Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Research paper

Recurrent deformations of aeolian desert dunes in the cretaceous of the T

South China Block: Trigger mechanisms variability and implications for
aeolian reservoirs
Juan Pedro Rodríguez-Lópeza,b, Chihua Wuc,d,∗
a
Department of Geology. Faculty of Science. United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
b
Calle Mascaraque, 48, 2°A, 28044, Madrid, Spain
c
School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
d
Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Guangzhou, 510006, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Deposits of aeolian dunes accumulated in Cretaceous intramontane deserts in the South China Block underwent
Monsoon rain recurrent deformation processes affecting their toesets and foreset sediments. The Mid-Cretaceous Matoushan
Aeolian reservoirs Formation preserves examples of soft-sediment deformation deformations associated with theropod tracks in
Earthquakes aeolian dune apron sandstones. The Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin, shows (i) seis-
Aeolian dunes
mites associated with dry interdune laminated deposits and sand injection into the interdune laminated facies
Desert basin
generating intraclast breccias, (ii) mass-flow deposits associated with heavy rains, generating interbedding of
non-deformed and deformed intervals in aeolian dune foresets. Deformed intervals display a variety of de-
formation styles including thrust duplexes, upturned and deformed stratification, recumbent folds and micro-
folds and liquefied intervals. covered by overlying draa mega cross-bedded sets. Animal tracks, seismites,
monsoon rains and earthquakes are proposed as the main trigger mechanisms of the failures that led to de-
formation. Hydroseismicity associated with monsoon rains is a probable (but difficult to prove) trigger me-
chanism; this process could be an important deformation agent in the case of large-scale deformation recorded in
ancient erg sequences. Mass-wasting deposits in ancient erg (extensive sandy deserts characterized by aeolian
dunes) sequences constitute significant heterogeneities for hydrocarbon migration and its architectural varia-
bility could determine the development of effective sedimentary traps in aeolian reservoirs.

1. Introduction
Aeolian sediments accumulated in aeolian dunes are characterized
by high porosity and permeability values and constitute excellent hy-
drocarbons reservoirs forming part of well-known worldwide hydro-
carbon plays, including the Cambrian Amin Formation in Oman
(Fryberger et al., 2006), the Permian Unayzah Formation, in Saudi
Arabia (Melvin and Heine, 2004), the Carboniferous Juruá Formation
in Brazil (Elias et al., 2004), the Permian Rotliegend Group in the
southern and central North Sea (Glennie and Buller, 1983; Kugler and
Mink, 1999; Heward et al., 2003), the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone in
southern England and the Irish Sea (Meadows and Beach, 1993; McKie
et al., 1993), the Jurassic Entrada Sandstone (e.g. Ridgley and Hatch,
2013), Norphlet Formation (e.g. Mancini et al., 1990), Navajo Sand-
stone and the White Throne Member (e.g. Parry et al., 2009; Hartwick,
2010) in the United States, and the Cretaceous Lower Troncoso Inferior
Member in Argentina (Argüello Scotti and Veiga, 2015)., In the other
hand, these are normally geologically complex reservoirs, in which the
rate of change of both lithology and petrophysical properties is re-
markablewith abrupt lateral facies changes, making subsurface geolo-
gical prediction extremely difficult (North and Prosser, 1993). More-
over, the excellent porosities and permeabilities of these continental
sediments (e.g. poroperm values up to 30% and 10 Darcies in the
Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group, in the UK, Cowan, 1993; or 25%
and 1 Darcy in the Jurassic Nugget Sandstone, in the USA, Lindqulst,
1988), make them prone to suffer a myriad of deformation processes
shortly after accumulation, as well as important quality reduction due
to free flowing diagenetic fluids that cause widespread cementation for
example as demonstrated by the development of early diagenetic giant
clacite concretions reported from the desert dunes of the Cretaceous of
Iberia (Arribas et al., 2012). The friable nature of the accumulations of
aeolian sediments makes them vulnerable to reworking by wind and

∗
Corresponding author. School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
E-mail address: wuchi-hua@foxmail.com (C. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104483
Received 29 February 2020; Received in revised form 19 May 2020; Accepted 21 May 2020
Available online 28 May 2020
0264-8172/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
water (see Rodríguez-López et al., 2010, 2012a,b).
Ergs are extensive sandy desert systems characterized by prominent
aeolian dunes; remarkable examples on Earth are the Quaternary Rub’
Al-Khali desert, in Saudi Arabia, Al-Masrahy and Mountney (2013), and
the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone in the USA (Kocurek, 2003). When these
erg systems meet the sea shore (e.g. Rodríguez-López et al., 2012a,b,
2020), the reworking and deformation of aeolian sands associated with
marine transgressions on erg-margin dunes, is a common natural phe-
nomena, which has been reported from the Cretaceous of Spain (e.g.
Rodríuez-López et al., 2008, 2012a), the Weissliegend of the UK
Southern North Sea (e.g. Strömbäck and Howell, 2002) and the Cre-
taceous of the Neuquén Basin in Argentina (Strömbäck et al., 2005). In
inland desert dunes, gravity-driven sand avalanching, in steep dipping
aeolian dunes, is a common process that leads to grainflow sedi-
mentation, that is one of the main processes controlling dune foreset
advance and dune migration (cf. Ahlbrandt and Fryberger, 1981;
Howell and Mountney, 2001; Uličný, 2004; Scherer & Lavina, 2005).
Deformations in aeolian dune foresets can involve complex deformation
processes, and several allogenic controls as earthquake-induced shocks
and associated motion, has been one of the trigger mechanisms com-
monly invoked inliterature (e.g. Cojan and Thiry, 1992; Chan and
Bruhn, 2014). Deformations of aeolian dune sands associated with a
high phreatic level is also a common process in both recent (McKee and
Bigarella, 1972; Fryberger, 1991) and ancient (Glennie and Hurst,
2007) systems. A careful analysis of involved desert sedimentary facies
and architectural elements can help to discern in detail the exact, or at
least, the most plausible trigger for deformation.
Dinosaurs and other vertebrates walking on the desert sands,
looking for food in interdunes or looking for an easier migration
pathway crossing the desert landscape in these low topography areas, is
also a common deformation trigger mechanism in aeolian dune and
interdune sediments (e.g. Loope and Rowe, 2003).
The aim of this research is to show the complex variability of syn-
sedimentary deformations in Cretaceous aeolian dunes in the South
China Block and understand their trigger mechanisms.
Specific objectives of this research are as follows: (i) to describe
small to large scales soft-sediment deformations that occur in
Cretaceous desert systems in China; (ii) to identify the most probable
trigger mechanisms of these deformations; and (iii) to analyze the im-
pact of these deformations in the properties of potential aeolian re-
servoirs.
2. Geological setting
This research presents a field-based approach to analyze soft-sedi-
ment deformations in Cretaceous aeolian dune deposits that show a
variety of deformations at different scales (cm-to m-scale). The studied
are is located in the South China Block (SCB) that lies on the western
rim of the Pacific Ocean, and is separated from the North China Craton
(NCC) by the Qinling-Dabie orogenic belt (Li et al., 2012). SCB is
bounded by the Longmen-Hengduan Shan fault zone from the Tethys
tectonic domain to the west, and connected with the southeast Asian
blocks by Majiang fault zone and the western Pacific tectonic zone from
the southwest to the east (Fig. 1A) (Shu, 2012). Four stages char-
acterized by tectonic deformation and magmatic processes have been
recognized in the rock record of the area: (i) deformation of Neopro-
terozoic; and (ii) Late Mesozoic active continental margins, as well as;
(iii) Early Paleozoic; and (iv) Early Mesozoic intracontinental orogenies
(Shu, 2012). The SCB consists of the Yangtze Block and the Cathaysia
Block (Fig. 1A) (e.g., Wang et al., 2005; Wong et al., 2011).
The Yangtze Block collided with the Cathaysia Block along the
Shaoxing-Jiangshan suture zone during the early Neoproterozoic period
(~1.1–0.9 Ga) (Chen et al., 1991; Charvet et al., 1996; Zhao and
Cawood, 1999; Li et al., 2002, 2009; Zhao et al., 2011; Shu, 2012).
Related to the back-arc extension caused by the subduction of the
paleo-Pacific plate during the Cretaceous, the fault-basins group of the
2
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
South China Block (e.g. Xinjiang Basin, Xj; Youxian Basin Yx; Subei
Basin, Sb; Jianghan Basin, Jh; Chuxiong Basin, Cx, etc., Fig. 1B–C)
formed and was mainly distributed in the NE-SW direction, parallel to
the edge of the paleo-Pacific plate (Fig. 1B–C) (e.g. Zhou and Li, 2000;
Zhou et al., 2006).
The upper Cretaceous of the interior SCB is principally character-
ized by desert systems that attained maximum total preserved thickness
of ca. 1573 m, as deduced from field surveys (BGMRY, 1969). Cretac-
eous soft-sediment deformations presented in this study belong to the
Matoushan Formation of the Chuxiong Basin, and the Tangbian For-
mation of the Xinjiang Basin from South China Block (SCB) (Fig. 1B–C;
Fig. 2).
The Matoushan Fm. (297-366- m thick) is mainly composed of red
quartz sandstone with conglomerate and sandy mudstone. which has
been considered an important copper-bearing stratum in the Chuxiong
Basin and belonged to lacustrine system. It has been assigned a Middle
Cretaceous age (Aptian-Turonian), based on lamellibranchs (e.g.
Trigonioides (Trigonioi des), conchostracans (Nemesteria yunnanensis
Chen, 2000), and ostracods (e.g. Cypridea (C.) angusticaiudata Cao et al.,
2017) (BGMRY, 1969).
The Tangbian Fm. (ca. 462 m thick) is characterized by thick, fine-
grained red quartz sandstone, and has been interpreted as aeolian in
origin (Jiang et al., 2008). This formation has been assigned a Late
Cretaceous age (Campanian), based on dinosaur eggs (e.g. Elongatoo-
lithus elongatus) and ostracods (e.g. Cypridea sp., Cyprinotus sp. Ponto-
cypris sp., Candona sp., Candoniella sp., Iliocypris? Sp., Pseudococypris
sp.) (DGMRJ, 1997; Wu et al., 2002; Wu et al., 2018).
3. Lithofacies and soft-sediment deformation types
The study of soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS) in aeolian
systems requires a detail analysis of multi-scale deformations to un-
derstand all physical conditions in which erg accumulation took place,
even more when it has been demonstrated that single deformed levels
can show laterally different morphological expressions depending of
facies change (Rodríguez-López et al., 2007b). As deformation pro-
cesses in aeolian systems can be link with the dynamics of the con-
tinental depositional environment, with no intervention of external
trigger factor, here the description of both facies and deformations is
presented for every case study, addressing the discussion on the pro-
posed triggered mechanisms for deformation in the next discussion
section.
3.1. Case study 1: small-scale deformation in the toe-set deposits of small
aeolian dunes
The Mid-Cretaceous Matoushan Fm. in the Chuxiong Basin shows a
35 cm-thick succession of laminated and partly distorted red sandstones
containing silty dark layers (Fig. 3A–D). Undisrupted single sandy la-
minae can be trace laterally for a meter and locally they conform
subcritically climbing translatent strata. Centimetre-thick cross-lami-
nated sandstones showing tangential foresets lamination shows upper
truncation defined by the toplap of the cross-lamination and the trun-
cation by an irregular surface, which is covered by onlapping lamina-
tion of overlying subritically climbing translatent strata showing pre-
served ripple cross-lamination (Fig. 3A and B). Recent erosion following
lamination reveal that darker mm-thick silty lamination is interbedded
locally with the sandy laminae defining the subcritically climbing
translatent strata.
This outcrop shows two deformed levels in stratigraphic order
(Fig. 3A and B): (i) a lower deformed level showing coherent folds and
associated semi-coherent microfolds; and (ii) an upper level containing
downsagging structures with associated thinning of laminae thickness.
The lower deformed level showing coherent folds shows two folds se-
parated laterally by 18 cm and are located in the same level covering
different sedimentary facies. Slump fold 1 shows a fan-shape formed by
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Fig. 1. Simplified structural map showing the location of South China and its tectonic subdivision (A) (modified from Li et al., 2017), the distribution of major units
of SSDSs in east Asia during the middle-Cretaceous (B) and late-Cretaceous (modified from Wu et al., 2018).

Fig. 2. Cretaceous chronostratigraphy of the Lanping Basin, Chuxiong Basin, Youxian Basin, and Xinjiang Basin (Ge et al., 1994; Li et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2017a,
2017b, 2018; Xi et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2016).

a disrupted core and margins conforming semi-coherent folds and a
gentle and symmetric shape in the upper part defining a coherent fold
with semi-coherent limbs showing recumbent drag microfolds dis-
rupted by inverse micro-faults. Slump fold 2 shows a series of thrust
faults disrupting aeolian wind ripple lamination and generating kink
folds in front of the edge of the detachment level (Fig. 3B and C). This
detachment level corresponds with a muddy layer that acted as local
detachment from which deformation progressed.
The upper deformed level showing downsagging deformations
shows three main structures similar in shape and characterized by
blended lamination showing thickness reduction of surrounding lami-
nation towards to the central part of the deformed unit. The core of the
deformed structures is structureless showing angular (triangular) ter-
minations (Fig. 3A and B).

3
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
Fig. 3. Mid-Cretaceous Matoushan Fm. in the Chuxiong Basin. (A) Field pho-
tograph and (B) line drawing of a deformed interval in aeolian dune apron
sandstones. Note the theropod track deforming underlying lamination and the
underying slump fold and the onlapping geometry of subcritically climbing
translatent strata on the eroded foreset. (C) Field photograph and (B) line
drawing of the same deformation level showing a fan thrust complex.
3.2. Case study 2: soft-sediment deformation types associated with aeolian
bounding surfaces
The Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin
shows different styles of soft-sediment deformations in an outcrop
formed by two different non-deformed sedimentary facies (Fig. 4A–F).
4
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
The predominant sedimentary facies are formed by m-thick intervals of
red fine-grained sandstones showing decametric long tangential cross-
bedding. Secondary facies are formed by horizontal, dm-thick lami-
nated sandstones and siltstones that can be traced laterally for tens of
meters as stratigraphic markers that can be traced with continuity at
outcrop scale (Fig. 4A and B). These laminated facies, which are partly
deformed themselves, are separating two intervals; (i) the upper one,
formed by the previously described sandstones with cross-bedding; and
(ii) a lower one (1 m-thick, minimum thickness at outcrop scale) that
contains the soft-sediment deformed beds. Although single bedding and
laminae of the laminated facies can be traced laterally for several me-
ters, individual strata and lamina show locally some deformations in
the form of flame structures and lamina disruption (Fig. 4C–F).
Large scale cross-bedding of the overlying sandstones downlaps
onto the laminated horizontal facies. The lower sandy interval contains
ball-and-pillow structures (7–15 cm in diameter) contained in disrupted
lamination and structureless sandstone intervals. Intraformational
breccias show 2–4 cm diameter intraclasts; the proportion of intraclasts
decreases with distance moving from the parent laminated facies
(Fig. 4C and D). Lamination is often bended and curved down and lo-
cally some fractures are observed.
3.3. Case study 3: recurrent deformation of aeolian dune foresets
The Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin
shows an exceptional record of recurrent deformation on aeolian dune
grainflow deposits (Fig. 5A–C). The studied outcrop shows two intervals
formed by fine-grained well sorted red sandstones with large cross-
bedding, every set attaining metric thicknesses (3–8 m) and formed by
dm-thick tabular strata dipping 30° and showing a downlapping ter-
mination against the underlying bounding stratigraphic surfaces. Both
m-thick cross-bedded intervals are separated by a m-thick interval of
horizontally laminated well sorted red sandstones (Fig. 5A–C). The
stratigraphic contact between this interval and the underlying cross-
bedded sandstones is a sharp and flat surface defined by the toplap of
the underlying cross-bedded set (see IS in Fig. 5A and C). The strati-
graphic relationship of this horizontally bedded interval with the upper
cross-bedded set is a pinch out that can be recognize for14 m.
Internally, the lower large-scale cross-bedded set show alternation
of deformed intervals and non-deformed intervals. Deformed intervals
display a variety of geometries including (i) a complete obliteration of
the original bedding and minor sedimentary structures, (ii) contorted
and disrupted bedding showing crinkle and crenulated stratification
and (iii) thrust faults zones.
These deformed intervals are constrained in between sets of non-
deformed large scale cross-bedding that defined a downlap geometry
over the irregular and distorted upper limit of the inclined deformed
intervals (Fig. 5A and C).
3.4. Case study 4: Large-scale deformation types associated with sediment
liquefaction in large-scale cross-bedded sandstones
The Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin
shows two exceptional preserved mega-deformations encased in mega
cross-bedded sandstone succession. Two different outcrops have been
studied in detail and deformations and stratigraphic markers have been
mapped in detail (Figs. 6 and 7).
Examples of large-scale deformation in the Late Cretaceous
Tangbian Formation show a variety of deformation styles. In Fig. 6, a
7 m-thick succession of red sandstones of this unit showing two main
differentiated intervals are observed. A strongly deformed lower part
with a lateral thickness variation from 4 to 2 m, showing a lateral
variation in deformation style. Preserved original cross-bedding (see
“1″ in Fig. 6B), is covered by overturned cross-bedding (see “2″ in
Fig. 6B), reaching dipping of 90° with respect to the stratigraphic
markers of the overlying non-deformed interval, containing also some
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Fig. 4. Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin. (A) Field photograph and (B) close up view of (A), showing seismites in dry interdune laminated
deposits. (C) Field photograph and (D) interpretation of a sand injection into the interdune laminated facies leading to lamination bending, curving and sagging. (E)
Field photograph and (F) interpretation of another sand injection generating intraclast breccias in the underlying homogenized sandstones.

minor fault planes. This part merges laterally to an interval showing
disrupted, crinkly and refolded stratification (see “3″ in Fig. 6C) which
is finally covered by a clear interval showing downsagging structures of
homogenized sandstones showing some recumbent folds in the upper
part (see “4″ in Fig. 4D). This final part is delimitated by a clear irre-
gular and folded stratigraphic marker that separates the underlying
interval with disrupted stratification and the homogenized sandstones.
The deformed interval is sharply covered by downlapping geometries,
defined my large-scale cross-bedded sets contained in a non-deformed
succession of more than 5 m thick. This succession of fine-grained
sandstones shows m-, to dm-thick strata, each of them possessing in-
ternally laterally persistent lamination, which is parallel to the main
bounding surfaces that defined the sets.
The second studied outcrop of the Late Cretaceous Tangbian
Formation shows another example of large-scale deformation (Fig. 7).
This outcrop is more than 10 m thick and shows three main strati-
graphic intervals (Fig. 7A and B); (i) a lower one showing preserved
cross-bedded sets sharply covered by an irregular stratigraphic surface,
over which a (ii) 2–3 m thick deformed interval is present showing
homogenized sandstones and deformed cross-bedding, and this is in
turn overlain by (iii) an upper deformed part which is delineated by a
irregular and curved surface that separates underlying deformed cross-
bedding from overlying folded and partly homogenized sandstones
(Fig. 7C). This uppermost interval is sharply covered by a stratification
surface over which a succession of more than 8 m containing tangential
cross-bedded sets is observed (Fig. 7C).

5
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Fig. 5. Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin. (A) Interbedding on aeolian dune foreset deposits of deformed and non-deformed intervals.
Deformed intervals display a variety of deformation styles including thrust duplexes, recumbent folds and distorted bedding. Deformed levels are covered by non-
deformed aeolian dune foreset facies. (B) Field photograph and (C) line drawing showing two deformation levels separated by non-deformed foreset stratification.

4. Discussion Entrada Sandstone interdune deposits reported by Kocurek (1981) (see

4.1. Potential trigger mechanisms of deformation
4.1.1. Intrastratal deformation triggered by theropod's tracks in wet to
damp dune aprons
Subcritically climbing translatent strata is formed due to the mi-
gration of wind ripples in aeolian sandsheets and interdunes sub-
environments (cf. Hunter, 1977; Rodríuez-López et al., 2008) where
small aeolian megarripples can form leading to tangential cross-bedded
sets, as those observed in Fig. 3A and B. The occurrence of interlayering
of dark red muddy and silty laminae with aeolian sandy layers reflects
the interaction between water laid fine-grained sediments with wind-
blown sands in wind ripples; very similar ones can be observed in the
his Fig. 8). During periods of time characterized by a more notable wind
activity wind ripples migrates leading to subcritically climbing trans-
latent strata and aeolian megaripples. Deflation could lead to the partial
erosion of aeolian megaripples that where covered why onlapping wind
ripple lamination as the wind patter in the margin of the interdune
changed.
Aeolian dune aprons are complex sedimentary systems formed by
granular sediments and characterized by (i) the interaction between
aeolian sand grains, normally accumulated by grainflow and grain fall
deposits, (ii) the reworking of these sediments by secondary winds
blowing parallel to the main direction of the dune apron, (iii) the effects
of oscillations ofthe phreatic level of the wet interdune as well as by (iv)
the disturbance by insects and vertebrates looking for food, refuge and

6
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Fig. 6. Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin. (A) Field photograph and (B) line drawing of large-scale deformations in aeolian dunes. Note (1)
original bedding, (2) upturned and deformed stratification, (3) recumbent folds and microfolds and (4) upper liquefied sandstones showing a lower irregular and net
contact with the underlying deformation structures. Deformed interval is covered by very large-scale corss-beedded cosets of aeolian megadunes (draas). See text for
explanation.

water, and undertaking locomotion (walking or crawling).
The stratigraphic and structural relationships between the two de-
formation levels observed in the Mid-Cretaceous Matoushan Fm. are
genetically related. The three angular structures that conformed the
upper deformed level resemble those structures generated in aeolian
dunes by theropod foot prints (cf. Milàn and Loope, 2007). The sharp
triangular deformation, the spatial relationship between the three de-
formations and the structureless cores of the deformations could in-
dicate that they formed as consequence of the foot print of the fingers of
a theropod dinosaur (cf. Milàn et al., 2008). Similar structures have
been described in detail by Loope (2006) in the Jurassic Navajo Sand-
stone in the US, where (i) a central “shaft” of the tracks is recognized
together with (ii) folded substrate in the laterals and (iii) a central
downfold (see Loope, 2006) as those observed from the Cretaceous of
China (Fig. 3A and B). A very distinctive and diagnostic criteria for the
recognition of animal tracks in aeolian successions is the lateral
variation of the thickness of the pin stripe lamination affected by the
track (Fig. 3B); this has been previously reported from theropod's tracks
in the Jurassic Navajo Formation (Loope, 2006), by Pleistocene verte-
brates in coastal dunes in Mallorca, Spain (Fornós et al., 2002) and from
Cainozoic vertebrates in aeolian dunes of the Escorihuela Formation in
the Teruel Basin (Spain) (Rodríguez-López et al., 2012a).
Deformation styles triggered by trackers in aeolian sands are vari-
able; thus, in the Navajo Sandstones tracks are infilled by sucessive
grainflow strata (Loope, 2006), as also has been reported from the
Pliocene of Spain (Rodríguez-López et al., 2012b). In the Pleistocene of
Mallorca, trackers triggered faulting in their margins (Fornós et al.,
2002). The development of fold-thrust ramp systems is also common
(e.g. Graversen et al., 2007).
Where the trackmaker emplaced the foot vertically in the slopping
surface of the aeolian dune foreset or apron, the weight of the animal
triggers the deformation of underlying sediments generating thrust

7
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Fig. 7. Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin. (A) Field photograph and (B) line drawing showing large-scale deformations in aeolian dune
sandstones. Note the upper liquefied interval separated from the underlying deformed sandstones by a net and irregular contact. (C) Close up view from (A) showing
the liquefied sandstones sharply covered by downlapping foresets of overlying aeolian dune sandstones. See text for explanation.

8
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Fig. 8. Paleoprecipitation maps (mm) for ca 80 Ma redrawn and modified from Chen (2009). Note the increase of precipitations in the desert basin as monsoon rains
moved towards northern palaeolatitudes in summer. Basin scale processes associated with different periods of time during the year in the desert basin. See text for
discussion.

9
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
faults, imbricate fan thrust complexes and en echelon fold trains as those
observed in Fig. 3C and D. (cf. Milàn and Loope, 2007; Alsop et al.,
2019). The main detachment level is a muddy interlayer located in the
subcritically climbing translatent strata that probably formed when the
dune apron was flooded by a rising of the water level of the interdune.
Interlayered detachment levels play a critical role both in basin scale
extensional settings (e.g. Rodríguez-López et al., 2007a) as well as at
dm-thick scales as those here reported.
4.1.2. Seismites in dry interdune laminated facies
The thick intervals formed by fine-grained sandstones showing
tangential cross-bedding represents accumulation of windblown sands
in transverse dune foresets (cf. Kerr and Dott, 1988; Rodríuez-López
et al., 2008) and the horizontally and laterally continuous laminated
facies are interpreted as dry interdune deposits (cf. Rodríuez-López
et al., 2008). Loading-triggered deformations as those associated with
inverse density gradients are expected in dune-interdune systems where
rheology of involved facies is markedly different (e.g. sandy dune facies
over muddy intedune ones). Soft-sediment deformations in dune-in-
terdune stratigraphic contact is common, mostly when thick muddy wet
interdune deposits are encased in between thick accumulations of
aeolian dune facies. Loading of overlying aeolian dune sands during
progradation tends to deform the underlying wet interdune sediments
leading to a variety of geometies and contortion of the stratigraphic
contact (cf. Mountney, 2006; Rodríuez-López et al., 2008). However,
this is not the case of the studied outcrop in the Late Cretaceous
Tangbian Formation where deformation is nearly absent in the strati-
graphic contact between the overlying aeolian dune sandstones and the
underlying laminated interdune facies. A variety of deformation types,
including ball-and pillow structures, intraformational breccias and
bended laminations appear from this contact to the underlying aeolian
dune sandstones. Interdune facies from China are “dry” meaning that
they can have a minor proportion of silty and muddy interñayers but
they are basically constituted by the same sand grains that form the
dunes. These interdunes form when aeolian dunes climb each other
with a phreatic level below the accumulation surface (Kocurek, 1981;
Mountney, 2006; Rodríuez-López et al., 2008). In the absence of inverse
density gradient, and considering that the upper stratigraphic contact
between dune and interdune facies is almost undisrupted, another
trigger mechanism should be invoked. Pseudo ball-and-pillow struc-
tures here are different from other ball-and-pillow structures where
sandy balls and pillows from sunk from the upper parent layer in
thixotropic clays and mudstones. In the present case, pseudo balls and
pillows formed as consequence of the breakup and curving of interdune
silty parent layers during its sunk in, probably cohesionless liquefied
aeolian dune sandstones when their strength was temporarily reduced
(Allen, 1982; Owen, 1987; Liesa et al., 2016). The occurrence of in-
traformational breccias formed by fragmented and curved interdune
layers indicates that a bidirectional and maintain lateral motion could
have favoured the ongoing process of interdune layer breakup and
curving (Fig. 4C–F).
One of the main stratigraphic markers is the sandy intelayer marked
as “IS” in Fig. 4C. This layer increases its thickness towards the central
part of the main deformation structure and decreases its thickness
moving away from it into the interdune laminated sediments (Fig. 4C
and D). This could indicate that part of the liquified sands where in-
jected into the overlying laminated interdune facies favouring the
curving and breakup of the lamination. Injection of liquefied aeolian
sands was stopped by the stratigraphic contact between the interdune
and dune facies that deflected the injection of sand laterally into the
laminated interdune facies. An analogue of this stratigraphic relation-
ship has been observed in erg dunes of the Jurassic of the Zion National
Park (US) (Loope et al., 2013).
The occurrence of (i) intraformational breccias together with (ii)
sand injections, (iii) an absence of density gradients and (iv) loading as
triggered mechanisms, makes seismic shocks a plausible trigger
10
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
mechanism for these deformations. The sand pipe observed in Fig. 4C
and D, resembles those observed in the middle Jurassic aeolian sand-
stones of the SE of Utah in US interpreted as Husse et al. (2005) as being
triggered by earthquake-induced liquefactions associate with long-lived
tectonic lineaments in response to changes in the regional stress field
(see Loope et al., 2013).
Seismites in interdune deposits have been described in detail in the
Pliocene Escorihuela Formation in the Teruel Basin (eastern Spain)
(Liesa et al., 2016). Brecciation of aeolian lamination have been also
reported from seismites in aeolian facies from the middle-late Pleisto-
cene aeolian deposits in the Apulian foreland, southern Italy (Moretti,
2000).
4.1.3. Heavy rain-triggered recurrent mass wasting on transverse dune
foresets
The succession of fine-grained well sorted sandstones showing
large-scale cross-bedding with tangential terminations in the toe sets,
separated by m-thick intervals of laminated sediments are interpreted
as a stratigraphic succession of two climbing transverse aeolian dune
foresets separated by interdune facies (cf. Kocurek, 1991; Mountney,
2006; Rodríguez-López et al., 2012a, 2012b). The m-thick accumula-
tion of fine-grained sandstones showing nearly horizontal lamination
are interpreted as dry interdune deposits, accumulated in between
migrating aeolian dune foresets when the capillary fringe of water table
was below the depositional surface of the desert basin (e.g. Rodríguez-
López et al., 2014). The pinch out observed between the upper large-
scale cross-bedded set and the underlying interdune deposits (Fig. 5B
and C) represents grainflow tongues passing down-dip into wind rip-
pled dune plinth and dry interdune strata (cf. Mountney, 2006;
Rodríguez-López et al., 2012b). The preservation of m-thick interdune
deposits, as those observed in China showing this relationship with
overlying dune cross-bedded sets, demonstrate the coexistence of active
dune foresets and active sedimentation in the interdunes while the erg
system migrated (cf. Mountney, 2006).
The lower stratigraphic contact between interdune sandstones and
the underlying cross-bedded set indicates this active migration defining
an interdune surface (IS in Fig. 5A and C) (cf. Mountney, 2006;
Rodríuez-López et al., 2008).
The occurrence of several deformation levels in the aeolian dune
foresets covered by non-deformed lee slope facies indicates that de-
formation events where separated by period of quiescence in terms of
deformation processes affecting dunes. The deformations observed in
the Cretaceous of China display a variety of geometries that can provide
valuable information regarding deformation mechanisms.
The occurrence of a well-preserved interbedded cross-bedded sets
just below the deformed intervals, together with the preserved inclined
cross-bedding in some deformation intervals (Fig. 5B and C) indicates
that trigger mechanism of deformation was not able to mobilized too
much sand in the dune foreset, partially preserving the original dune
foreset stratification. The interbedding of deformed and non-deformed
aeolian cross-bedded sandstones have been reported from the Late
Cretaceous Caiuá Desert, Bauru Basin, in Brazil (Fernandes et al., 2007)
(see their Fig. 11) and interpreted as earthquake-induced deformations.
An important clue to unravel the trigger mechanism of the de-
formations recorded in the Cretaceous of China is the syndepositional
thrust faults developed in the foreset of one of the transverse dunes.
Thrust faults have their detachment level in one of the laminations of
the dune foreset and deformation led to a series of thrust faults that
displace the foreset lamination conforming a duplex. The upper surface
of this deformed zone is sharply delineated by smooth erosional surface
that are overlain by undeformed dune foreset deposits. These thrusts on
aeolin dunes and showing this relationship with the overlying aeolian
dune foreset lamination have been described by Loope et al. (2001) in
the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone in the USA (see their Fig. 4). These au-
thors indicate that the thrusted slabs in these Jurassic dunes record
movement of coherent masses of aeolian sand that would only be likely
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
if porewater pressure were increased as they were saturated during
summer monsoon rains (Loope et al., 2001).
The Late Cretaceous Tangbian Formation in the Xinjiang Basin
shows at least 5 deformation events between non-deformed aeolian
dune foreset intervals. The slump intervals are covered by downlapping
grainflow deposits indicating that after deformation, sedimentation
continued under “normal” dry conditions. The cyclicity defined by
deformed and non-deformed intervals may suggest a cyclical, or at
least, recurrent process. The cyclicities and deformations observed by
Loope et al. (2001) in the Navajo Sandstone represents annual cycles
recorded in the desert dune foresets containing the record of annual
monsoon rains.
4.1.4. Multistage large-scale deformation of desert megadune (draa)
deposits
The occurrence of successions of fine-grained red sandstones at-
taining thicknesses of more than 10 m and showing giant cross-bedding
are interpreted as represent accumulation of windblown sediments in
complex dunes (draas) (cf. Rodríuez-López et al., 2008). The lateral and
continuous lamination preserved in every horizontal m-thick set is
formed by the migration of wind ripples as well as by grainfall deposits
that are normally intensively reworked by secondary winds blowing in
the middle and lower sectors of draa plinths (cf. Clemmensen, 1989;
Scherer, 2000, 2002; Rodríuez-López et al., 2008). The occurrence of
preserved m-thick cross-bedded sets in some of the studied outcrops
(see “1″ in Fig. 7B) indicates that superimposed crescentic dunes de-
veloped associated with the migration of complex dunes (cf. Mountney,
2006; Rodríuez-López et al., 2008).
Mega deformations occur associated with these crescentic dune fa-
cies and covered by downlapping, non-deformed draa plinth wind
ripple lamination (see Scherer, 2000; Rodríuez-López et al., 2008)
postdating deformation events. Some gravitational component is ex-
pected to be involved during deformation considering the overturned
stratification and the progressive deformation from the underlying
parent cross-bedding, however this was not significant as no record of
significant lateral displacement is observed, as demonstrates the pre-
servation of some original bedding preserved in place inside the de-
formed intervals.
The discussion on the trigger mechanism of this type of deformation
is interesting deformations is presented in the next section. The detail
sedimentological and architectural study carried out in the aeolian
desert system of the Mid- and Late-Cretaceous of China allowed dif-
ferentiation and categorization ofseveral soft-sediment deformation
types by different deformation processes ranging from small-scale
structures associated with dinosaur tracks to mega deformations af-
fecting multi-meter thick intervals of large-scale cross bedded sand-
stones.
As indicated above, all these deformation structures have been
previously reported from Mesozoic erg systems with one exception, the
exceptionally preserved deformations in the Late Cretaceous Tangbian
Formation in the Xinjiang Basin where highly disrupted aeolian sand-
stones are covered by liquified irregular aeolian sandstones (Figs. 6 and
7).
Mega deformation in aeolian dune sandstones have been reported
by Hurst and Glennie (2008) in the Hopeman Sandstone (late Permian),
Scotland (cf. Glennie and Hurst, 2007). These authors highlight that
“exceptional precipitation and flooding of the desert margin are believed to
have caused mass-wasting by gravitational collapse and sliding of water-
saturated dunes” (Hurst & Glennie, 2008; abstract). Also, similar mega
deformation structures have been reported from aeolian dune facies of
the Navajo Sandstone (e.g. Bryan et al., 2009; Chan and Bruhn, 2014)
associated with strong ground motion driven by long-duration surface
waves of a large earthquake (> Mw 7–8).
These works exemplify the two end members of the possible trigger
mechanisms of these deformations in thick erg sandstones: (i) rain-
triggered deformation and (ii) earthquake-triggered deformation.
11
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
The desert basin in which the erg systems represented by the
Campanian Tanbian Formation accumulated was affected by intense
monsoonal rainfall during June-July-August as indicates the palaeo-
climate modelling and palaeoprecipitation reconstructions by Chen
(2009) (ca 80 Ma) (Fig. 8). The palaeoclimate maps of these authors
shows that the desert basin, that was located at a palaeolatitude of 30°N
in east Asia, alternates, yearly, periods of time with significant mon-
soonal rains and periods of times with limited water input to the desert
basin, although during winter monsoon an increase of precipitation has
been also observed at 30°N (Fig. 8).
The alternation of at least 5 deformed intervals, showing soft-sedi-
ment deformations in the foresets of the large aeolian dune deposits of
the Campanian Tanbian Formation alternating with non-deformed
grainflow deposits (Fig. 5) demonstrates a cyclical pattern and alter-
nation of deformation and non-deformation processes, being some of
the deformations covered by liquified sandstones (Figs. 6 and 7). These
liquefactions affecting the already deformed foresets indicates that an
event deformed the already deformed foresets.
During the monsoonal season (Fig. 8), heavy rains falling directly to
the erg system and the catchment areas in the surrounding mountain
ranges associated with the volcanic arc of east Asia, recharged the
ground water system of the desert basin leading to a fast rise of the
capillary fringe of the regional water table. These monsoonal rains can
explain the simplest deformations observed in the foresets of the aeo-
lian dunes of China. The general assumption in literature regarding the
origin of mega deformations in erg sequences, is that earthquakes
constitute one of the main trigger mechanisms and that deformations
coincides with a moment in which a high phreatic level in the pore
system of the dunes was present. Here, we propose that, as has been
recently demonstrated in Quaternary systems, heavy rains can trigger
earthquakes in active tectonic basins as this could be the case for the
back-arc desert basin in the Campanian of China and its Jurassic Navajo
counterpart in the USA.
The analysis of meteorological and seismic data carried out by Kraft
et al. (2006) in the Mt. Hochstaufen region (SE Germany) demonstrated
that “pore pressure changes induced by rainfall are able to trigger earth-
quake activity even at 4 km depth via the mechanism of fluid diffusion”.
These authors, observed that seismicity increased with the onset of the
intense rain events, indeed maximum seismicity was reached approxi-
mately 10 days after the onset of rains staying on an elevated level for
several weeks (Kraft et al., 2006). Husen et al. (2007) reported also
triggered seismicity in the central Swiss Alps following the large rainfall
event of August 2005, 47 earthquakes over a 12-hr period; and recently,
Jhonson et al. (2017) have demonstrated that California seismicity rates
are modestly modulated by natural hydrological loading cycles.
In a similar way, the high porosity and permeability of aeolian
dunes receiving monsoonal heavy rains could favoured a quick recharge
of the groundwater system of the desert basin making the regional
basin-scale capillary fringe to rise quickly (Fig. 8), making the basin
load over the underlying bedrock to increase and generating as well an
increase of fluid pressure in the active thrust faults associated with the
uplift and evolution of the back-arc in east Asia.
In this way, and considering that this is a plausible mechanism
demonstrated in recent systems (e.g. Husen et al., 2007; Kraft et al.,
2006), monsoonal rains in the Cretaceous desert basins could triggered
the reactivation of active thrust faults realising energy and generating
earthquakes that deformed and liquefied the aeolian dune sandstones,
even several days after the heavy monsoonal rains.
The recognition of mega deformed aeolian dune foresets sharply
overlain by liquefied sandstones (Figs. 6B and 7C) may well be a re-
spond of a two-step's deformations associated with a main earthquake
and an aftershock of enough magnitude as for triggering liquefaction in
the Late Cretaceous back-arc basin affecting the aeolian desert dune
sands. Earthquakes as small as moment magnitude 4.5 can trigger li-
quefaction in extremely susceptible soil deposits (Green and Bommer,
2019) constituting thick accumulations of high-porosity and
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483

Fig. 9. (A) Variability of mass-wasting processes-related heterogeneities in aeolian dune reservoirs. (B) Expected scenarios of a conceptual aeolian reservoir showing
different sedimentary heterogeneities and characterized with a hydrocarbon flow parallel to bounding aeolian interdune surfaces with variable porosity/permeability
(P/K) values.

12
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
permeability sands in thick aeolian dunes an excellent media for these
earthquake-induced liquefaction processes. Considering that the Cam-
panian deserts of the Tangbian Formation formed in an active back-arc
basin associated with subduction zones (Chen, 2000; Yang, 2013;
Zhang et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2018) (Song et al., 2015) (Yang, 2013
(Chen, 2000; Fan, 2000; Zhang et al., 2016), the late-Cretaceous desert
systems thus accumulated in a geotectonic setting similar to the current
Andes Cordillera. Earthquakes in the central Andean back-arc can reach
magnitudes of 8.7–8.9 (Brooks et al., 2011). Alvarado et al. (1996) re-
ported an earthquake in the Subandean zone of Ecuador (Cutucu Cor-
dillera) an earthquake of Mw 6.8 with large aftershocks recorded within
the first 4 days after the main event, including an earthquake of mag-
nitude (mb) 5.6 6 min later, and a main aftershock (MW = 6.4) 11 h
later. Considering that the Campanian of China accumulated in a si-
milar tectonic setting, palaeoearthquakes of magnitude 6 to 9 were
possible in the desert basin affecting aeolian dunes and aftershocks
prone to generate liquefactions as those observe in Figs. 6 and 7 were
probable in the desert basin.
The relationship between monsoon rains and earthquakes have been
also studied by Hainzl et al. (2015) in India, where seismicity swarms
occurred in 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2011 soon after the monsoon and
lasted for 2–3 months (Hainzl et al., 2015; Rastogi et al., 2012). Mag-
nitude of these monsoon induced earthquakes reached 5.1 values
(Singh and Mishra, 2015) enough for triggering liquefactions as those
observed in the Cretaceous of China.
Bettinelli et al. (2008) reported evidence for seasonal strain and
stress variations in the Nepal Himalaya, induced by water storage
variations which correlate with seasonal variations of seismicity (see
also Chanard et al., 2014).
As indicated above, the kinds of deformation observed in the aeo-
lian dune foresets, including slump folds, disrupted stratification and
thrust fault zones have been previousply reported by Loope et al. (2001)
in the Navajo Sandstone, where these deformed intervals triggered by
monsoonal rains are interbedded with non-deformed aeolian dune
foresets sedimentation indicating seasonality of deformation. Other
mega deformations in the Navajo Sandstone have been interpreted as
result of long duration surface waves by earthquakes of Mw 7–8, that
generated liquefactions in these Jurassic aeolian dune sands (Chan and
Bruhn, 2014). Giant sandstone pipes (meter to decameters inlength)
reported from the Navajo Sandstone, recognized over an area of
20,000 km2 area in SE Utah and affecting more than 100 m of con-
tinental sediments, have been a associated with earthquakes of mag-
nitude Mw ≥ 7 (Husse et al., 2005). Thus, the Monsoon heavy rains
reported by Loope et al. (2001) in the Navajo Sandstone Jurassic erg,
could have triggered an active basin-scale hydroseismicity as con-
sequence of (i) a pore pressure increase in main faults and (ii) a sig-
nificant increase in the groundwater load at basin scale, due to the
infiltration of massive volumes of monsoon rain waters at basin scale
triggering the reported earthquakes (Husse et al., 2005; Chan and
Bruhn, 2014).
We propose here that some of these large-scale deformed units could
have been generated by an increase of pore pressure changes in the
main faults in the basin induced by monsoonal rainfall percolation in
the porous and permeable Navajo erg sandstones and that this is the
same process recorder in the giant erg aeolian dunes in the Cretaceous
of China. This opens an interesting field of research on erg sequences
that will help to understand the temporal and spatial evolution of hy-
droseismicity triggered by monsoon rains in ancient desert basins.
4.2. Mass-wasting of desert sand dunes; a sedimentary heterogeneity of
aeolian reservoirs
Heterogeneities of aeolian reservoirs have been analyzed at seismic
scale, considering the decametric and kilometric compartmentalization
of aeolian reservoirs (e.g. Taggart et al., 2010), (ii) at decametric scale
including the diagenetic heterogeneities due to the growing of giant
13
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
calcite concretions which geometry is controlled by aeolian bounding
surfaces (Arribas et al., 2012) and (iii) at lamina scale where grain flow
laminae typically exhibit permeability of an order of magnitude greater
than the grain-fall and wind-rippled strata which encase them Howell
and Mountney (2001).
Soft-sediment deformation structures can play a relevant role on the
compartmentalization of aeolian reservoirs, in particular creating effi-
cient baffles for hydrocarbons migration (Arribas et al., 2012). De-
positional surfaces in aeolian systems, associated with sedimentary
surfaces (e.g. geometry and relative orientation of aeolian bounding
surfaces, e.g. Rodríguez-López et al., 2013) as well as with structural
surfaces (e.g. sysnediementary thrusting and folding) can control the
geometry of diagenetic heterogeneities in the aeolian reservoirs.
Synsedimentary mass-wasting deformations in aeolian dune sands
constitute relevant hetergeneities in aeolian reservoirs (Fig. 9A). Fig. 9
shows the architecture variability of mass-wasting-related deposits de-
scribed both from outcrop analogues and subsurface aeolian reservoirs.
The dune collapse recorded in the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone trig-
gered thrust duplexes of interdune sediments (Ford et al., 2016)
creating the repetition of subvertical low-permeability and low-porosity
baffles formed by faulted interdune sediments (Fig. 9A). The resultant
architecture of the heterogeneity will depend on the structural re-
lationship between the detachment level (parent intedune strata) and
the geometry and lateral connectivity of the thrust duplex and the
lateral continuity of the associated interdune surface (Fig. 9A).
Aeolian sandstones of the Permian Rotliegend Group constitute the
main gas reservoirs of the Southern North Sea Basin, where the oc-
currence of mass-flow and in-situ soft-sediment deformed deposits to
the top of the Group triggered by the trangression of the Zetchstein sea
on the erg margin, generates a poorer quality reservoir (Strömbäck and
Howell, 2002). The resultant architecture is a thicker Weissliegend fa-
cies associated with interdune depressions and thinning towards the
dune crest. Both in-situ soft-sediment deformation and sandy gravity
mass flows into interdune areas are considered the main mechanisms
responsible of the deposition of the Weissliegend facies (Strömbäck and
Howell, 2002) creating poorer quality reservoirs draping aeolian dune
reservoirs.
The occurrence of cyclic or at least recurrent deformation intervals
in large-scale aeolian dune foresets from the Cretaceous of the South
China Block constitutes a significant sedimentary heterogeneity that
could impacts on the hydrocarbon migration pathway, in particular in
those with a significant lateral flow (Fig. 9A and B).
The resultant heterogeneity architecture will depend on (i) the
connectivity of mass-flow deposits in the aeolian dune foreset, (ii) the
early cementation and fines reworking associated with the mass flow
transport and deposition and (iii) the porosity and permeability of the
underlying and overlying interdune facies; in this case, the worst-case
scenario (from the migration point of view) is that in which both the
inclined mass-flow deposits and the interdune facies show low porosity
and low permeability values creating a perfect sedimentary trap
(Fig. 9B).
The future integration of 3D geometry of sedimentary hetero-
geneities in outcrop analogues with the petrophysical properties of
mass-flow deposits and aeolian dune reservoir-prone facies will help to
refine the classification of sedimentary heterogeneities in aeolian dune
reservoirs associated with mass-flow deposits.
5. Conclusions
A variety of soft-sediment deformation types have been recognized
in Campanian aeolian sandstones in the South China Block. These de-
positional systems experienced recurrent deformation associated with
desert animals, rains and earthquakes, some of them possibly triggered
by monsoon precipitation events. The interbedding of deformed and
non-deformed aeolian dune foreset deposits indicates the alternation
between quiescent and deformation periods. Monsoon rains falling on
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
desert basins characterized by extensive permeable aeolian dunes in a
tectonic active back-arc basin constitute the perfect mix for deforma-
tions. The recurrent development of mass-flow deposits in aeolian dune
foresets constitute a potential baffle for hydrocarbon migration in
aeolian reservoirs. The final connectivity of inclined mass-flow deposits
with the overlying and underlying impermeable interdune facies may
generate unexpected sedimentary traps in aeolian sandstone reservoirs.
The effect of mass-wasting processes lead to compaction and associated
reduction of poroperm values, together with an increased of aeolian
dust infiltration after monsoonal downpours lixiviation of dust particles
from aeolian grains. The role of monsoon-triggered earthquakes in
Mesozoic erg sequences worldwide opens an interesting new research
line that will help to understand the effect of combined action of allo-
genic processes on these continental depositional systems.
Credit author statement
This research was funded by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China via the following awards: No. 41872099,
41602127, 41688103, 41672111.
The authors jointly designed the study. C. H. Wu have participated
in 2 field practice. J. P. Rodríguez-López wrote the original draft, in-
cluding, interpreting various facies associations, drawing 9 figures; C.
H. Wu revised the manuscript, including the modification of text and
figures, the suggestion of discussion part; J. P. Rodríguez-López and C.
H. Wu polish the manuscript, including checking the English grammar
and the modification of text and figures. All authors discussed the re-
sults and the manuscript. All persons who have made substantial con-
tributions to the work reported in the manuscript, including reviewers
provide previous comments.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We want to thank Associate Editor Dr. Roberto Tinterri for his
editorial work on the manuscript, as well as the constructive, positive
and useful suggestions of reviewers Professor Nigel Mountney,
Professor Michael Brookfield and Dr. Steven Fryberger. We thank also
Dr. Gerald Bryant for his time reviewing the manuscript and his com-
ments. We appreciate Shuai Zhang, Gaojie Li, Yun Chen, Hailei Tang
and Kai Yan for their assistance in the field. This research was funded
by the National Natural Science Foundation of China via the following
awards: No. 41872099, 41602127, 41688103, 41672111.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104483.
References
Ahlbrandt, T.S., Fryberger, S.G., Ethridge, F.G., Flores, R.M., 1981. Sedimentary features
and significance of interdune deposits. SEPM (Soc. Sediment. Geol.) Spec. Publ., vol.
31, 293–314 Recent and Ancient Nonmarine Depositional Environments.
Al-Masrahy, M.A., Mountney, N.P., 2013. Remote sensing of spatial variability in aeolian
dune and interdune morphology in the Rub’ Al-Khali, Saudi Arabia. Aeolian Research
11, 155–170.
Allen, J.R.L., 1982. Sedimentary Structures. Their Character and Physical Basis. Elsevier,
New York, pp. 663.
Alsop, G.I., Weinberger, R., Marco, S., Levi, T., 2019. Folding during soft-sediment de-
formation. In: Bond, C.E., Lebit, H.D. (Eds.), Folding and Fracturing of Rocks: 50
Years of Research since the Seminal Text Book of J. G. Ramsay. vol. 487 Geological
Society, London, Special Publications SP487-1.
14
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
Argüello Scotti, A., Veiga, G.D., 2015. Morphological charcaterization of an exceptionally
preserved eolian system: the cretaceous Troncoso inferior member in Neuquén Basin
(Argentina). Lat. Am. J. Sedimentol. Basin Anal. 22, 29–46.
Arribas, M.E., Rodríguez-López, J.P., Meléndez, N., Soria, A.R., de Boer, P.L., 2012. Giant
calcite concretions in aeolian dune sandstones; sedimentological and architectural
controls on diagenetic heterogeneity, mid-Cretaceous Iberian Desert System, Spain.
Sediment. Geol. 243–244, 130–147.
Bettinelli, P., Avouac, J.-P., Flouzat, M., Bollinger, L., Ramillien, G., Rajaure, S., Sapkota,
S., 2008. Seasonal variations of seismicity and geodetic strain in the Himalaya in-
duced by surface hydrology. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 266, 332–344.
BGMRY, 1969. Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Yunnan Province. 1:200000
Regional Geological Investigation Report of Wuding. Geological Publishing House,
Beijing, pp. 5–6 (In Chinese).
Cao, W., Zahirovic, S., Flament, N., Williams, S., Golonka, J., Müller, R.D., 2017.
Improving global paleogeography since the late Paleozoic using paleobiology.
Biogeosci. Discuss. 14, 1–24.
Chan, M.A., Bruhn, R.L., 2014. Dynamic liquefaction of Jurassic sand dunes: processes,
Origins, and implications. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 39, 1478–1491.
Chanard, K., Avouac, J.P., Ramillien, G., Genrich, J., 2014. Modeling deformationinduced
by seasonal variations of continental water in the Himalaya region: sensitivity to
Earth elastic structure. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 119, 5097–5113.
Charvet, J., Shu, L.S., Shi, Y.S., Guo, L.Z., Faure, M., 1996. The building of South China:
collision of Yangzi and Cathaysia blocks, problems and tentative answers. J. SE Asian
Earth Sci 13, 223–235.
Chen, P.J., 2000. Paleoenvironmental changes during the Cretaceous in eastern China. In:
Hakuyu, O., O, Nlall, J.M. (Eds.), Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy.
Elsevier, pp. 81–90.
Chen, Y., 2009. The TSM Analysis of Lanping-Simao Basin of Western Yunnan Province,
China. China University of Geosciences Press, Wuhan.
Chen, J.F., Foland, K.A., Xing, F.M., Xu, X., Zhou, T.X., 1991. Magmatism along the
southeast margin of the Yangtze block: precambrian collision of the Yangtze and
Cathysia blocks of China. Geology 19, 815–818.
Clemmensen, L.B., 1989. Preservation of interdraa and plinth deposits by the lateral
migration of large linear draas (Lower Permian Yellow Sands, northeast England).
Sediment. Geol. 65, 139–151.
Cojan, I., Thiry, M., 1992. Seismically induced deformation structures in
Oligoceneshallow-marine and aeolian coastal sands (Paris Basin). Tectonophysics
206, 79–89.
Cowan, G., 1993. Identification and significance of aeolian deposits within the dom-
inantly fluvial Sherwood sandstone group of the east Irish Sea Basin, UK. In: In:
North, C.P., Prosser, D.J. (Eds.), Characterization of Fluvial and Aeolian Reservoirs,
vol. 73. Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., pp. 231–245.
DGMRJ, 1997. Department of geology and mineral resources of jiangxi province. In:
Stratigraphy (Lithostratic) of Jiangxi Province. China University of Geosciences Press,
Wuhan, pp. 375 (in Chinese, with English Abstr.).
Elias, A.R., Ros, D.L.F., Mizusaki, A.M., Anjos, S.M., 2004. Diagenetic patterns in eolian/
coastal sabkha reservoirs of the Solimoes Basin, northern Brazil. Sed.Geol. 169,
191–217.
Mancini, E.A., Mink, R.M., Bearden, B.L., Mann, S.D., Bolin, D.E., 1990. Desert en-
vironments and Petroleum geology of the Norphlet Formation, Hatter's Pond field,
Alabama. In: Barwis, J.H., McPherson, J.G., Studlick, J.R.J. (Eds.), Sandstone
Petroleum Reservoirs. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 153–180.
Fan, P., 2000. Accreted terranes and mineral deposits of Indochina. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 18,
343–350.
Fernandes, L.A., de Castro, A.B., Basicili, G., 2007. Seismites in continental sand sea
deposits of the late cretaceous Caiuá Desert, Bauru Basin. Brazil. Sed. Geol. 199,
51–64.
Ford, C., Bryant, G., Nick, K.E., 2016. Architectural evidence of dune collapse in the
Navajo sandstone, zion national Park, Utah. Sediment. Geol. 222–236.
Fryberger, S., 1991. Unusual sedimentary structures in the Oregon coastal dunes. J. Arid
Environ. 21, 131–150.
Fryberger, S., Al Kindy, S., Najwani, H., 2006. High frequency inter-bedding of dune and
extradune sediments in the cambrian Amin Formation in north Oman: control on
reservoir properties (with analogues from modern sediments of Oman). In: GEO 2006
Middle East Conference and Exhibition. Manama, Bahrain.
Ge, Tongming, Liu, Jian, Fan, Limin, Zhong, Shuixian, Wu, Nengyou, A., Baksi, H.V.,
1994. Magnetostratigraphy of the red beds in the hengyang basin. Acta Geol. Sin. 8,
221–233.
Glennie, K.W., Buller, A.T., 1983. The Permian Weissliegend of North West Europe. The
partial deformation of aeolian dune sands caused by the Zechstein transgression.
Sediment. Geol. 35 (1), 43–81.
Glennie, K.W., Hurst, A., 2007. Fluidization and associated soft-sediment deformation in
eolian sandstones: hopeman sandstone (permian), Scotland, and Rotliegend, North
Sea. In: Hurst, A., Cartwright, J. (Eds.), Sand Injectites: Implications for Hydrocarbon
Exploration and Production: AAPG Memoir 87, pp. 245–252.
Graversen, O., Milàn, J., Loope, D.B., 2007. Dinosaur tectonics: a structural analysis of
theropod undertracks with a reconstruction of theropod walking dynamics. J. Geol.
115, 641–654.
Green, R.A., Bommer, J.J., 2019. What is the smallest earthquake magnitude that needs to
be considered in assessing liquefaction hazard? Earthq. Spectra 35, 1441–1464.
Hainzl, S., Aggarwal, S.K., Khan, P.K., Rastogi, B.K., 2015. Monsoon-induced earthquake
activity in Talala, Gujarat, India. Geophys. J. Int. 200, 627–637.
Hartwick, E., 2010. Eolian architecture of sandstone reservoirs in the Covenant field. In:
Sevier County, Utah [abs.]. vol. 42. Geological Society of America, Abstracts with
Programs, pp. 52.
Heward, A.P., Schofield, P., Gluyas, J., 2003. The rotliegende reservoir in block 30/24,
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
UK centralNorth sea: including the argyll (renamed ardmore) and innes. fields:
Petrol. Geosci. 9, 295–307.
Howell, J., Mountney, N., 2001. Aeolian Grain Flow Architecture: Hard Data for Reservoir
Models and Implications for Red Bed Sequence Stratigraphy: Petroleum Geoscience,
V. 7. pp. 51–56.
Hunter, R.E., 1977. Basic types of stratification in small eolian dunes. Sedimentology 24,
361–387.
Husse, M., Shoulders, S.J., Netoff, D.I., Cartwright, J., 2005. Giant sandstone record
basin-scale liquefaction of buried dune sands in the Middle Jurassic of SE Utah. Terra.
Nova 17, 80–85.
Jhonson, C.W., Fu, Y., Bürgmann, R., 2017. Seasonal water storage, stress modulation,
and California seismicity. Science 356, 1161–1164.
Jiang, X.S., Pan, Z.X., Xu, J.S., Li, X.Y., Xie, G.G., Xiao, Z.J., 2008. Late cretaceous aeolian
dunes and reconstruction of palaeo-wind belts of the Xinjiang Basin, jiangxi province,
China. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 257, 58–66.
Kerr, D.R., Dott, R.H., 1988. Eolian dune types preserved in tensleep sandstone
(Pennsylvanian–Permian), northcentral Wyoming. Sediment. Geol. 56, 383–402.
Kocurek, G., 1981. Significance of interdune deposits and bounding surfaces in aeolian
dune sands. Sedimentology 28, 753–780.
Kocurek, G., 1991. Interpretation of ancient eolian sand dunes. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet
Sci. 19, 43–75.
Kocurek, G., 2003. Limits on extreme eolian systems: sahara of Mauritania and Jurassic
Navajo Sandstone examples. In: In: Chan, M., Archer, A. (Eds.), Extreme Depositional
Environments: Mega End Members in Geologic Time, vol. 370. Geological Society of
America, Special Paper, pp. 143–156.
Kraft, T., Wassermann, J., Schmedes, E., Igel, H., 2006. Meteorological triggering of
earthquake swarms at Mt. Hochstaufen, SE-Germany. Tectonophysics 424, 245–258.
Kugler, R.L., Mink, R.M., 1999. Depositional and diagenetic history and petroleum
geology of the Jurassic Norphlet Formation of the Alabama coastal waters area and
adjacent federal waters area. Mar. Georesour. Geotechnol. 17, 215–232.
Li, Z.X., Li, X.H., Zhou, H.W., Kinny, P.D., 2002. Grevillian continental collision in South
China: new SHRIMP U–Pb zircon results and implications for the configuration of
Rodinia. Geology 30, 163–166.
Li, X.H., Li, W.X., Li, Z.X., Lo, C.H., Wang, J., Ye, M.F., Yang, Y.H., 2009. Amalgamation
between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks in South China: constraints from SHRIMP
U–Pb zircon ages, geochemistry and Nd–Hf isotopes of the Shuangxiwu volcanic
rocks. Precambrian Res. 174, 117–128.
Li, Z.X., Li, X.H., Chung, S.L., Lo, C.H., Xu, X.S., Li, W.X., 2012. Magmatic switch-on and
switch-off along the South China continental margin since the Permian: transition
from an Andean-type to a Western Pacific-type plate boundary. Tectonophysics 532,
271–290.
Li, S., Advokaat, E.L., Van Hinsbergen, D.J.J., Koymans, M., Deng, C., Zhu, R., 2017.
Paleomagnetic constraints on the mesozoic-cenozoic paleolatitudinal and rotational
history of indochina and south China: review and updated kinematic reconstruction.
Earth Sci. Rev. 171, 58–77.
Li, G., Wu, C., Rodríguez-López, J.P., Yi, H., Xia, G., Wagreich, M., 2018. Mid-cretaceous
aeolian desert systems in the yunlong area of the Lanping Basin, China: implications
for palaeoatmosphere dynamics and paleoclimatic change in east asia. Sediment.
Geol. 364, 121–140.
Liesa, C.L., Rodríguez-López, J.P., Ezquerro, L., Alfaro, P., Rodríguez-Pascua, M.A.,
Lafuente, P., Arlegui, L., Simón, J.L., 2016. Facies control on seismites in an allu-
vial–aeolian system: the Pliocene dunefield of the Teruel half-graben basin (eastern
Spain). Sediment. Geol. 344, 237–252.
Lindqulst, S.J., 1988. Practical characterization of eolian reservoirs for development:
Nugget Sandstone, Utah-Wyoming thrust belt. Sediment. Geol. 56, 315–339.
Loope, D.B., 2006. Dry-season tracks in dinosaur-triggered grainflows. Palaios 21,
132–142.
Loope, D.B., Rowe, C.M., 2003. Long-lived pluvial episodes during deposition of the
Navajo Sandstone. J. Geol. 111, 223–232.
Loope, D.B., Rowe, C.M., Joeckel, R.M., 2001. Annual monsoon rains recorded by Jurassic
dunes. Nature 412, 64–66.
Loope, D.B., Elder, J.F., Zlotnik, V.A., Kettler, R.M., Pederson, D.T., 2013. Jurassic
earthquake sequence recorded by multiple generations of sand blows, Zion National
Park, Utah. Geology 41, 1131–1134.
McKee, E.D., Bigarella, J.J., 1972. Deformational structures in Brazilian coastal dunes. J.
Sediment. Petrol. 42, 670–681.
McKie, T., Aggett, J., Hogg, A.J.C., 1993. Reservoir architecture of the upper Sherwood
sandstone, wytch farm field, southern England. In: In: UNDERHILL, J.R. (Ed.),
Development, Evolution and Petroleum Geology of the Wessex Basin, vol. 133.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, pp. 399–406.
Meadows, N.S., Beach, A., 1993. Structural and climatic controls on facies distribution in
a mixed fluvial and aeolian reservoir: the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone in the Irish
Sea. In: In: North, C.P., Prosser, D.J. (Eds.), Characterization of Fluvial and Aeolian
Reservoirs, vol. 73. Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., pp. 247–264.
Melvin, J., Heine, C.J., 2004. Sequence Stratigraphy of an Eolian Gas Sand: Layering in
the Permian Unayzah-A Reservoir at South Ghawar, Eastern Saudi Arabia.
GeoArabia, pp. 103 Abstract, 9.
Milàn, J., Loope, D.B., 2007. Preservation and erosion of theropod tracks in eolian de-
posits: examples from the Middle Jurassic Entrada Sandstone. U.S.A. J. of Geol. 115,
375–386.
Milàn, J., Loope, D.B., Bromley, R.G., 2008. Crouching theropod and Navahopus saur-
opodomorph tracks from the early Jurassic Navajo Sandstone of USA. Acta
Palaeontol. Pol. 53, 197–205.
Moretti, N., 2000. Soft-sediment deformation structures interpreted as seismites in
middle-late Pleistocene aeolian deposits (Apulian foreland, southern Italy). Sediment.
Geol. 135, 167–179.
15
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
Mountney, N.P., 2006. Periodic accumulation and destruction of aeolian erg sequences in
the permian cedar mesa sandstone, white canyon, southern Utah, USA.
Sedimentology 53, 789–823.
Owen, G., 1987. Deformation processes in unconsolidated sands. In: In: Jones, M.E.,
Preston, R.M.F. (Eds.), Deformation of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks, vol. 29.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, pp. 11–24.
Parry, W.T., Chan, M.A., Nash, B.P., 2009. Diagenetic characteristics of the Jurassic
Navajo Sandstone in the Covenant oil field, central Utah thrust belt. AAPG (Am.
Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 93, 1039–1061.
Ridgley, J.R., Hatch, J.L., 2013. Geology and oil and gas assessment of the todilto total
petroleum system, san juan basin province, New Mexico and Colorado. In: Total
Petroleum Systems and Geologic Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas Resources
in the San Juan Basin Province, Exclusive of Paleozoic Rocks, New Mexico and
Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey, Digital Data Series 69-F, pp. 33 (Chapter 3).
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Liesa, C.L., Meléndez, N., Soria, A.R., 2007a. Normal fault devel-
opment in a sedimentary succession with multiple detachment levels: the Lower
Cretaceous Oliete sub-basin, Eastern Spain. Basin Res. 19, 409–435.
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Meléndez, N., Soria, A.R., Liesa, C.L., Van Loon, A.J., 2007b.
Lateral variability of ancient seismites related to differences in sedimentary facies
(The synrift Escucha Formation, mid-Cretaceous, eastern Spain). Sediment. Geol.
201, 461–484.
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Meléndez, N., de Boer, P.L., Soria, A.R., 2010. The action of wind
and water in a back erg margin system close to the Variscan Iberian Massif.
Sedimentology 57, 1315–1356.
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Meléndez, N., de Boer, P.L., Soria, A.R., 2012a. Controls onmarine-
erg margin cycle variability: aeolian-marine interaction in the Mid-Cretaceous
Iberian Desert System, Spain. Sedimentology 59, 466–501.
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Liesa, C.L., Van Dam, J., Lafuente, P., Arlegui, L., Ezquerro, L., De
Boer, P.L., 2012b. Aeolian construction and alluvial dismantling of a fault-bounded
intracontinental aeolian dune field (Teruel Basin, Spain): a continental perspective on
Late Pliocene climate change and variability. Sedimentology 59, 1536–1567.
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Meléndez, N., de Boer, P.L., Soria, A.R., Liesa, C.L., 2013. Spatial
variability of multicontrolled aeolian supersurfaces in central-erg and marineerg-
margin systems. Aeol. Res. 11, 141–154.
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Clemmensen, L.B., Lancaster, N., Mountney, N.P., Veiga, G.D.,
2014. Archean to recent aeolian sand systems and their sedimentary record: current
understanding and future prospects. Sedimentology 61, 1487–1534.
Rodríguez-López, J.P., Peyrot, D., Barrón, E., 2020. Complex sedimentology and pa-
laeohabitats of Holocene coastal deserts, their topographic controls, and analogues
for the mid-Cretaceous of northern Iberia. Earth Sci. Rev. 201, 103075.
Rodríuez-López, J.P., Meléndez, N., de Boer, P.L., Soria, A.R., 2008. Aeolian sand sea
development along the Mid- Cretaceous Western Tethyan Margin (Spain): erg sedi-
mentology and palaeoclimate implications. Sedimentology 55, 1253–1292.
Scherer, C.M.S., 2000. Eolian dunes of the Botucatu Formation (Cretaceous) in south-
ernmost Brazil: morphology and origin. Sediment. Geol. 137, 63–84.
Scherer, C.M.S., 2002. Preservation of aeolian genetic units by lava flows in the Lower
Cretaceous of the Parana' Basin, southern Brazil. Sedimentology 49, 87–116.
Shu, L., 2012. An analysis of principal features of tectonic evolution in South China Block.
Geol. Bull. China 31, 1035–1053.
Singh, A.P., Mishra, O.P., 2015. Seismological evidence for monsoon induced micro to
moderate earthquake sequence beneath the 2011 Talala, Saurashtra earthquake,
Gujarat, India. Tectonophysics 661, 38–48.
Song, Y., Stepashko, A.A., Ren, J., 2015. The Cretaceous climax of compression in Eastern
Asia: age 87–89 Ma (late Turonian/Coniacian), Pacific cause, continental con-
sequences. Cretac. Res. 55, 262–284.
Strömbäck, A.C., Howell, J.A., 2002. Predicting distribution of remobilized aeolian facies
using sub-surface data: the Weissliegend of the UK Southern North Sea. Petrol.
Geosci. 8, 237–249.
Strömbäck, A., Howell, J.A., Veiga, G.D., 2005. The transgression of an erg – sedi-
mentation and reworking/soft-sediment deformation of aeolian facies: the Cretaceous
Troncoso Member, Neuquen Basin, Argentina. In: Veiga, G.D., G D, Spalletti, L.A.,
Schwarz, E. (Eds.), The Neuquén Basin, Argentina: A Case Study in Sequence
Stratigraphy and Basin Dynamics. vol. 252. Geol.Soc.London Spec.Publ, pp.
163–183 E.
Taggart, S., Hampson, G.J., Jackson, M.D., 2010. High-resolution stratigraphic archi-
tecture and lithological heterogeneity within marginal aeolian reservoir analogues.
Sedimentology 57, 1246–1279.
Uličný, D., 2004. A drying-upward aeolian system of the Bohdašín Formation (Early
Triassic), Sudetes of NE Czech Republic: record of seasonality and long-term pa-
laeoclimate change. Sediment. Geol. 167, 17–39.
Wang, Y.J., Zhang, Y.H., Fan, W.M., Peng, T.P., 2005. Structural signatures and 40Ar–39Ar
geochronology of the indosinian xuefengshan tectonic belt, South China block. J.
Struct. Geol. 27, 985–998.
Wong, J., Sun, M., Xing, G.F., Li, X.H., Zhao, G.C., Wong, K., Wu, F.Y., 2011. Zircon U–Pb
and Hf isotopic study of Mesozoic felsic rocks from eastern Zhejiang, South China:
geochemical contrast between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks. Gondwana Res. 19,
244–259.
Wu, J.H., Zhou, W.X., Zhang, B.T., 2002. Stratigraphical sequence and geochronology of
the late mesozoic era in jiangxi province and northern guangdong province. Geol.
Rev. 48, 44–53.
Wu, C., Liu, C., Shen, L., Wang, J., Zhang, H., 2017a. A cretaceous desert-playa sedi-
mentary system controlled the potash formation in the simao basin. Acta Geol. Sin.
91, 1143–1144.
Wu, C., Liu, C., Yi, H., Xia, G., Zhang, H., Wang, L., et al., 2017b. Mid-Cretaceous desert
system in the simao basin, southwestern China, and its implications for sea-level
change during a greenhouse climate. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 468,
J.P. Rodríguez-López and C. Wu
529–544.
Wu, C., Rodríguez-López, J.P., Liu, C., Sun, X., Wang, J., Xia, G., Wagreich, M., 2018. Late
Cretaceous climbing erg systems in the western Xinjiang Basin. Palaeoatmosphere
dynamics and East Asia margin tectonic forcing on desert expansion and preserva-
tion. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 93, 539–552.
Xi, D.P., Wan, X.Q., Li, G.B., Li, G., 2019. Cretaceous integrative stratigraphy and time-
scale of China. Sci. China Earth Sci. 62, 112–134.
Xu, Z.Q., Zhao, Z.B., Peng, M., et al., 2016. Review of “orogenic plateau”. Acta Petrol. Sin.
32, 3557–3571 (In Chinese with English abstract).
Yang, Y.T., 2013. An unrecognized major collision of the Okhotomorsk block with east
Asia during the late cretaceous, constraints on the plate reorganization of the
northwest pacific. Earth Sci. Rev. 126, 96–115.
Zhang, L., Wang, C., Cao, K., Wang, Q., Tan, J., Gao, Y., 2016. High elevation of Jiaolai
basin during the late cretaceous: implication for the coastal mountains along the east
16
Marine and Petroleum Geology 119 (2020) 104483
Asian margin. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 456, 112–123.
Zhao, G.C., Cawood, P.A., 1999. Tectonothermal evolution of the Mayuan assemblage in
the Cathaysia Block: new evidence for Neoproterozoic collisional-related assembly of
the South China craton. Am. J. Sci. 299, 309–339.
Zhao, J.H., Zhou, M.F., Yan, D.P., Zheng, J.P., Li, J.W., 2011. Reappraisal of the ages of
Neoproterozoic strata in South China: no connection with the Grenvillian orogeny.
Geology 39, 299–302.
Zhou, X.M., Li, W.X., 2000. Origin of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in southeastern China:
implications for lithosphere subduction and underplating of mafic magmas.
Tectonophysics 326, 269–287.
Zhou, X.M., Sun, T., Shen, W.Z., Shu, L.S., Niu, Y.L., 2006. Petrogenesis of Mesozoic
granitoids and volcanic rocks in South China: a response to tectonic evolution.
Episodes 29, 26–33.