integrated, multidisciplinary approach allows a progressive improvement in the understand-
ing of the trap geometry, reducing the uncertainty during exploration and field appraisal.
While-drilling structural interpretation and biostratigraphic analyses suggested that the
discovery well, prognosed mainly by surface geology and targeting the top of the Huamam-
pampa Formation as a bright discontinuous seismic reflector on a 2-D seismic test line, was
drilling the overturned limb of the surface anticline instead of penetrating the core of the
structure. The top reservoir was found deeper by a side track well.
The appraisal wells all contributed to progressively constrain the complex geometry
of the trap while leaving several possible geometric interpretations of the reservoir structure.
The Huamampampa Formation is repeated and overturned by a series of thrusts that increase
the internal complexity of the field. These results also confirmed that the shales of the Icla
Formation behave as an effective detachment below the reservoir, contributing to the struc-
tural complexity of the field.
A calibrated/constrained inversion of 3-D magnetotelluric acquisition performed over
the structure shows the near-top Huamampampa Formation resistivity anomaly plunging to
the north, which helps to identify the possible structural spills. In map view, the variation of

*Corresponding author

Copyright ©2018 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

DOI:10.1306/13622138M1173782

633

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 634  BALLARD et al.
orientation provides information on local bends of the target and hence is an important ele-
ment to be considered for optimizing future appraisal wells.
The Incahuasi discovery provided the opportunity to test the validity and efficiency of
many geological and geophysical tools while noting their limitations in a context where only
a few hundred meters of horizontal error can lead to missing the reservoir and trap.
INTRODUCTION
Success in hydrocarbon (HC) exploration relies on
uncertainty assessment (Blake and Figueroa, 1999;
Blake et al., 1999a, b; Fugelli and Olsen, 2005; Smalley
et al., 2008). The different types and degrees of uncer-
tainties are related to the particular geological context
of the area and are classically managed with an inte-
grated approach in order to encompass multiscenario
interpretations to de-risk the exploration campaigns.
Geophysical (gravity, magnetotelluric, seismic) and
geological (e.g., field mapping, stratigraphic logging,
structural and geochemical analyses) methods, along
with numerical and analog modeling, must be used
together to revise large-scale interpretations and refine
the definition and the ranking of drillable prospects.
In frontier areas such as fold-and-thrust belts, char-
acterized by very complex geology and often lacking
data, the large geological uncertainties are the most
challenging factor for the oil and gas industry. For this
reason, a multidisciplinary approach and the integra-
tion of different methods are key factors not only for
exploration but also during the later delineation and
development phases (e.g., Smalley et al., 2008; Stone,
2013; Hackney et al., 2015).
The Incahuasi gas field was discovered by Total and
their partners in 2004. Since the ICS-X1-ST1 discovery
well, the key factor for defining the delineation strat-
egy and development plan was to find the approach,
tools, and methodology to de-risk the geometrical un-
certainty of the structure at depth. This chapter illus-
trates the application of different methodologies and
the integrated work carried out prior to and during
drilling to constrain the structural uncertainties. Al-
though none of the methods presented here can pro-
vide satisfactory results on their own in terms of risk
reduction (and in some cases they even provide con-
tradictory results), the integration of several explora-
tion methods with a multiscale approach (e.g., analog
modeling, field mapping, seismic interpretation) can
nonetheless better constrain and reduce the geometri-
cal uncertainties.
The example of the Incahuasi discovery shows how
managing uncertainties is a key element to increasing
exploration success with cost reduction (e.g., acquisi-
tion and drilling campaigns) in areas characterized by
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 634
complex geology and very sparse data. In this frame-
work, the Incahuasi case demonstrates that it is crucial
to remain highly flexible in order to adapt and modify
appraisal design and schemas.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND PETROLEUM SYSTEM
The sub-Andean zone (SAZ) of Bolivia is a
∼150@km 193@mi2-wide, tectonically active, and struc-
turally complex fold-and-thrust belt oriented north–
south to north-northeast–south-southwest (Figures
1, 2) and developed along the eastern margin of the
Andean orogeny (Figure 1; Roeder, 1988; Sheffels,
1988, 1990; Sempere et al., 1990; Baby et al., 1992, 1993,
1995; Dunn et al., 1995). In its inner sector, along the
regional main thrust front, the SAZ is overthrusted
by the Cordillera Real, whereas to the east, the SAZ
orogenic front extends beneath the Beni and Chaco
Plains (Figure 1). The prominent west-northwest–
east-southeast-oriented Boomerang-Chapare transfer
zone (Figure 1) divides the SAZ in two distinct sectors,
characterized by different orientation of the tectonic
structures, important facies variations, and thickness
changes between correlatable geological formations.
This key regional structural feature also controls the
geometries and thrust displacements across the whole
orogenic belt (Somoza et al., 1996). Between 13–18°S
latitude, the 700-km (435-mi)-long northern sector
of the SAZ is characterized by structures oriented
northwest–southeast, whereas in the southern sec-
tor, between 18–22°S latitude, the regional structural
trends are mainly oriented north–south for a distance
of about 400 km (249 mi). This deflection of the oro-
genic axis, related to the Boomerang-Chapare transfer
zone, is associated with important rotation (Somoza
et al., 1996).
Paleomagnetic data collected along the Andean
belt show that the northern sector of the transfer zone
(Peru and northern Bolivia) is characterized by coun-
terclockwise rotation, whereas to the south (southern
Bolivia, Chile, and northwestern Argentina), clock-
wise rotations have been interpreted (Somoza et al.,
1996; Maffione et al., 2009).
North–south to north-northeast–south-south-
west-striking, east-verging thrusts, extending over
9/20/18 7:46 AM
 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  635

Figure 1. Satellite image of the Bolivian sector of the Andes

and simplified regional geological map of the sub-Andean
zone (SAZ).

hundreds of kilometers, are the most important

structural elements in the area (Figure 1); additional
and persistent structural lineaments oriented north-
east–southwest can be recognized regionally. These
lineaments correspond to fracture corridors, mor-
pho-structural features mainly visible in satellite im-
ages, which overprint the north-south-oriented thrusts
(Figure 1). The structural style and the geometry of the
surface anticlines, being narrow, very continuous and
forming high ranges, suggest a widely homogeneous
stratigraphy over the area and efficient detachment
layers, as proposed by Dunn et al. (1995).
The SAZ is interpreted as a thin-skinned thrust belt
(Figure 2), where a series of regional thrusts formed
in sequence, from west to east, with a cumulative
shortening of about 100 km (62 mi) (43–51%; Dunn
et al., 1995). Activity on the thrusts and associated
prominent folds, formed as a result of the Andean
shortening, started in the Oligocene (e.g., Sempere
et al., 1990; Echavarría et al., 2003) and is still ongo-
ing (Brooks et al., 2011). Two main geological layers
are regionally known to behave as efficient detach-
ments: the Kirusillas and Los Monos Formations. The
basal d ­ etachment develops within the shales of
the Silurian Kirusillas Formation (Figure 3), whereas
the upper ­d etachment is within the Devonian Los
Monos F ­ ormation (Figure 3). At the regional scale the
behavior of Los Monos Formation as an efficient de-
tachment has been linked with the overpressure that
characterizes this geological formation, in turn related
to the HC generation (Cruz et al., 2008; Cobbold, 2013;
Zanella et al., 2014a, b; Rocha and Cristallini, 2015 and
references therein).
The shales of the Devonian Icla Formation
(Figure 3) behave as an additional and efficient de-
tachment, mainly in the westernmost sector of the
SAZ, where Los Monos Formation is sandier.
The structural style of the whole SAZ is influenced
by two major regional thrusts, which control its struc-
tural architecture and strain compartmentalization: the
Andean Main Thrust Front and the Mandiyuti Thrust.
The Andean Main Thrust Front (Figure 1) separates
the SAZ from the Andean domain, where the base-
ment is involved in the deformation (e.g., Dunn et al.,
1995). The Mandiyuti Thrust (Figure 1) is a regional
thrust developing for more than 300 km (186 mi) up
to Argentina. West of this structure, surface folds are
associated with thrusts with flat-ramp geometry. Folds
and associated faults are often deformed and tilted as
consequence of late and deeper duplexing (Figure 2).

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 635 9/20/18 7:46 AM

 636  BALLARD et al.
Figure 2. Regional geological cross-sections across the sub-Andean zone (SAZ) (see Figure 1 for location) and
2-D TWT seismic lines from the orogenic front, showing the structural styles characterizing the foreland basin.
The most external (i.e., eastern) and recent structure of
the entire orogenic belt is the Mandeyapecua Thrust
(Figure 1). Geological cross-sections and seismic lines
(Figure 2) show that, even when the fault geometry and
related hangingwall folds are very narrow at surface
and vary between the northern and southern sectors,
the Mandeyapecua Thrust detaches within Silurian
shales and gently rises upward, involving the Neogene
and the Quaternary sediments of the Chaco Basin in
the deformation. The deformation of the present-day
foreland basin system is marked by the deposition of
the mainly conglomeratic Oligocene Petaca Formation
(Figure 3; Sanjines and Jiménez, 1975;­­Sempere et al.,
1990; De Celles and Horton, 2003; Uba et al., 2006). De-
spite the strong and generally continuous contractional
tectonics affecting the whole SAZ, along with evidence
of growth strata observed in seismic lines within sedi-
ments belonging to the Chaco Group (Figure 3), Dunn
et al. (1995) proposed that two distinct compressional
pulses occurred along the Mandeyapecua Thrust after
10 Ma (see also Mugnier et al., 2006; Brooks et al., 2011;
Rocha and Cristallini, 2015).
Petroleum System Elements
Biomarker data prove that HC produced in the whole
SAZ consistently correlate with a Paleozoic source
(Baby et al., 1995; Moretti et al., 1996; Cruz et al., 2001,
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 636
2008). Devonian marine shales of the Los Monos For-
mation (Figure 3), although characterized by import-
ant thickness changes, are considered as the primary
type II-III source rock in the SAZ, with a total organic
carbon (TOC) generally varying between 0.2 and
2%. Some workers (Moretti et al., 1996; Cruz et al.,
2001, 2008; Rocha and Cristallini, 2015) show that
the shales of the Los Monos Formation are prone to
generate gas and condensate from which oil could
be generated by retro-­condensation processes. None-
theless, secondary cracking has also been proposed
as an important mechanism controlling the gas gen-
eration (Moretti at al., 1996; Starck, 1999; Cruz et al.,
2008; Rocha and Cristallini, 2015). Geochemical anal-
yses of the Los Monos Formation were conducted
in-house at the regional scale using a large data set.
These studies, based on surface samples, account for
maturity of stratigraphic intervals, which have been
uplifted by thrusting. For this reason, the estimated
maturity has to be considered as referring to a pre-
trapping stage. These results agree with the burial
history modeling proposed by Dunn et al. (1995)
(Figure 4), suggesting that source rocks entered in
the HC maturity window just before or contempo-
rary to the main Andean compressive event, which
is responsible for the majority of the traps in the SAZ.
The interplay between HC generation and overpres-
sure observed in several wells has been discussed by
Rocha and Cristallini (2015).
9/20/18 7:46 AM
 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  637
Figure 3. Schematic litho-stratigraphic column of the
sub-Andean zone (SAZ), with average thickness of
­geological formations: (1) conglomerates and coarse-
grained ­sandstones; (2) shales with lenses and layers of
­sandstones; (3) cross-bedded arenites; (4) sandstones;
(5) mafic effusive rocks; (6) calcilutites and limestones;
(7) quartz-rich arenites; (8) metamorphic bedrock.
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 637
Based on internal studies, the shales belonging to
the Early Devonian Icla Formation (Figure 3), with
a thickness spanning between 500 and 700 m (984
and 2297 ft), are thought to be an additional poten-
tial source rock, with a TOC varying between 0.3
and 1.5%.
The reservoir targeted in the major gas fields of
the area is represented by the quartz-rich sandstones
of the Early Devonian Huamampampa Formation
(Figure 3). The primary porosity of this reservoir var-
ies between 2 and 3% so that the productivity and HC
flow are mainly controlled by the fracture network.
Huamampampa Formation crops out only in the in-
ternal sector of the SAZ and has a thickness varying
from about 600 m (1969 ft), in the western sector of the
SAZ, to about 200 m (656 ft) along the most external
(i.e., eastern) sector of the belt. Exploration wells have
demonstrated that this geological formation is charac-
terized by several arenite bodies, interfingering with
shales. Field work incorporating lithostratigraphic
logging demonstrated that the sandstones of the Hua-
mampampa Formation are characterized by facies as-
sociations ranging from deltaic plain and delta front
to pro-delta environments. A detailed biostratigraphic
revision of the Devonian formations cropping out in
the SAZ, with emphasis on the Huamampampa For-
mation, has been carried out internally in order to
identify the main biofacies and fossil associations,
which could be of reference for regional and detailed
correlation. This study highlights the existence of two
different disconnected deltaic sandy systems, both at-
tributed to the Huamampampa Formation. The most
recent (Givetian basal to upper Eifelian), called “Boliv-
ian Huamampampa,” occurs mainly in the northern
part of the SAZ, whereas the older (probably Eifelian
in age) is mainly developed in the southern part and is
known as “Argentinian Huamampampa.”
Another important reservoir, prolific in some his-
torical giant gas fields of the SAZ, is represented by
the Lower Devonian arenites of the Santa Rosa Forma-
tion (Figure 3). Additional minor reservoir levels are
represented by Carboniferous sandstones (Tupambi,
Chorro, and Escarpment Formations), characterized
by porosities ranging from 11 to 21%, and Devonian
sandstones within the Iquiri and Los Monos Forma-
tions, with porosities ranging from 8 to 17%.
The main seal for the Devonian reservoirs is the
shales of the Iquiri and Los Monos Formations; the
global sealing capabilities of these formations vary ac-
cordingly to thickness, facies, and pressure ramp-up
(see also Vaamonde, 2002). Shale intervals belonging
to Neogene to Quaternary formations of the Chaco
Group (Figure 3) represent the main seal for Carbon-
iferous reservoirs.
9/20/18 7:46 AM
 638  BALLARD et al.
THE INCAHUASI STRUCTURE
The Incahuasi trend is a north-south-oriented anti-
cline, developed for about 140 km (87 mi), in the
central sector of the SAZ (Figures 1, 5). The southern
termination of the Incahuasi anticline is characterized
by a periclinal closure (Figure 1); the northern tip is
less clear due to the convergence with the Morteros
anticline (Figures 1, 5). The western limb of the Inca-
huasi anticline, characterized by steep beds, shows a
very homogeneous morphology (Figure 6a, b).
The Givetian-Frasnian Iquiri Formation is the oldest
stratigraphic formation outcropping in the Incahuasi
area (Figures 1, 5). It is characterized by gray and mica-
ceous arenites interbedded with shales that are locally
predominant. A complete series of Carboniferous rocks
overlie, locally unconformably, the Devonian Iquiri
Formation. The Carboniferous series is composed of a
thick sequence of arenites and quartzitic arenites (Es-
carpment, Chorro, and Tupambi Formations; Figure 3)
forming the high cliff of the Incahuasi surface anticline
(Figure 6). These rocks are overlain by reddish shales/
lutites and diamectites (Taiguati, Tarija, and Itacua
Formations; Figure 3). The Permian arenites of the
Cangapi Formation overlie, locally unconformably,
the older sediments of the Carboniferous formations
and are, in turn, unconformably overlain by yellow-
ish, cross-bedded, and poorly cemented arenites
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 638
Figure 4. Burial history ­diagram
of the Devonian formations
cropping out in the area
­(modified from Dunn et al.,
1995).
interfingered with lutites belonging to the Cretaceous
Tacurú Group. These stratigraphic interplays provide
evidence of an important gap in the stratigraphic suc-
cession of the area (Figure 3). The late Oligocene con-
glomerates of the Petaca Formation crop out all along
both limbs of the Incahuasi trend (Figure 5) with a pe-
culiar geomorphological expression characterized by
an approximate 50-m (164-ft)-high scarp, with a very
constant bedding dip, regular over tens of kilometers
(e.g., Figure 6a–c). Field observations, made along
other structural trends of the south SAZ, demonstrate
that these sediments are slightly unconformable on
older sediments, accounting for possible progressive
unconformities linked to the progressive syn-Petaca
growth of the anticlines.
On the western limb of the Incahuasi anticline, the
complete Carboniferous to Cenozoic stratigraphic sec-
tion crops out, and steep beds can be observed all along
the flank of the structure (Figure 6). A narrow syncline,
filled by Cenozoic to Quaternary sediments and affected
by a west-verging thrust, separates the Incahuasi anti-
cline from the Morteros anticline (Figures 1, 5).
Along the central sector of the eastern side of the
structure, the Incahuasi thrust superimposes Carbon-
iferous formations over sediments of the Petaca For-
mation (Figures 5, 6). The Pincal X-1 and Lagunillas
X-1 wells (Figure 7) penetrated the hangingwall of
the thrust finding, close to the total depth (TD) and
9/20/18 7:46 AM
 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  639

Figure 5. Geological map of the area around the Incahuasi

structure. The map derives from the synthesis of previ-
ous maps coming from brigadas geologicas (YPFB), new
detailed field work, and interpretation of satellite i­mages
(SPOT and LANDSAT). ­Geological cross-sections are shown
in Figure 18. Seismic line showed in Figure 8a corresponds
to the geological cross-section 2.

within the footwall block, east-dipping sediments of

the Petaca Formation and Tacurú Group (Figure 7a).
The Incahuasi surface structure is a noncylindrical
fault-related fold with a main east-verging thrust lo-
cated along the eastern limb (Figure 5). The geomet-
rical complexity of the structure is highlighted by the
fact that the leading thrust is not associated with a
hangingwall anticline all along the structure, as clas-
sically shown in fold-propagation faults (Suppe, 1983).
In the southern sector of the Incahuasi structure,
beds vary from very steep (over 60°, see Figure 6a,
b), along the western limb of the anticline, to subhori-
zontal, close to the hinge (Figure 6d). The geometrical
analysis of shallow wells such as Lagunillas X-1 and
the Pincal X-1 allows interpretation of higher cut-off
angles in the footwall than in the hangingwall block
(Figure 7a). Similar geometrical relationships between
beds and faults can be deduced from shallow wells as
AQ-1 well and La Montaña-x1001 (Figure 5). All the
previously described geometrical relationships are
coherent with a deformation mechanism in which an
early flat thrust becomes inactive due to the formation
of a late breakthrough fault (Figure 7b).
About 8 km (5 mi) to the north, a hangingwall anti-
cline can be observed from surface geology (Figure 6c).
This difference can be either due to a different rate of
erosion over the surface anticline, leading to the expo-
sure of different domains of the Incahuasi structure,
or to decreasing of the displacement along the main
thrust, toward the north.
Figure 7c illustrates the interpretation of the ob-
served geometry in terms of structural evolution. The
high structural relief of the Los Monos Formation can
be the result of the progressive growth of a fold related
to a detachment within the shales of the Los Monos
Formation. The progressive tightening of the fold
is associated to duplexing in its core, before that the
basal thrust propagated (Figure 7b). The high amount
of deformation in the core of the folds is known in the
SAZ, where several wells drilled very thick and de-
formed (thrust stack) sections of the shales of the Los
Monos Formation.
A possible result of the fold tightening is a later
backthrust, also detaching within the shales of the Los
Monos Formation, that offset the main Incahuasi thrust
and the entire anticline, amplifying the deformation

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 639 9/20/18 7:46 AM

 640  BALLARD et al.

Figure 6. Aerial photos of the ge-

ometries characterizing the Inca-
huasi structure (see Figure 1 for
location). a. Flat-iron structures
along the western limb of Inca-
huasi structure in its southern
sector. b. Progressive tilting ob-
served along the western limb of
Incahuasi structure, in its north-
ern sector. c. South-facing view
showing how the geometry of
the structure changes from south
to north. Horizontal Carbonifer-
ous strata crop out to the south
(see also d); on the other hand, a
hangingwall anticline is observed
to the north. d. Overview of the
eastern sector of the Incahuasi
structure. Carboniferous forma-
tions crop out with horizontal
attitude (hangingwall flat).

Figure 7. a. Schematic cross-sections of the Incahuasi structure, as seen by Lagunillas X-1 and Pincal-1 wells; these shallow
wells provide useful geometrical constraints to assess the attitude of the geological formations in the footwall block of the
Incahuasi thrust. b. Structural model showing the evolution of a break-forward imbricate fault-related fold (modified from
Suppe, 1983). The theoretical model shows similarity with the geometry observed in the field in the central part of the In-
cahuasi structure, where layers of the Carboniferous formations are flat (see Figure 6d). c. Forward modeling showing the
structural evolution (double verging thrusting) and the geometrical relationships between faults and beds, as observed in the
southern sector of Incahuasi. Colors used do not correspond with those used in the lithological column.

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 640 9/20/18 7:46 AM

 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  641
(i.e., verticalization) of the earlier east-verging thrust
(Figure 7c).
This tectonic style, coupled with the presence of
other potential detachment layers, totally masks the
presence and the geometry (e.g., vergence, position,
displacement) of prospective structures associated to
deep-seated thrusts. For this reason, the interplays
between surface thrusts and faults beneath the Los
Monos Formation are very difficult to account for:
the Los Monos Formation decouples the deforma-
tion, so surface folds and deep structures are com-
pletely disconnected and not necessarily in axis. As
a consequence, the usual tools for building struc-
tural sections cannot be fully applied since the sur-
face i­ nformation may not represent the deformation
below the detachment of the Los Monos Formation.
­Analog modeling of multidetachment folds (­ Driehaus
et al., 2014; Darnault et al., 2016) also indicates that,
in some cases, parameters such as sedimentation rate
and erosion may affect the rise of surface folds with
opposite vergence.
EXPLORATION STRATEGY AND UNCERTAINTIES
MANAGEMENT
Regional studies were launched internally by Total for
the whole SAZ to reduce the exploration risk and to
manage uncertainties of the different elements of the
petroleum system. The main goal was to better define
the structural styles of the area, by comparing new
internal interpretations with previous work carried
out externally. Geological analogs and stratigraphic
logging were used to investigate the reservoir, seal,
and source rocks while identifying regional variation
of their properties, characteristics, and thickness.
Discovery Well
Aside from the uncertainty related to the accurate age
estimation of some sediments and the calibration with
the regional stratigraphy, the geometry of the traps
and their interplay with surface anticlines is one of the
main uncertainties for exploration in the SAZ, both at
prospect and regional scales.
Incahuasi-X1 (ICS-X1) was the first exploration
well drilled by Total in 2004 on the Incahuasi struc-
ture (Figure 5). Before drilling, several (structural and
geophysical) approaches were used to image the deep
target and decide the best trajectory to reach the ob-
jective (Figure 8a–c). However, each of these methods
provided results that, when compared, did not lead to
a single coherent interpretation (Figure 8a).
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 641
Due to decoupling produced by the detachment
of the Los Monos Formation, structural geological
cross-sections, built based on surface geology and on
several styles of deformation, were leaving an unac-
ceptably large degree of uncertainty (Figure 8a) on the
depth and position of the target with respect to the
surface anticline.
Prior to drilling, a 2-D seismic test line, close to the
location of the well, was acquired with adapted pa-
rameters to better constrain the core of the anticline.
Several processed versions pre-stack time migration
(PSTM) and pre-stack depth migration (PSDM) of
the 2-D seismic line were used to image the top of the
Huamampampa Formation (Figure 8d, e). Although
the synclines were properly imaged, the seismic res-
olution within the anticline core remained very poor.
This is due to several factors such as rugged moun-
tainous terrain, very steep dips of the series at the
surface, strong velocity variation, and complex wave
propagation in the subsurface. Based on the inter-
pretation of these poor-­quality data, a possible top
Huamampampa Formation was finally interpreted at
about 1500 m (4921 ft) west from the proposed well
head (Figures 8d, Figures 9a).
A 2-D magnetotelluric (MT) profile, after a con-
strained inversion and with an estimated low
­resolution of 500 m 3 500 m 11640 ft 3 1640 ft2 , indi-
cated a top reservoir depth of about 4000-m (13,123-ft)-
true Vertical depth sub sea (TVDSS) and located about
500 m (1640 ft) west from the proposed well head
(Figure 8b).
A 2-D ground gravimetric survey was also re-
corded along the MT line (Figure 8c). Although a
possible deep structure could be envisaged, the data
were dominated by relatively shallow density con-
trasts (there is little density contrast and thus acoustic
contrast below the top of the Los Monos Formation;
see Figure 8c) leading to a strong uncertainty on the
­geometry at depth.
Hence, each of the above approaches alone did not
provide a conclusive result. For this reason, and in or-
der to minimize the error deriving from the use of a sin-
gle approach, the respective uncertainties were merged
before drilling the ICS-X1 well to get the most satisfac-
tory solution in terms of drilling and geological risk.
Figure 9a shows the predrill model of the structure
and the well trajectory selected to reach the target. Top
of the Huamampampa Formation in the cross-section
(Figure 9a) corresponds approximately to the yel-
low dashed line on the seismic line of Figure 8d. The
“while-drilling” biostratigraphic survey and image
log interpretation (Figure 9b) were used to steer the
well based on the geometry (i.e., bedding attitude,
identification of faults) and constrain the stratigraphic
9/20/18 7:46 AM
 642  BALLARD et al.

Figure 8. Types and quantification of uncertainties before drilling ICS-1 discovery well. a. Geological cross-sections, built only based on
surface geology. Based on different models, a vertical and horizontal uncertainty higher than 1 km (0.6 mi) can be envisaged. b. 2-D
magnetotelluric (MT) resistivity section accounting for a top Huamampampa Formation at −3800 m (–12,467 ft) TVDSS located about
500 m (1640 ft) west of ICS-1 well head. c. Gravimetric profile acquired across the structure and distribution, at depth, of the densities
of the main geological bodies. d. 2-D seismic line in time and depth (e) showing how the traps can be poorly imaged by the seismics.
Yellow dashed line in d represents the possible top structure, not visible in depth domain (e), accounting for a structural top located
west from ICS-1 well head.

height (Figure 9b). The use (while-drilling) of bio-
markers showed that, although the bedding dip was
very regular, the well was progressively penetrating
younger sediments when drilling down further into
the core of the anticline (Figure 9b). In particular, bio-
stratigraphic steering of the well showed that it was
drilling an inverted stratigraphic sequence such that
the real geometry of the structure was very different
to the one prognosed (Figure 9a, b). A new trajectory
was defined (ICS-X1.ST1) with the objective to tar-
get the top of the Huamampampa Formation to the
east. The side track well finally found the top of the
reservoir on a very steep flank (from 60 to 80°) at a
depth of about 5000-m (16,404-ft) measured depth
(MD) (Figure 9c). Given these uncertainties, the struc-
ture proposed in Figure 9c could not be considered
as totally representative of the field. It was clear that
each future well, although considered as an appraisal
well, would have a very important impact on reserves
estimation and could potentially change the under-
standing of the geometry of the field.
Tools and Approach to De-Risk Field Appraisal
The discovery well confirmed the presence of a deep
structure involving the Huamampampa Formation.
However, it also showed that the trap geometry is
very complex and that the relationship with the sur-
face anticline is not straightforward (e.g., differences
between the vergence of the surface thrusts versus
structure seen at well, length of surface structural

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 642 9/20/18 7:47 AM

 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  643
Figure 9. a. Predrill geological cross-section (prognosis) used
to implant the ICS-1 well. Color code is the same used in the
geological map of Figure 1. b. Geological structure interpreted
while-drilling the ICS-1 well. Image log interpretation suggests
a regular bedding attitude dipping to the east; however bi-
ostratigraphic analyses showed that the well was penetrating
reverse stratigraphic series, missing the target. White, green,
and yellow circles represent characteristic biomarkers as shown
in the simplified stratigraphic column. c. Updated geological
cross-section built after the completion of the ICS-1.ST1. The
possible top structure as originally prognosed, based on seis-
mic interpretation (blue dashed line) and magnetotelluric (MT)
interpretation (black arrows), highlights the strong mismatch
between predrilling interpretation and postdrilling results.
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 643
trend versus extension of the field). The very steep
dips found by the discovery well in the core of the
anticline and at the target show that the 2-D seismic
imaging failed to correctly image the structure. For
this reason, it was decided to acquire 400 km2 (154 mi2)
of sparse 3-D seismic with the main objective of prop-
erly constraining the geometry of the synclines adja-
cent to the Incahuasi surface anticline, thus improving
the seismic response of the Huamampampa reservoir
(in terms of continuity of seismic reflectors) and better
imaging the geometry of the faults down to more than
5000 m (16,404 ft).
Aquio-X1001 Well  After the discovery, this well was
aimed at appraising the structure about 4 km north
of the wild cat (Figure 5). The main goal of the well
was to estimate a possible plunge or deepening of the
structure and to constrain the geometry of the trap.
Field mapping campaigns and a 3-D PSTM seismic
interpretation were used to decide the well location
and trajectory for the second exploration/delinea-
tion well. Figure 10 shows that the seismic quality is
fair down to about 3 sec two way traveltime (TWT);
however, the seismic does not properly image the
complexity of the structure at the top of the Huama-
mpampa Formation. Nonetheless, it was extremely
useful as it imaged the geometry of the synclines
down to the top of the Los Monos Formation, thus
reducing the spatial uncertainty of where the top of
the reservoir could be expected. Based on the inter-
pretation of these data, several hypotheses of possible
geological cross-sections were made prior to drilling,
to improve the understanding of the structure and
de-risk the well (Figure 11a–c). Several possible types
of structures were envisaged, either with a westward
vergence, similar to the one interpreted for ICS-X1.ST1
well (Figure 11a), or eastward verging (Figure 11c). Af-
ter eight side tracks, the Aquio-X1001.G8 well found
the top of the reservoir at about 4650 m (15,256 ft) MD
and about 100 m (328 ft) deeper than in the discovery
well. Image logs showed that the top of the reservoir
is characterized by beds gently dipping to the west
(Figure 12) in contrast with the reservoir geometry
seen at ICS-X1.ST1.
The while-drilling analysis of gamma ray (GR) and
resistivity logs, along with image log interpretation (mi-
croresistivity and sonic logs), was used to steer the well
and to validate possible structural models (Figure 12).
The use of the dipmeter was not totally conclusive, and
two completely d ­ ifferent hypotheses can be proposed.
A first hypothesis (Figure 12a) proposes an east-verging
structure; based on that model, the well should have
tested the outer limb of the structure (Figure 12a). The
backlimb and highest compartment would correspond
9/20/18 7:47 AM
 644  BALLARD et al.

Figure 10. a. Uninterpreted TWT dip line extracted from PSTM cube acquired over Aquio and Ipati blocks. b. Structural inter-
pretation of the same line before the spud of Aquio X-1001 well (see Figure 5 for location).

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 644 9/20/18 7:47 AM

 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  645

Figure 11. a. to c. Alternative geological cross-sections showing possible structural models deduced from surface geology
only, before drilling Aquio X-1001 well (red well).

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 645 9/20/18 7:47 AM

 646  BALLARD et al.

Figure 12. While-drilling geo steering of Aquio X-1001 well and alternative interpretation of the structure based on the inter-
pretation of image log and gamma ray (GR) readings. Two possible structural models can be envisaged (a and b); however, in
both cases, the lower reservoir compartment has been interpreted as a tight anticline with a north-south-oriented axis.

to the overturned panel interpreted in the ICS-X1.ST1
well (Figure 9c). The geometrical differences between
structural compartments in Aquio X1001.G8 and
ICS-X1.ST1 wells (compare, for instance, Figures 9, 12)
could be due to a m­ inor fault displacement, leading to
a minor westward tilt of the whole ­anticline. A second
possible model (Figure 12b) proposes a simpler, west-­
verging structure, which appears more consistent with
ICS-X1.ST1 interpretation (Figure 9c). Based on the lat-
ter model, the Aquio X1001.G8 well should have tested
the highest structural compartment of the trap, and no
other additional upside could be envisaged. In both
cases, the two aforementioned structural hypotheses
show that the lower compartment penetrated by the
well ­corresponds to a tight fold (Figure 12) with a sub-
horizontal north-south-­oriented axis. The latter struc-
tural model was retained as the base case due to the
similarity with the structural interpretation following
the discovery well.
The image logs interpretation also shows that the
whole well is characterized by two subvertical frac-
ture systems oriented north–south and east-northeast–
west-southwest (Figure 12).
In both alternative structural models, the total depth
(TD) of the well is in shales, which were interpreted, at
that stage, as possibly belonging to the Los Monos For-
mation (Figure 12), suggesting that the ­envelope of the
whole structure was entirely p ­ enetrated by the well.
Despite the remaining high uncertainty of many
­elements, the Aquio X1001.G8 well confirmed that the
target was characterized by several structural com-
partments, bounded by thrusts, and that the segment
of the structure tested with these two wells was ori-
ented north–south.
ICS-2 Well  Following the results of Aquio X1001.G8,
the ICS-2 well was planned about 5 km (3 mi) south
from the discovery well (Figure 5). As per the previous

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 646 9/20/18 7:47 AM

 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  647
wells, the PSTM was used to constrain the interpreta-
tion on both sides of the trap, even though the seismic
resolution alone was insufficient to totally de-risk the
geometry or provide robust elements to decide the
well trajectory. Therefore, a series of structural geol-
ogy analyses were carried out, and several hypotheses
were proposed before spudding the well (Figure 13).
This well did not require side tracks and encountered
a first compartment of the Huamampampa Forma-
tion at about 4440 m (14,567 ft) MD, before entering
again in the shales of the Los Monos Formation and
encountering an additional reservoir compartment
at about 4700 m (15,420 ft) MD. The overall struc-
ture drilled was interpreted as a folded stack of
­d ifferent Huamampampa Formation thrust sheets.
Even though the image log analysis provided some
geometrical constraints, various scenarios remained
possible (Figure 14a, b). In particular, two alternative
models account for the presence of a central com-
partment characterized by overturned sequences and
an overall trap structure with an eastern dominant
Figure 13. Alternative geological cross-sections showing
possible structural models deduced from surface geology
before drilling ICS-2 well. a. East-verging fault-bend fold
with a backthrust detaching in the Icla Formation also af-
fecting the reservoir. b. Similar structural configuration but
the backthrust detaches in the Los Monos Formation. The
shales of the Icla Formation do not behave as an additional
detachment and the Huamampampa reservoir is not af-
fected by major faults.
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 647
­ ergence (Figure 14a, b). The possible presence of a
v
backthrust rooted within the shales of the Icla Forma-
tion has been proposed as a second model (Figure 14b).
Both structural hypotheses reflect the results of the
well, with several reservoir compartments bounded
by reverse faults. In addition, the analysis of the GR
between the central and the lowermost compartments
(Figure 14c, d, respectively) suggests that the series
penetrated close to the well TD is overturned. The
comparison between the GR readings (from the central
compartment) and the reversed section of the GR read-
ings for about the final 82 m (269 ft) (Figure 14e) shows
a consistent correlation of the main features (GR picks
and overall trend). This evidence confirms that the
well, close to its TD, penetrated the Huamampampa
reservoir in an overturned position. Image log inter-
pretation acquired in the well showed several fracture
trends, the main one being high-angle fractures oriented
east-northeast–west-southwest. Additional secondary
trends, statistically less representative, are characterized
by low- to high-angle fractures oriented north-north-
east–south-southwest and north–south (Figure 14f).
The ICS-2 well further confirms that the trap is
­affected by a series of thrusts, and the highest ­reservoir
compartment is found about 130 m (427 ft) higher
than the discovery well, suggesting an u ­ pside of the
structure toward the south. In addition, the structural
­interpretation of the well also confirms the presence of
a deep inverted panel as hypothesized following the
results of previous wells. Nonetheless, both structural
models proposed for the well (Figure 14) were still
valid, such that geometrical uncertainty concerning
the overall structure remained.
Magnetotelluric Survey: A Step Forward
in Field Comprehension
In 2013, 489 stations of magnetotelluric (MT) data were
acquired over the Aquio and Ipati blocks (­ Figure 15) in
order to define the north–south extension and the pos-
sible bend of the Huamampampa reservoir.
The MT was considered for the interval group of the
reservoir units, as they are generally more electrically
resistive than the overlying sealing shales, as seen in
the well logs—thus they could be resolved or mapped
(in comparatively low resolution) in 3-D resistivity,
where the seismic image is unclear. Additionally, MT
has sensitivity to greater depth than the seismic (many
kilometers) and is comparatively cheap when com-
bined with the logistics for the seismic acquisition and
has a lower environmental impact.
It is worth noting that, in general, the variation of
resistivity can also be affected by changes in reservoir
9/20/18 7:47 AM
 648  BALLARD et al.

Figure 14. Alternative interpretations of the ICS-2 well, based on dipmeters analysis (a and b). c. The log corresponding to
the intermediate compartment of Huamampampa shows several GR breaks, classical for this geological formation. d. Gamma
ray (GR) log acquired close to the well TD, within an inverted section of reservoir. If mirrored and corrected from well devia-
tion and beds dip, the latest and deepest 82 m (269 ft) of log of (inset e) show a very good correspondence with the trend
of the GR readings acquired in the intermediate reservoir compartment (c). f Lower Hemisphere Schmidth diagram show the
poles and the contour of the fractures interpreted along the well using resistivity image logs.

porosity and fluids (gas versus water) so that the
­interpretation of MT data has to be calibrated with
well data and geological information.
The 2-D MT line previously acquired (Figure 8b)
confirmed the capability to resolve, with some con-
straint from the seismic interpretation, deep resistive
geological structures in this particular geological con-
text due to the resistivity contrast between the Los
Monos and the Huamampampa Formations. More
precisely, the Los Monos Formation is relatively
­conductive (about 30 ohm m), whereas the Huamam-
pampa Formation is more resistive (about 100 ohm m).
Other resistivity contrasts occur at shallower levels,
mainly between the resistive Iquiri Formation (about
100 ohm m) and the conductive Los Monos Formation.
Several methods of inversion were deployed to
­extract the desired information from the new 3-D MT
data. The results demonstrated that ­u nconstrained
­inversions of 3-D MT (not including an a priori geo-
logical or structural model) were not able to directly
image the Huamampampa Formation. Conversely, the
constrained inversions of 3-D MT, integrating all avail-
able geological and structural information, produced
the best image of the subsurface structure. In all cases,
the MT did not provide a clear and sharp contrast for
the top Huamampampa Formation as it does not have
the inherent resolution for such a definition. However,
the “envelope” of the anomaly seen at the level of the
Iquiri and Huamampampa Formations did roughly
match the known structure from the well intersections
at the larger scale. This provided some hope that, with
an integration of all available data, the extent and the
closure of the field could be roughly mapped.
Figure 15 shows the MT phase attribute at 3 and
30 seconds period range expected to be sensitive to
the target depth. The low phase anomaly at 3 sec-
onds, continuous and roughly oriented north–south,
­indicates a resistive formation in depth, which can be
interpreted to represent the Huamampampa Forma-
tion. In the 30 seconds period attribute, sensitive to

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 648 9/20/18 7:48 AM

 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  649

Figure 15. 3-D m

­ agnetotelluric (MT) acquired over Aquio and Ipati blocks. a. MT stations ­distributed with an interdistance of
about 1 km (0.6 mi) in the east–west direction and 2 km (1.2 mi) in north–south d ­ irection. Black triangles ­correspond to the
2-D MT line shown in Figure 8c. b. TM Phase interpretation at 3 sec and 30 sec showing a c­ ontinuous resistivity anomaly
oriented north–south. c. Section views of resistivity layering based on constrained inversion of MT data passing for the three wells.

slightly deeper layers than the previous slice, the same
anomaly is wider in the central part of the survey and
decreases toward the north, suggesting a structural
plunge and/or a change in the petrophysical proper-
ties of the geological formations.
The refined geological model (down to the top of
the Los Monos Formation) was used to constrain
and drive the 3-D MT inversion to obtain a consis-
tent resistivity layering down to the top of the Los
Monos Formation. A homogeneous resistivity value of
30 ohm m was used for the deeper layers, and then the
inversion was run to recover the deepest part of the
model, i­ ncluding the Huamampampa Formation, by
best ­fitting the observed data.
Although the vertical uncertainty of the MT is
­e stimated at about 500 m (1640 ft) at our depth of
­interest, a relatively good fit, calibrated with the
wells already drilled, has been found between the
top of the deep resistive anomaly (15.5 ohm m of
contour in Figure 15c) and the Huamampampa For-
mation. The low resistivity value of about 25 ohm m
recovered for the Huamampampa Formation by
the 3-D MT inversion appears reduced compared
with the well data, where it is estimated to be about
100 ohm m. This can be explained by the different
measurement scales and by the stronger MT sensitiv-
ity to conductive media, complicating the recovery of
resistive formations. Nonetheless, given the complex
geology of the Incahuasi structure, the most important
information from the 3-D MT inversion is the global
resistivity variations rather than the true values.
Given the good match of the deep resistivity anom-
aly with the top of the Huamampampa Formation seen
at the wells, the shape corresponding to the strongest
resistivity value anomaly can be tentatively considered
as a near-top reservoir. The global shape of the anom-
aly top, as seen in section views (Figure 15c), clearly
does not correspond with the real geometry of the trap.
However, the map view of this anomaly can provide
elements on the variation of the geometry of the struc-
ture at depth. In spite of the low vertical resolution of
MT methodology, the good correlation of the resistivity
observed with the resistivity expected at reservoir lev-
els shows that the integration of this technology with
the geological model provides useful elements imaging
the deep structure at the level of the Huamampampa
Formation, where seismic along struggles.
ICS-3 Well  Based on the analysis of all data and inter-
pretations, the ICS-3 well was drilled about 10 km (6 mi)

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 649 9/20/18 7:48 AM

 650  BALLARD et al.

Figure 16. Dip and strike line (a, b)

extracted from PSDM cube showing the
interpretation used to define surface
and target positions and de-risk ICS-3
well. c. Predrill geological cross-section,
based on surface geology, used as
prognosis for ICS-3 well.

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 650 9/20/18 7:48 AM

 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  651

Figure 17. a. and b. Real-time update of the geological cross-

sections (prognosis in Figure 16) while drilling the ICS-3 well.
Dipmeter analysis required several revisions of the predrill
geometrical hypotheses concerning the top Huamampampa
Formation. c. East offset VSP (vertical seismic profile) sliced
into the seismic line with well trajectory, top formation, and
faults as observed during the image log interpretation. Bi-
ostratigraphic analyses suggested that the zone close to the
well TD should correspond with mid-lower section of the
Los Monos Formation, the top Huamampampa Formation
normally appearing about 500 m (1640 ft) below. VSP data
show a good consistency with seismic reflectors and faults
seen at wells could also be imaged. The merge of VSP with
seismic allowed a qualitative interpretation of the structure: a
possible top Huamampampa has been interpreted westward
from the ICS-3 well and the crest of this possible structure
at about 500 m (1640 ft) from the well, in agreement with
biostratigraphy. The possible Huamampampa structure
seems to be affected by several thrust faults. d. Cross-section
showing the side track decided to target the Huamampampa
structure, following the interpretation of VSP.

south from the discovery well and about 5 km (3 mi)

south of the ICS-2 well (Figure 5). ­Figure 16 shows an
example of dip and strike seismic lines (see Figure 5
for location) extracted from the PSDM that have been
used to identify the target, estimate the entry point for
the top reservoir, and design the trajectory of the ICS-3
well. The dip line has a calibrated interpretation down
to the top of the Los Monos Formation. However, for
the top of the Huamampampa Formation, ­s everal
­interpretations are feasible (Figure 16c). The tie along
a north-south-oriented strike line (Figure 16b) with
ICS-X1 and Aquio X1001.G8 wells allowed a tentative
identification of the possible target as a continuous and
subhorizontal high amplitude/low frequency seismic
event that could be interpreted all along the line at
about 3s TWT. This interpretation has also been com-
pared with structural cross-­sections that were used as
a base case before drilling the well ­(Figure 16c) and
incorporated into a preliminary 3-D structural model,
where a continuous north–south-­oriented structure
was hypothesized at the top of the Huamampampa
Formation. The while-­drilling i­nterpretation derived
from image log analysis ­( Figure  17) showed that
the proposed structure was not in line with the well
­information, thus ­requiring the prognosis to be up-
dated and well path modified (Figure 17a, b). Given
the high ­regularity of east-­dipping beds interpreted
within the Los Monos Formation, the top of the Hua-
mampampa Formation was reinterpreted deeper and
the structural model was updated. Drilling continued
down to almost 4950 m (16,240 ft) MD, where biostra-
tigraphic analyses suggested the well was drilling the
lower part of the Los Monos Formation. At this stage, a
VSP (vertical seismic profile) was acquired and r­ esults
were correlated with image logs (Figure 17c; see also

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 651 9/20/18 7:48 AM

 652  BALLARD et al.

Lesnikov et al., 2015), which allowed interpreting
the top of the Huamampampa F ­ ormation at about
500 m (1640 ft) to the east. A side track (ICS-3.G1)
was planned, which found the top of the Hua-
mampampa Formation at about 4400 m (14,436 ft)
MD and, after crossing a thrust and encountering
again shales belonging to the Los Monos Formation
(Figure 17d), found again the Huamampampa Forma-
tion at about 4700 m (15,420 ft) MD with a high density
of fractures (Figure 17c). Image log interpretation car-
ried out on the side track showed that the uppermost
reservoir compartment dips west by about 50°, sug-
gesting that the well encountered the reservoir along
the western limb of a fold. Based on this interpreta-
tion and also on the previous wells, it can be assumed
that a possible upside of about 200 m (656 ft) could be
­envisaged eastward from the entry point seen at the
well so that the ICS-3.G1 well should have targeted the
­uppermost structural compartment of the Incahuasi
structure, almost on the crest, as in the case of ICS-2.
Revision of the Structural Model
Aquio X1001.G8 and ICS-2 wells found shales close
to their TD with an uncertain stratigraphic attri-
bution at the time of drilling. Their correlation to a
specific geological formation had a strong impact on
the chosen structural model. For this reason, a new
and more accurate dating of these deposits was car-
ried out. Biostratigraphic data from wells were cal-
ibrated with outcropping stratotypes, showing that
the shales at the bottom of the two wells belong to
the lower Devonian Salteri Shale Member, identified
as the transition between the Huamampampa and
the Icla Formations. This new interpretation changed
drastically the stratigraphic age of the shales and had
a strong impact for the interpretation of the Inca-
huasi structure. A new comprehensive interpretation
of the trap geometry, honoring both dipmeter anal-
ysis and biostratigraphic interpretation, was neces-
sary (Figure 18a–d). This new model was compared

Figure 18. a. to e. Final and updated geological cross-sections for post discovery well. These sections have been revised (see
zoom in b and d) based on additional biostratigraphic analyses on some shale layers seen close to Aquio X-1001 and ICS-2
wells. These analyses allowed modifying the previous interpretation and getting a consistency between geometry and struc-
tural style all along Incahuasi. Pre-ICS-3 (f) and post-ICS-3 (g) well drilling top Huamampampa depth maps show the impact
of the well results on the comprehension of the whole structure: the side track landed off the main structural compartment of
the Incahuasi. h. 3-D view of the top Huamampampa depth map post ICS-3 well.

00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 652 9/20/18 7:48 AM

 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  653
with the other possible structural models proposed
and extrapolated to the other wells in order to have a
homogeneous structural style for the Incahuasi struc-
ture (Figure 18a–e).
Based on the reinterpretation of the available well
data, the geological cross-sections allowed to describe
the Incahuasi structure as characterized by three
main compartments: (1) the uppermost compart-
ment, drilled by all the wells (except ICS-X1.ST-1),
is characterized by an almost flat structural top;
(2) the intermediate compartment is characterized
by a tight anticline with a subhorizontal axial plane
and a north–south axis; and (3) finally, the lowermost
compartment is characterized by an overturned strati-
graphic series and bounded by an overturned thrust
(Figure 18b, d).
The initial seismic interpretation of the upper-
most reservoir compartment showed a clear bend of
the structure, from north–south to north-­northeast–
south-southwest, occurring in correspondence with
the ICS-3 well head (Figure 18f). Based on the updated
understanding of the structure, a new seismic interpre-
tation was completed (Figure 18g, h), allowing a more
complete description of the complex structure of the
trap. In particular, the structural top of the Incahuasi
structure lies between ICS-2 and ICS-3 wells, pro-
gressively deepening toward the north (Figure 18g).
In addition, the orientation of the trap is north–south
at least until the ICS-3 well, not showing the strong
bend envisaged by initial interpretation (Figure 18f).
This new structural interpretation of the Incahuasi
Figure 19. View of the 3-D geological model, from surface
to Silurian formations, built in GoCad for the Incahuasi
structure.
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 653
structure has been integrated into a 3-D model in
­order to have a comprehensive and consistent model
to be used for future development and resource calcu-
lations (Figure 19).
DISCUSSION
The SAZ in Bolivia is a sector where complex topogra-
phy and geology complicate both the predrill progno-
ses and the postdrill interpretations.
Before drilling the first exploration well, several
geological and geophysical methods were used to
interpret the deep target and to properly design the
well trajectory. However, each method used alone
­included a large uncertainty in the interpretation. For
this reason, all of these methods were used together
in evaluating and weighting the respective uncertain-
ties at the time of proposing the well. Since a conclu-
sive structural and geometrical model could not be
built from the available data, the best solution was
to consider a multiscenario approach and drill the
well while remaining flexible, reactive, and predictive
with respect to the ongoing operations, by using bio-
stratigraphic analyses and image log interpretation to
steer the well.
The main uncertainties for exploration and later
field appraisal are related to the trap geometry. The
major challenge was to properly image the struc-
ture at depth, completely masked by the strong
­d ecoupling between the upper and lower levels,
likely ­resulting in a lateral shift of the traps with
­respect to the surface anticlines. The strong internal
deformation affecting the Los Monos Formation,
resulting in a strong tectonic thickening, as demon-
strated by several wells, is an additional source of
uncertainty impacting the expected vertical position
(depth) of the target.
The 3-D seismic reprocessing and interpretation
(Figure 18h) provided additional constraints to under-
stand the field geometry. However, even after complet-
ing the discovery well (ICS-X1.ST1) and the first two
exploration/appraisal wells (Aquio-X1001.G8 and ICS-
2), a variety of structural models were still possible for
the structure. Only the third exploration/appraisal well
(ICS-3.G1) provided some key data, which ­allowed a
better understanding of the structural top, also impact-
ing the estimation of the Gross Rock Volume.
More accurate biostratigraphic analyses provided
an important control point on the shales seen at TD
of Aquio X1001.G8 and ICS-2 wells and allowed a
reinterpretation of the wells, helping to build more
consistency into the general structural model of the
Incahuasi structure (Figure 18). The strong impact that
9/20/18 7:48 AM
 the evolution of the understanding of the Incahuasi
field structure had on well planning and the result is
shown in Figure 18f–h. Before drilling ICS-3, based on
the PSTM interpretation, the Incahuasi target was con-
sidered either as a series of en echelon faults-bounded
compartments or as a single north–south structure,
bending to north-northeast–south-southwest in the
central part of the Ipati block (Figure 18f) as the sur-
face anticline. Based on this interpretation, the ICS-3
well was positioned to easily target the top of this
structure (Figure 18f). The results from ICS-3 well ac-
count for different trap geometry as illustrated by the
updated seismic interpretation of the top of the Hua-
mampampa Formation (Figures 18e, g, h, 19).
The MT data do not have sufficient accuracy or res-
olution to discriminate the reservoir layer. However,
in the case of the Incahuasi structure, the constrained
3-D inversion of MT data provides a large-scale over-
view of the general trend of the field. The calibration
of the 3-D MT with the reservoir markers seen at
wells is shown in Figure 20. These 3-D MT data show
that a ­resistivity anomaly is clearly visible on depth
slices and does not have a linear north–south shape
(Figure 20a). In particular, the resistivity anomaly
­exhibits a clear bend north of Aquio X-1001 and south
of ICS-3 wells (Figure 20a).
About 10 km (6 mi) north from Aquio X1001 well
and south from ICS-3, the resistivity anomaly deepens,
suggesting a possible tip of the Incahuasi deep trap
(Figure 20b). A section view through the maximum of
the resistivity anomaly (Figure 20b) shows a good fit
00000_ch23_rev04_633-656.indd 654
between top of the Huamampampa Formation in the
wells and the anomaly, validating the 3-D integrated
MT inversions as a useful tool to de-risk exploration
prospects in complex areas.
The Incahuasi case study demonstrates that in a
geologically complex and poorly known area, the use
of an integrated and multiscenario approach is key to
de-risk the operational activities and increase success
in exploration. The use of multiscale (i.e., from out-
crop to seismic) and multidisciplinary data (seismic,
3-D MT, geological interpretations, analog modeling),
merging the resulting interpretations and respective
uncertainties, is an approach that allows improved un-
derstanding of the structure. In addition, the ongoing
development of the Incahuasi field demonstrates that
in these contexts, the appraisal phase has an important
exploratory component, because each new well pro-
vides new elements that can strongly impact the un-
derstanding of the field, either in terms of geometry or
reservoir characteristics. For this reason, it is import-
ant to remain flexible in operations in order to adapt
the development design with the evolution of the field
knowledge.
CONCLUSIONS
The exploration of geologically complex areas (where
well data are sparse, seismic data poor to fair quality,
and both require complex planning and important
investments) needs an accurate evaluation of technical
Figure 20. Impact of the 3-D
magnetotelluric (MT) on the
­delineation of the Incahuasi
structure and comparison with
well results. a. The depth slice
(4800 m [15,748 ft]) of the
­resistivity anomaly provides a
map view of the possible top
reservoir and shows a bend-
shaped geometry. b. Random
line picked along the maximum
of the resistive anomaly; the
deep resistive body shows a
good consistency with the top
of the Huamampampa picking
seen at wells. This resistive body
deepens about 8 km (5 mi)
north of Aquio X-1001 and 10
km (6 mi) south of ICS-3 well.
9/20/18 7:49 AM
 An Integrated Approach to De-Risking Exploration and Appraisal in Structurally Complex-Fold and-Thrust Belts  655
uncertainties. The application of a multidisciplinary
approach, integrating several types of data, allows
reducing geometrical uncertainties during both the
exploration and the appraisal phases.
The Incahuasi case study, in the SAZ of Bolivia, pro-
vides an example of how geophysical, structural, and
biostratigraphic interpretation has been used prior to,
and during, well drilling to improve understanding of
the structural complexity of the reservoir.
The progressive improvement of the Incahuasi geo-
logical model demonstrates that in fold-and-thrust
belts, the field appraisal has still an important explora-
tion component and that a strong flexibility is required
for a successful development strategy.
A major lesson learnt from the wells drilled in such
structurally complex environment is that about 400 m
(1312 ft) of horizontal error in the predrill interpreta-
tion (for over 5000 m [16,404 ft] of drilled section) is
sufficient to completely miss a major geological struc-
ture representing one of the major gas field discovered
in the area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank YPFB, Gazprom, and Tecpetrol for
permission to publish these data.
The comments and the suggestions from two anon-
ymous reviewers, the editor, Christopher Wibberley,
and Anthony Price strongly improved the original
version of the manuscript.
The views and conclusions contained in this chap-
ter are solely those of the authors and should not be
interpreted as necessarily representing the views or
the official policies, either expressed or implied, of
­Total E&P Bolivia and/or of the Total Group.
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