Fluvial Sedimentation in A Salt-Controlled Mini-Basin: Stratal Patterns and Facies Assemblages, Sivas Basin, Turkey

Sedimentology (2015) 62, 1513–1545 doi: 10.1111/sed.
12195
Fluvial sedimentation in a salt-controlled mini-basin: stratal

patterns and facies assemblages, Sivas Basin, Turkey
RIC BONNEL*, PHILIPPE
C H A R L O T T E R I B E S * † , C H A R L I E K E R G A R A V A T * † , C ED
CRUMEYROLLE†, JEAN-PAUL CALLOT*, ANDRE POISSON‡, HALUK TEMIZ§ and
JEAN-CLAUDE RINGENBACH†
*LFC-R, Universit e de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, 64012 Pau cedex, France (E-mail: charlotte.
ribes@univ-pau.fr)
†TOTAL SA, CSTJF, avenue Larribau, 64018 Pau, France
‡Department of Earth Sciences, Universit e de Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
§Department of Geological Engineering, Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey
ABSTRACT
The Sivas Basin, located on the Central Anatolian Plateau in Turkey, is an
elongate Oligo-Miocene basin that contains numerous salt-walled mini-
basins. Through field analysis, including stratigraphic section logging, facies
analysis and geological mapping, a detailed tectono-stratigraphic study of
the Emirhan mini-basin and its 26 km thick sediment fill has been under-
taken. Three main palaeoenvironments are recognized – playa-lake, braided
stream and lacustrine – each corresponds to a relatively long-lived deposi-
tional episode within a system that was dominated overall by the develop-
ment of a distributive fluvial system. At local scale, this affects the geometry
of the succession and influences facies distributions within preserved
sequences. Sequences affected by wedge geometries are characterized by
localized channelized sandstone bodies in the area of maximum subsidence
and these pass laterally to floodplain mudstone towards the diaper; several
internal unconformities are recognized. By contrast, sequences affected by
hook geometries display narrow and steep drape-fold geometries with no
evidence of lateral facies change and apparent conformity in the preserved
succession. The sediment fill of the Emirhan mini-basin records the remobi-
lization of diapir-derived detritus and the presence of evaporitic bodies int-
erbedded within the mini-basin, implying the growth of salt walls expressed
at the surface as palaeo-topographic highs. The mini-basin also records the
signature of a regional change in stratigraphic assemblage, passing from
playa-lake facies to large-scale highly amalgamated fluvial facies that repre-
sent progradation of the fluvial system. The initiation and evolution of this
mini-basin involves a variety of local and regional controls. Local factors
include: (i) salt withdrawal, which influenced the rate and style of subsi-
dence and consequently temporal and spatial variation in the stratigraphic
assemblage and the stratal response related to halokinesis; and (ii) salt infla-
tion, which influenced the topographic expression of the diapirs and conse-
quently the occurrence of diapir-derived detritus intercalated within the
otherwise clastic-dominated succession.
Keywords Distributary fluvial system, halokinesis, Karay€
un Formation,
mini-basin, salt tectonics, Sivas Basin.
© 2015 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2015 International Association of Sedimentologists 1513

1514 C. Ribes et al.
INTRODUCTION Venus, 2014) and the Precaspian Basin (Russia;

Barde et al., 2002; Newell et al., 2012) are among
Marine or continental sedimentary successions the most cited published examples of evaporite-
deposited on top of thick salt layers commonly bearing basins of large areal extent. More
result in the generation of multiple discrete mini- generally, however, ancient salt mini-basins with
basins in response to differential subsidence fluvio-lacustrine infill are poorly known due to a
related to salt flow driven by sediment loading lack of suitable outcrops for detailed analysis.
(Hudec & Jackson, 2007; Hudec et al., 2008). Salt- The example described here, the Sivas Basin in
walled mini-basins are ‘synkinematic basins’ that Central Anatolia Plateau in Turkey (Fig. 1), has
subside into relatively thick, allochthonous or not hitherto been the subject of detailed sedimen-
autochthonous salt (Jackson & Talbot, 1991). True tological analysis in relation to salt tectonic stud-
mini-basins are not preferentially controlled by ies. The exceptional exposure of the Sivas Basin
basement tectonics and commonly have polygo- allows a detailed study of the sedimentary fill of
nal plan-form shapes (Rowan & Vendeville, numerous component mini-basins. This region
2006). However, in many examples the location was affected by salt tectonics throughout its Pal-
of salt walls is controlled by the location of inher- aeogene–Neogene history. The central part of the
ited basement structural features (Smith et al., Sivas Basin is compartmentalized into at least 10
1993; Banham & Mountney, 2013a,b). The initia- mini-basins where – based on analysis of stratal
tion and evolution of mini-basins involves a vari- architecture and facies distributions – the entire
ety of local and regional controls. Local factors thickness of accumulated sediment can be shown
include both salt withdrawal, which influences to have been strongly influenced by salt tectonics
the rate and style of subsidence, and salt infla- (Fig. 3; Ringenbach et al., 2013; Callot et al.,
tion, which influences the topographic expres- 2014).
sion of growing diapirs (Andrie et al., 2012; Giles The present study focuses on the Oligocene flu-
& Rowan, 2012). The style of mini-basin develop- vio-lacustrine unit of the Emirhan mini-basin
ment is also dependent on regional changes in (Fig. 3). The aim of this study is to investigate the
climate, tectonic regime and rates of sediment temporal and spatial variation in the stratigraphic
supply (Hodgson et al., 1992; Barde et al., 2002; assemblage and the stratal response in a mini-
Prochnow et al., 2006; Buck et al., 2010; Newell basin related to the salt movement (i.e. halokine-
et al., 2012; Banham & Mountney, 2013c). sis). Specific objectives of this study are as
The study of sedimentary architectures in salt follows: (i) to describe the stratigraphic assem-
mini-basins is important to improve current blage, the stratal pattern and depositional envi-
understanding of the varied controls that ronment of the Emirhan mini-basin; (ii) to
influence sedimentation in mini-basins. document the stratal response to the salt evacua-
Numerous mini-basins have been described tion from beneath the subsiding mini-basin and
from subsurface settings using high-quality three- its rise to generate adjacent salt walls, thereby
dimensional seismic data which allow an investi- resulting in the development of halokinetic
gation of the overall geometries at a vertical reso- sequences; and (iii) to discuss controls on the
lution of 30 to 50 m. Well-log calibrations are relationship between sediment accumulation rate
generally scarce and cored intervals are even scar- and rate of diapiric salt rise during the develop-
cer. Thus, it is only exhumed mini-basins that ment and infill of the Emirhan mini-basin.
crop out that allow detailed sedimentological and
structural investigations at high resolution. Rela-
tively few mini-basins have been described in the GEOLOGICAL SETTING
literature based on outcrop study of fluvio-lacus-
trine depositional systems that record facies asso- The Sivas Basin is located on the Central Anato-
ciations and stratal patterns influenced by lian Plateau of Turkey (Fig. 1A). It overlies parts
variation in the ratio between the rate of salt rise of three crustal blocks: the Pontides thrust belt to
versus the rate of sediment-accumulation (Andrie the north, the Kırsßehir metamorphic massif to
et al., 2012; Giles & Rowan, 2012). La Popa Basin the west and the Tauride–Anatolide block to the
(Mexico; Aschoff & Giles, 2005; Buck et al., 2010; south (Fig. 1; Tatar, 1982; Cater et al., 1991;
Andrie et al., 2012; Giles & Rowan, 2012), the Yilmaz & Yilmaz, 2006). The Sivas Basin is lim-
Paradox Basin (USA; Lawton & Buck, 2006; ited to the north by the Izmir–Ankara–Erzincan
Prochnow et al., 2006; Matthews et al., 2007; suture zone (IAESZ) which delimited the
Trudgill, 2011; Banham & Mountney, 2013a,b,c; Tauride–Anatolide block to the south from the
© 2015 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2015 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 62, 1513–1545
Fluvial sedimentation in a salt controlled mini-basin 1515
A
Eurasian Plate Explanation
N 0 200 km
Black Sea
Suture Zone
Z IAESZ
IAES IAESZ
Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan
Kirsehir
s Basin Fig.1B
Massif Siva (Neotethys north)
An Z
ato BZS ITSZ
TSZ
ITS
lid
e Z I
ride Inner-Tauride
u
Ta BZSZ
Bitlis-Zagros
Aegean Sea (Neotethys South)
36° 37° 38° 39°
B PONTIDES
40°
Sivas Basin
SIVAS
KIRSEHIR Fig.2
ULAS
K
AR
LM
ZI
KI KANGAL
GEMEREK
Kangal Basin TAURUS

50 km
39°
Quaternary Lower Oligocene Trias, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleocene
Upper Miocene-Pliocene Evaporite Neotethyan Ophiolite
Oligo-Miocene (Sivas Basin) Eocene Basement/Metamorphic rocks
Fig. 1. (A) Tectonic setting of the Turkey area, with main continental blocks, major suture zones and Oligocene
Miocene Sivas Basin deposits, modified from Okay et al. (2006). (B) Geological map of the Sivas Basin with the
three major unit blocks and location of the study area, modified from Baykal & Erent€
oz (1966).
Pontides thrust belt to the north (Yilmaz & southward from the present IAESZ onto the
Yilmaz, 2006; Galoyan et al., 2009; Rolland Tauride–Anatolide block during the Coaniacian–
et al., 2009, 2010). The Inner-Tauride suture Santonian (85 Ma; Okay et al., 2006).
zone (ITSZ), which defines the southern part of The Sivas Basin is developed above the em-
the Sivas Basin, separates the much larger placed ophiolite-related material globally com-
Tauride–Anatolide continental unit to the south pressional setting located at the front of the
from the Kırsßehir Massif to the north (Fig. 1; Taurus retroarc. Upper Cretaceous to Palaeocene
Guezou et al., 1997; G€or€
ur et al., 1998; Robertson history is characterized at the southern margin
et al., 2012, 2013). These sutures, which relate to of the Sivas Basin by development of a shallow-
the amalgamation of tectonic units, are expressed water carbonate platform (the G€ urlevik Daḡi and
by ophiolitic m elanges that define the northern Tecßer Daḡi limestone; Figs 1B and 2A; Kurtman,
and the southern part of the elongated east–west 1973; Cater et al., 1991). Eocene deposits are
Sivas Basin (Fig. 1B). Following cessation of sub- developed in a flexural basin attributed to a fore-
duction of the oceanic domain in the Upper land geological setting, south of the location of
Cretaceous, ophiolite material was obducted collisional contact between the Tauride–Anato-
lide and the northern Pontides and Kırsßehir poorly understood in the central (deep) part of
blocks (Kurtman, 1973; Poisson et al., 1996; Ka- the Sivas Basin.
vak et al., 1997; G€ or€
ur et al., 1998; Yilmaz & The Karay€ un red beds are devoid of fossils
Yilmaz, 2006; Onal et al., 2008). and record the initiation of fluvio-lacustrine sed-
The base of the Eocene succession is charac- imentation in the Oligocene (Fig. 2A; Ciner
terized by conglomerate with clasts of ophiolite, et al., 2002; Poisson et al., 2010, 2011). The epi-
marble, radiolarite, limestone and quartz: the sode of deposition represented by the Karay€ un
Bahcßecik conglomerate (Fig. 2A). Above the Formation is thought to have coincided with the
basal conglomerate, the Eocene succession onset of salt tectonics and the subsidence of
records turbidite sedimentation of deep-marine mini-basins in the central part of the Sivas Basin
origin that passes gradationally upwards into (shaded orange in Fig. 2A and B; Callot et al.,
progressively more proximal clastic deposits of 2014). Above the Karay€ un Formation, deposition
the B€ozbel Formation, emplaced in an east–west of the shallow-marine Karaca€ oren Formation
elongated foreland basin, related to the north- records a regional transgression during the Early
ward thrusting of the Tauride collision retroarc Miocene (Kurtman, 1973; Cater et al., 1991;
(Fig. 2A; Kurtman, 1973; Ozc € ßelik & Altunsoy, €
Ozcan et al., 2009; Sirel et al., 2013) which is
1996). The upper part of the Eocene succession expressed as a conformable contact in some
records calcareous mudstone, passing up into places, whereas in numerous locations the mar-
coarser and thicker beds of shallow-marine ine beds onlap the Karay€ un Formation (shaded
facies (Fig. 2A; Cater et al., 1991). The top of blue in Fig. 2B). The Karaca€ oren Formation con-
the Eocene succession is marked by evaporitic tains shallow-marine marls and sandstones that
facies composed of alternating beds of anhydrite are interbedded locally with carbonate strata
and gypsum (Fig. 2A). This evaporitic deposit (Fig. 2B; Kurtman, 1973; Ozcan € et al., 2009;
represents the oldest evaporitic succession in Poisson et al., 2010, 2011; Sirel et al., 2013).
the region and marks the base of the salt-con- The overlying Benlikaya Formation is character-
trolled Sivas Basin sensu stricto. At outcrop this ized by fluvio-lacustrine deposits of middle Mio-
deposit attains thicknesses of 200 m, although cene to Early Pliocene age (shaded yellow in
this is probably not representative of the initial Fig. 2; Kurtman, 1973; Poisson et al., 2010,
thicknesses. Although not seen in outcrop, this 2011) and records the clastic sediment accumu-
evaporite layer is thought to be dominated by lation of sandstone, conglomerate and mudstone
halite at depth: 100 m of halite is recorded in of fluvial origin. This formation is overlain by
the Celalli-1 borehole within a 1500 m thick intercalated deposits of evaporites and lacus-
succession of interbedded shale and anhydrite trine-carbonates (Fig. 2B; Ciner et al., 2002).
(Onal et al., 2008). The transitional sequence The area examined in detail as part of this
corresponding to the autochthonous evaporitic study is in the central part of the Sivas
layer between the foreland basin and the salt Basin, where six of the mini-basins are spectacu-
controlled basin remains a poorly understood larly well-exposed (Fig. 2B). These mini-basins
aspect of the basin geology (Callot et al., 2014). are each separated by salt walls or welds
The evaporite exposed in the northern part of (Fig. 2B). Locally, the thinning of the sedimen-
the basin, which can be autochthonous or tary sequence indicates the location of a former
remobilized, is defined as the Hafik Formation evaporite wall, now preserved in some places as
(Kurtman, 1973), and is now primarily com- weld, probably due to secondary salt wall col-
posed of gypsum and anhydrite of unknown lapse during shortening. The 4 to 6 km wide
thickness (Fig. 1B). Towards the southern mar- Emirhan mini-basin (Figs 2A and 3) is one of the
gin of the basin, the evaporite beds are overlain best exposed of these mini-basins, and provides a
by the fluvial Selemiye Formation, which attains complete along-strike cross-section of the basin-
thicknesses of 2000 m (shaded pink in Fig. 2B; fill sequence that was eroded and exposed at the
Kurtman, 1973; Onal et al., 2008). Whereas, in surface during the Quaternary.
the central part of the Sivas Basin, the evaporite
beds are overlain by a thick succession of red
beds of the fluvio-lacustrine Karay€ un Formation, DATA AND METHODS
attaining thicknesses of 2400 m (Fig. 2B; Kurt-
man, 1973; Cater et al., 1991; Poisson et al., Study of the entire Emirhan mini-basin (30 km²)
1996). The relationship between the continental is based on analysis of more than 6 km of mea-
Selimiye and Karay€ un formations, remains sured sections (Fig. 3). The thickness variations
A B
Ages Lithologies Formations
Pliocene 8 Kızılkavraz
Lacustrine
30 Küpecik
20
Late
Fluvial 40 55 70 N
60 45 35 65
Benlikaya Fm
50
7 Çaygören 45 Tuzhisar 70
45 40 45 75
50 50
40 50
30 30 40
70 65 55 50
50 70
Miocene
50 50
50 60
Shallow 70 80 Eğribuçak
6 60 35
marine Bingöl 70 80
60 80 30
60 75 Akpınar 35
Karacaören Fm
20 50 70 50 70 80 70 70
60 60
E ar ly
60 80 70
Emirhan 80 50
5 80 30 70 20 40
Lacustrine 60
Late
Arpayazı 50 80 40
10 30 70 35 60 30 45
70 30 80 Celallı
Fluvial 40 50 60 20 70
30
20 15 35
Oligocene
10 Karayün
4 30 70 40 15
40 15 30
Karayün Fm
Playa-Lake 25 Yeniköy
20 70 80
Ilkindi 45 15
25 30 15
70
Eskiboğazkesen 20 45 70
Fluvial 30
3 30 35 30 30
20 70 15
20 25
30 30 35
20
Selimiye Fm
Yavu 15 20
Ea r l y
60
50 40
Evaporites 50 Ağılkaya 30
2 70 70 35
55 70 80
Shallow 50
Late
80
water 70 50
70 30
Turbidites 30
Eocene
45 40
1 0 5 km
Turbidites
Bözbel Fm
Caption Early Oligocene Explanation 40 Strike and dip of bedding
Middle Oligocene Anticline
Volcanoclastics Quaternary Evaporite Syncline 70 Strike and dip of overturn
(Karayün Fm)
Ea rl y
Middle - Late Miocene Bedding trace bedding
Paleo- Gürlevik &Tecer Limestones (Benlikaya Fm) Unconformity surface
0 km
cene Early Oligocene Eocene (Bözbel Fm) Strike and vertical dip of bedding
Approximate contact
A f m c gC Early Miocene (Karacaören Fm) (Selimiye Fm) Weld
Fluvial sedimentation in a salt controlled mini-basin
Fig. 2. (A) Regional composite lithostratigraphic column showing the average thickness of the various stratigraphic units in the central Sivas Basin. (B)
Geological map of the central Sivas Basin, showing the location of salt outcrops (black and grey) and the polygonal geometry of gypsum walls surrounding
the mini-basins.
1517
Fig. 3. (A) Google Earth satellite view of the Emirhan mini-basin showing the measured sedimentological sections
and the location of panorama views (coordinates: 39°42.6440 N; 37°13.6680 E). (B) Mapping of the Emirhan mini-
basin, showing the location of palaeocurrent data and satellite and panoramic views.
and lithological attributes of the fluvio-lacustrine well as the architecture of sandstone bodies, the
section were recorded in the field to characterize thickness variations of the stratigraphic units and
the lateral and vertical facies relationships, as the geometry of strata near the boundaries of the
mini-basin. The description of lithofacies and emerging relief made up of ophiolitic and lime-
facies associations and the criteria for the recogni- stone terrains (Figs 1 and 4). The quartz grains
tion of architectural elements of fluvial origin could be attributed to the dismantling of the
follows the classification and interpretation basement and the late Cretaceous–Palaeocene
scheme established by Miall (1985, 1996). The intrusion localized at the southern margin of
classification of Gibling (2006) is used to supple- the Sivas Basin (Fig. 1; Kurtman, 1973). The
ment the description of sandstone bodies, based ophiolitic and limestone cobbles are petro-
on diagnostic criteria such as geometry and graphically similar to lithologies exposed in the
dimension, as well as the proportion and G€urlevik Dagi and Tecßer Dagi carbonate plat-
sequence of facies, stacking pattern, geomorphic forms in thrust sheets that formed the southern
setting and log–log plots of width/thickness (W/ limb of the Sivas Basin during the Oligocene
T) ratio. A Geoeye satellite (Satellite Imaging Cor- (Artan & Sestini, 1971).
poration, Houston, TX, USA) colour composite
image was used to measure the width and thick-
ness of 66 fluvial sandstone bodies. These sand- FACIES ASSEMBLAGES, GEOMORPHIC
stone bodies are typically laterally extensive and SETTING AND STRATAL PATTERN
can be traced for 100 to 3600 m in orientations
perpendicular to regional palaeoflow. One hun- Six facies associations can be defined based on
dred and eight palaeocurrents were measured in texture, sedimentary structures, lithofacies, litho-
the Emirhan mini-basin to determine the drainage logical alternations, sequence stratigraphic archi-
direction and potential source area of sediment tecture and stratal geometry: (A) fluvial floodplain
supply (Figs 3 and 4). The Lindholm (1987) mudstone and conglomerate; (B) fluvial floodplain
methodology was used to calculate the vector terminal splay and playa-lake; (C) fluvial plain
mean, using mainly cross-bedding foreset azi- sheet flood; (D1) amalgamated migrating braided
muths, flute marks and parting lineation. channel complex; (D2) non-migrating low sinuo-
sity braided channels; and (E) saline lacustrine
deposits (Tables 1 and 2; Figs 5 to 7).
PALAEOCURRENTS AND SEDIMENT The correlation and mapping of these facies
PROVENANCE associations across the mini-basin are based on
the recognition of basin-wide surfaces expressed
Palaeocurrent data display an azimuthal range by changes in texture and stratal terminations.
from N300° to N80° with a vector mean palaeo- These facies associations correspond to small-
flow direction towards the north N00° (Figs 3 scale stratal packages that are genetically related,
and 4). The coarse-grained sediments and con- and which are separated by basin-wide surfaces
glomeratic facies observed in the Emirhan mini- expressed by changes in texture, stratal architec-
basin contain a mixture of clastic material, ture and terminations. In the present study, these
including Eocene limestones, ophiolitic rocks, stratal packages represent facies associations that
radiolarian chert, evaporitic rocks and quartz are herein referred to as individual sequences in
grains. The dominantly northward-oriented pal- the sense of a ‘depositional sequence’.
aeocurrents in the Emirhan mini-basin are The lithofacies, facies associations, geomor-
within ophiolitic-clast rich sandy-pebbly chan- phic settings and sequences are summarized in
nels indicating a southerly provenance from Tables 1 to 3, and Figs 5 to 7, whereas general
Fig. 4. Palaeocurrent analyses from four areas of the studied Emirhan mini-basin are plotted as rose diagrams: (i)
westerly-mid part of the mini-basin; (ii) easterly-mid part of the mini-basin; (iii) westerly-Upper part of the mini-
basin and (iv) easterly-upper part of the mini-basin. The rose diagram petal width is 10°. Vm, vector mean palaeo-
flow direction and n, number of measurements. Locations of these measurements are shown in Fig. 3B.
Table 1. Description and interpretation of 16 lithofacies in the Emirhan mini-basin (modified from Miall, 1985,
1996).
Code Lithofacies General Characteristics Interpretation
Gmd Disorganized matrix-sup- Cobbles and pebbles polymictic, sub-angular to sub-rounded poorly Mass flows deposited from hyperconcentrated
ported conglomerates sorted. Beds average 0·5 to 2 m thick, with sharp but non-erosional or turbulent flow
relationships with underlying beds
Gt Trough cross-stratified Cobbles and pebbles normal grading with imbrication. Beds average 1 to Migration of sandy bar forms within fluvial
conglomerates 5m thick with shallow scoop-shaped bodies, typically 0·2 to 1 m deep and channel
1 to 3 m wide. Lag deposits of coarser grain size and mudclasts are common
St Trough cross-stratified Fine to very coarse-grain size, occasionally pebbly. Beds average 0·2 to 3D dune migration, lower flow regime
sandstone 2m thick commonly with a lag of poorly sorted sand with intraclasts of
mudstone at the base of the trough
Sh Horizontally or laminated Very fine to coarse-grain size, occasionally with pebbles, moderate to well Planar bed flow, low or upper flow regime,
stratified sandstone sorting. Beds average 0·2 to 1 m thick, laminations average 5 to 20 mm unconfined fluvial sheetflood
thick, sometimes with the occurrence of parting lineations
Sm Massive sandstone Very fine to coarse-grain size, pebbly, moderate to well sorting, structure- Uniformity of grain-size indicates rapid
less sandstone deposition, or destruction of structure due to
bioturbation
Sr Current ripple cross-strati- Very fine to medium-grain size, moderate sorting. Ripple strata exhibit Migration of micro-form within a fluvial channel
fied sandstone sub-critical (>10°) to supercritical (24°) climbing. Cosets form thickness of or via unconfined flow under low flow regime
decimetres
Sw Wave ripple cross-stratified Very fine to medium-grain size, moderate sorting. Rare and poorly Micro-form developed within small, oscillating
sandstone preserved bodies of water on ponds or small lakes during
periods of high wind velocity
Sb Bioturbated sandstone Very fine to medium-grain size, moderate sorting with abundant burrows Damp substrate subject to intense bioturba-
and plant roots tion, incipient soil
Scours filled by cobbles,

Ss granules and mudstone Very fine to coarse-grained sandstone, conglomerates (extra-formational) Lag deposit
and intra-formational mudclast
clasts
Fm Massive or platy Mudstone to siltstone structureless, occasionally with desiccation cracks Suspension deposits during standing pool of
mudstone water during low-stage channel abandonment
Fl Fine laminated mudstone Inter-lamination of mud, silt and very fine-grained sand, including Suspension or weak traction current deposits,
desiccation cracks overbank or abandoned channel
Fb Bioturbated mudstone Mudstone with abundant burrows, plant roots and desiccation cracks Incipient soil
Fp Pedogenic calcretes Chocolate-red mudstone to siltstone with large proprotion of green Incipient soil
nodular calcrete
C Carbonaceous mud with Dark grey to blue grey micritic carbonaceous Lacustrine environment
plant remains
E Gypsum or anhydrite White to grey deposits, laminated, nodular, enterolithic form Ephemeral lake or sabkha occurring at the distal
fringes of sheetflood fluvial
descriptions and interpretations are presented Table 1 and Fig. 5I) and desiccation cracks (Fb;
below. Fig. 5I) are rarely present. The conglomeratic
beds are internally structureless and contain
matrix-supported clasts (Gmd; Fig. 5A). This
Facies Association A: Fluvial conglomerate
facies association shows heterogeneous single
and floodplain mudstone
beds varying in thickness from 50 cm to 25 m,
Description poorly sorted and largely structureless, with mod-
Facies Association A is typically 3 to 20 m thick erately erosive bases (GB; Tables 2 and 3). Indi-
and comprises 80% red mudstone and 20% vidual conglomerate bodies are laterally
sheet-like conglomerate (Table 3 and Fig. 6). This persistent (50 to 20 m), displaying a sheet-like
facies association is formed by fine-grained mud geometry (W/T = 800 to 900; Fig. 7). Conglome-
bodies, red to purple in colour and 05 to 20 m in rate clast types include rounded to sub-angular
thickness, consisting of massive (Fm; Fig. 5G) limestone, ophiolite, quartzite and evaporite peb-
and laminated (Fl) muds, characterized by fine- ble clasts (Fig. 5A).
grained floodplain architectures (FF; Table 2).
Bioturbation in the form of vertical and horizon- Interpretation
tal burrows (Sb; Fig. 5E), rippled silty-sandstone The conglomerate beds correspond to broad
beds (Sr; Fig. 5H), palaeosol horizons composed single-storey sheets that are wide but thin or
of white to grey calcrete nodules or layers (Fp; very thin (e.g. Gibling, 2006). The conglomerate
Table 2. Description and interpretation of fluvial stratal architectures in the Emirhan mini-basin, modified after
Miall (1996).
Architectural elements Grain size Description Interpretation
Gravel bars (GB) Matrix-supported Sheet-like and lens, Gravel sheets and lens,
conglomerates more than 100 m relatively low-relief
with granules or lateral extent: longitudinal bars
cobbles interbedded with Gmd, Gcd, Gt and Gp
sandstone
Sediment gravity Matrix-supported conglomerates Lobe or sheet-like, Lobe, sheet gravel

flows (SG) with pebbles or boulders interbedded with gravity flow
GB and SB: Gmd and Gcd
Sandy bedform (SB) Fine to coarse gravel sandstone Vertical stack, wedge or Channel fills, dunes
sheet-like, with and crevasse splay
erosional surfaces, lateral
extent up to 50 m:
St, Sp, Sh, Sr, Ss and Sm
Laminated sand Very fine to medium-grained Sheet and minor blanket, Flash flood deposits,
sheet (LS) sandstone, with intraformational erosive base, crevasse splay,
mudclasts lateral extent of more upper flow-regime
than 150 m: Sh, Sr, St and Ss
Overbank fines, Mudstone and very fine to Sheet-like, lateral extent Overbank and
floodplain fines (FF) fine-grained sandstone for more than floodplain
200 m: Sr, Sl, Fl, Fm, Fb,
E and P
beds are characteristic of mass flow deposits, (Fm; Table 1 and Fig. 5G) which are traceable
interpreted as a product of rapidly decelerating for distances in excess of 800 m. The succes-
high-magnitude flow associated with hyper- sion is characterized by frequent vertical transi-
concentrated flash-discharge events on a flood- tions between red and green mudstones. The
plain (e.g. Miall, 1993). This interpretation is red mudstones may contain burrows (Fb;
supported by the presence of sheet-like struc- Table 1 and Fig. 5I), rippled silty-sandstone
tures, gravel clustering, poor sorting and the beds of limited lateral extent and abundant des-
absence of internal stratification (e.g. Nemec & iccation cracks. Palaeosol horizons are devel-
Steel, 1984; North & Davidson, 2012). This oped composed of white to grey calcrete
facies assemblage represents a mud-dominated nodules or layers (Fp; Table 1 and Fig. 5I). In
floodplain with unconfined sandy deposition some cases, this mudstone facies separates
during flooding events, where the muddy por- sheet-like sandstone and evaporite beds. The
tion of each bed records the late stage of the red to light-brown fine to medium-grained
deposit. sandstones are characterized by single beds
with sheet-like and lenticular geometries 01 to
2 m thick, extending laterally for several hun-
dred metres, which are intimately interbedded
Facies Association B: Fluvial terminal splay
with mudstones (W/T = 800 to 900; Table 3
and playa-lake
and Fig. 7). The fine-grained sandstone beds
Description show internal structures including parallel lam-
Facies Association B is typically 2 to 10 m inations (Sl; Table 1), small-scale symmetrical
thick and comprises 70 to 80% mudstone, 20 and asymmetrical ripple laminations with mud-
to 10% evaporites and 10% sandstone (Table 3 stone drapes (Sr and Sw; Table 1 and Fig. 5H)
and Fig. 6). The mudstone facies comprises lat- and massive sandstone (Sm; Table 1 and
erally very extensive red to green horizontally Fig. 5G); they are generally massive to normally
laminated (Fl; Table 1) or massive mudstones graded and pinch out laterally within the red
Table 3. Stratigraphic units, facies associations and lithofacies in the Emirhan mini-basin succession.
Stratigraphic Width/thick- Sandstone

Facies Lithofacies Architectural ness of Sequence showing typical geometry and Interpretation and depositional
units and content
associations elements sandstone facies successions observed in outcrop environments
thickness (m) bodies (%)
Unit 6 Sh, Sr, Sm, St SB

E: LS
50 Saline lacustrine Fl, Fm, Fb, P, LS 220 10 Saline lacustrine environment
with carbonaceous, evaporites
to E FF FF
and sandstone beds
5m
200 C SB
10 m
GB FF
Unit 5 D2: Gt, Gcd, Vertically and laterally amal-
500 Non-migrating Sh, Sr, Sm, SB 284 50 LS gamated sheet-like sandstone
low sinuosity LS with important floodplain
to St, Sp, Ss SB
braided chan- preservation in the braided
nels FF
5m
900 Fl, Fm, Fb plain
10 m GB
FF
Unit 4 D1: Gt, Gcd, GB LS
Amalgamated Sh, Sr, Sm, SB SB Vertically and laterally amal-
500 migrating 800 80 gamated sheet-like sandstone
to braided channel St, Sp, Ss LS in a braided plain with poor
complex preservation of the floodplain
5m
800 Fl, Fm, Fb FF
10 m GB
C: SB SB
Unit 3 Fluvial terminal Sh, Sr, Sm, LS
LS
Playa-lake environment with
150 splay and Fl, Fm, Fb, P 530 40 floodplain deposits and some
floodplain FF unconfined sandy deposition
to mudstone during flooding events
5m
350 FF
10 m
B: Sh, Sr, Sm, SB
Unit 2 Fluvial terminal FF Playa-lake environment with
splay and St LS 890 10 some evaporite deposits locally
400 on the floodplain and some
playa-lake Fl, Fm, Fb, P, FF
to LS unconfined sandy deposition
5m
600 E during flooding events

10 m SB
Gmd, Gt SG FF
Unit 1 A: Mud-dominated floodplain
Fluvial Ss, St, Sm, FF
100 860 20 with unconfined sandy
conglomerate Fl, Fm, Fb, P deposition during flooding
to and floodplain events
5m
300 mudstone SG
10 m
mudstones. Although rare, wood fragments and (LS; Table 2) and sandy bedforms (SB; Tables 2
leaves are present at some localities. The archi- and 3). Evaporite deposits, composed by anhy-
tectural elements include laminated sand sheets drite and gypsum, form laminar or enterolithic
Fig. 5. Outcrop photographs of representative lithofacies observed in the Emirhan mini-basin and summarized in
Tables 1 and 2. (A) Lithofacies Gmd, extraformational conglomerate composed predominantly of ophiolite, igne-
ous, metamorphic and evaporites clasts in a coarse sand matrix, part of pencil for scale: 010 m. (B) Lithofacies
Gt, trough cross-stratified conglomerates, part of pencil for scale: 010 m. (C) Lithofacies St, the picture illustrates
medium-scale fluvial trough cross-bedding, part of Jacob staff for scale: 080 m. (D) Lithofacies Sh, horizontally-
bedded fine to medium-grained sand, repeated small-scale fining-upwards cycles, part of pen for scale: 010 m.
(E) Lithofacies Sb, bioturbated palaeosoil with horizontal and vertical burrows in fine-grained sandstone, part of
pencil for scale: 010 m. (F) Lithofacies Ss, intraformational conglomerate representing a pebble channel lag com-
posed of mudclasts, sand and silt. The intra-formational clasts are sub-rounded to rounded and between 1 cm and
15 cm in size, part of pencil for scale: 010 m. (G) Lithofacies Sm and Fm, massive red mudstone observed at the
bottom of the photograph and a medium-grained massive sandstone at the top, part of Jacob staff for scale:
030 m. (H) Lithofacies Sw, fine-grained to medium-grained sandstone with preserved wave-ripple lamination;
these symmetrical ripples indicate a bidirectional flow regime typical of wind shear influence on shallow water.
Finger is 3 cm in length. (I) Lithofacies Fb, fine-grained sandstone to mudstone with desiccation cracks. Pen is
015 m. (J) Calcic soil with calcium carbonate accumulation. Pen is 015 m. (K) Lithofacies E, evaporitic beds with
laminar and fibrous forms (gypsum and anhydrite). Hammer is 03 m. (L) Lithofacies C, dark to blue grey carbona-
ceous micrite with ostracods and plants. Finger is 3 cm in length. See Table 1 for explanation and interpretation
of lithofacies codes.
facies associated with clay laminae in decime- Interpretation

tre-thick beds, and can be traced laterally for This facies assemblage, which comprises red to
several hundreds of metres (Fig. 5K). green mudstones with evaporite and sheet-like
A B
C D
E F
G H
I J
K L
Fig. 5. (Continued)
sandstone intercalations, suggests a terminal & Davidson, 2012). These sandstone bodies cor-
splay deposit on a floodplain such as docu- respond to broad single-storey sheets that are
mented in the Ebro Basin, Spain (cf. Nichols & wide and thin or very thin (Fig. 7). Current
Fisher, 2007). In such an environment, the ripple-laminated sandstones reflect sediment
sheet-like laminated and current-ripple sand- bed-load transport, while mud/siltstone facies
stone intercalations may represent unconfined represent the settling of suspended sediments
sandy deposition during flooding events (North with slackening flow (Miall, 1985). The presence
Representative sedimentary Legend:

log - Karayün Formation Pb: pebbles, Gr: granules,
Emirhan mini-basin c: coarse-grained sand
m: medium-grained sand,
f: fine-grained sand
E: Evaporite
800 (gypsum & anhydrite)
E 1600
Limestone
Sandy limestone
md: red/green mudstone

Sr
Sh
Facies asso. D1
Marine
Sequence
2400 deposit
F. A. E
E
600
C
1400 Sh
Facles asso. B
Stratigraphic unit
Sh
Fl 2200
St
E Sr
400
Sb 1200 Fm
Gt
Fb
Facies asso. D2
E
Sw Ss
Fp
Sh 2000
St
200 Sr St
Facies asso. C
1000
Facles asso. A
Fm
Fp Gt
Gmd
Sr 1800
Sm
Fm
0m Salt Wall Ss
md E f m c Gr Pb md E f m c Gr Pb md E f m c Gr Pb
Symbol: St, Gt : Trough-cross stratified Water-escape stucture Regional

Sr, Sw : Ripple strata Limits of stratigraphic units unconformity
Ss: Intra- and extra-formational cobbles Limits of sequences Refer to Table 1 for full
lithofacies descriptions
Fig. 6. Representative sedimentary log from sections measured across the Emirhan mini-basin.
Fig. 7. (A) Dimensions of sandstone beds from the Emirhan mini-basin determined from mapping and aerial photog-
raphy. The data represent width and thickness values for apparent individual (not stacked) sandstone bodies and
were corrected for obliquity to palaeoflow. Facies Associations: (F.A. A) fluvial conglomerate and floodplain mud-
stone; (F.A. B) fluvial terminal splay and playa-lake; (F.A. C) fluvial terminal splay and floodplain mudstone; (F.A.
D1) amalgamated migrating braided channel complex; (F.A. D2) non-migrating low sinuosity channels; and (F.A. E)
saline Lacustrine deposits. (B) Classical plot of channel thickness versus channel width for 66 sandstone bodies.
of mudstone drapes on ripples or laminated small ponds (Allen, 1981). The colour changes
stratification also indicate deposition of very might be explained by the reducing conditions
fine-grained material during waning flood stages in an environment controlled by the flooding
(Miall, 1977; Hampton & Horton, 2007). The of ephemeral ponds on mud flats (Yagmurlu &
close relationship between red mudstones and Helvaci, 1994). The mudstone colour, as well
sheet sandstone bodies, as well as the presence as the abundance of desiccation cracks and
of mud cracks, palaeosols and some wood frag- burrows along with loading and water-escape
ments, argues for a floodplain environment (e.g. structures, all indicate varying degrees of sedi-
Bridge, 2003). Thin evaporitic layers intercalated ment supply and sub-aerial exposure (Miall,
in red-green mudstones and associated fluvial 1996).
sheet-sandstone bodies are interpreted to repre-
sent an ephemeral playa environment or a conti-
Facies Association C: Fluvial terminal splay
nental saline mudflat in the terminology of
and floodplain mudstone
Warren (2006; i.e. continental sabkha). Gypsum
and anhydrite were precipitated by sabkha- Description
related processes in an extensive ephemeral Facies Association C is typically 1 to 10 m thick
saline-lake more than 200 m wide (e.g. Warren, and comprises 60% mudstone and 40% sand-
2006). Small-scale symmetrical ripples (Sr) in stone (Fig. 6 and Table 3). This facies association
the siltstone–mudstone alternations are thought is formed by red to purple mudstones, ranging
to be formed by wind-driven waves in water from 05 to 10 m in thickness, extending laterally
depths of a few centimetres, probably within for in excess of 1000 m and being either horizon-
tally laminated (Fl; Table 1) or massive (Fm). Frostick, 1997). Climbing ripples and ripple
This mudstone facies is characterized by fine- cross-bedding in the upper fine-grained intervals
grained floodplain (FF) architectures (Tables 2 of individual sandstone beds indicate decreasing
and 3), forming interlayers that separate the discharge during flood events. The abundant bur-
sand sheets. Bioturbation displaying vertical and rows were probably developed during periods of
horizontal burrows (Sb; Fig. 5E), palaeosol emergence of sand sheets between floods, and the
horizons composed of white to grey calcrete nod- muddy interval of each bed appears to record a
ules or layers (Fp; Table 1 and Fig. 5I) and desic- late stage of sedimentation (Miall, 1996).
cation cracks (Fb; Fig. 5I) are abundant in this
facies. The thin-bedded sandstone is predomi-
Facies Association D1: Amalgamated
nantly composed of reddish, very fine to coarse-
migrating braided channel complex
grained sand and occasional pebbles. Although
individual beds can be internally structureless, Description
with some massive sets (Sm, Table 1 and This thick sheet-like fluvial sandstone facies
Fig. 5G), the sandstones mostly display ripple association consists of 5 to 30 m thick multi-
cross-lamination with thin mud-drapes (Sr; lateral and vertically amalgamated beds with
Table 1), trough-cross-bedded (St; Table 1 and high connectivity, comprising 80% sandstone
Fig. 5C) and laminated (Sh; Table 1 and Fig. 5D) and 20% mudstone (Fig. 6 and Table 3). These
stratification. Beds range from 05 to 2 m thick light brown, yellow or red sandstones are of
and typically extend laterally for 500 m (W/ medium-coarse grained sandstone with well-
T = 500 to 600; Fig. 7). The architectures include sorted limestone, evaporite, ophiolite and meta-
laminated sand sheets (LS; Table 2) and sandy morphic clasts, locally containing red pebble-
bedforms (SB; Table 2). The bases of the sand- sized mud chips (Ss; Table 1). The sandstone is
stone beds are sharp and contain granule-sized embedded within red, laminated (Fl; Table 1) or
sand and red mudstone clasts (Ss; Table 1 and massive (Fm; Table 1) mudstones and some
Fig. 5F). Climbing ripples and ripple cross-lami- examples can be traced laterally over 1000 m.
nation (Sr; Table 1) are common in the upper Individual sandstone beds are 1 to 10 m thick
parts of the thin-bedded sandstone units. The and show fining-upward sequences with flood-
upper boundaries of the sandstone bodies are plain mudstone at the top. The sandstone bodies
mostly flat and show a gradation to red mudstone. show principally sheet-like geometries extending
Sandstone bodies occur as isolated single-storey laterally for hundreds of metres (W/T = 800;
bodies and poorly amalgamated multi-storey and Fig. 7), with little evidence of channelization.
multi-lateral sheets (Table 3). The thickness of The internal structure of the beds is character-
the sandstone bodies, as well as the grain size, ized by a relatively scoured surface at the base
increase upward within the vertical succession overlain by red intraformational mudstone peb-
(Table 3). bles and conglomerate clasts, generally 1 to 5 cm
in diameter, aligned along the basal scour (Ss;
Interpretation Table 1 and Fig. 5F). This basal unit passes up
Sandstone beds are single-storey broad sheets into intervals with small to medium-scale trough
that are wide and very thin to thin (Fig. 7). The cross-stratification (St and Gt; Fig. 5C and B),
sheet-like geometry indicates non-migratory overlain by horizontally stratified sets (Sh) and,
channel bodies and is attributed to the diffuse at the top, climbing-ripple and ripple-cross lami-
flow of unchannelized flood waters across the flu- nation (Sr). The latter lithofacies are picked out
vial plain that probably emanated from points by red to light-grey mud-siltstone couplets, a few
where fluvial channels terminated on the fluvial millimetres thick. Sandy bedforms (SB) and
plain (e.g. Friend, 1978; Tooth, 1999, 2005; North laminated sand sheets (LS) are the most com-
& Davidson, 2012). Planar-parallel-laminated and monly developed architectural elements, along
current-rippled sandstone beds indicate rapid with some gravel bars (GB; Table 2). Scattered
episodes of sand deposition from high-velocity plant fragments are observed, as well as burrows
unidirectional flows and suggest dominant bed- and a variety of dewatering structures.
load transport (Hampton & Horton, 2007). In
addition, sediment settling from a suspended Interpretation
load component is indicated by the widespread This fining-upward sequence forming each
presence of silt-drapes that line current-ripple depositional cycle suggests sedimentation during
laminations on many bedding surfaces (Reid & a single flash flood (e.g. Stear, 1985; North &
Davidson, 2012). The vertical succession from T = 200 to 300; Fig. 7) and possibly more
internal scoured surfaces passing up into trough channelized.
cross-bedding or horizontal bedding overlain by
ripple lamination records fluctuations in dis- Interpretation
charge during a flood event as described by Stear The assemblage of sandy bedforms (SB) and
(1983) in the Permian Lower Beaufort Group of laminated sand sheets (LS) indicates low-sinuo-
the Karoo Basin (South Africa). The sandstone sity channel morphology (Friend, 1978; Miall,
beds correspond to multi-lateral and multi-storey 1996). The sandstone beds correspond to multi-
broad sheets that are of thin to medium thickness lateral and multi-storey sheets that are of med-
(1 to 10 m; Fig. 7), corresponding to frequent ium to large width and of thin to medium thick-
channel shifts and erosion of older channel-belt ness. The aggrading floodplain architecture, the
deposits, forming vertically and laterally stacked dominance of vertically stacked channels and
fluvial deposits (e.g. Friend, 1978; Gibling, 2006). the aggradation of SB in the floodplain deposits
The assemblage of sandy bedforms (SB), lami- suggest a limited tendency to channel migration
nated sand sheets (LS) and local gravel bars (GB) (Friend, 1978; Miall, 1996). The interbedded red
is characteristic of a low-sinuosity channel mor- mudstones (FF) and thin sandstones (LS) repre-
phology developed in an unconfined plain setting sent the floodplain deposits.
(e.g. Friend, 1978; Miall, 1996). The amalgama-
tion of sandstone bodies and the lack of preserva-
Facies Association E: Saline lacustrine
tion of floodplain beds indicates that the
deposits
channels were mobile, migrating laterally and
reworking the adjacent floodplain deposits (Nic- Description
hols & Fisher, 2007). The repeated migration of This facies association is characterized by the
sandstone bodies may cannibalize most of the occurrence of 10% evaporitic beds in associa-
floodplain, resulting in a relatively high proportion with 70% red-green mudstone, 10% sand-
tion of sandstone (Shanley & McCabe, 1994). The stone and 10% calcareous mudstone (Fig. 6 and
abundant intraformational mudclasts and scours Table 3). The facies association consists of 1 to
suggest erosion of significant amounts of cohesive 5 m thick beds of red to green mudstone
mud of the floodplain facies. The recurrent dewa- extending laterally for 100 m, with horizontally
tering structures in the sandstone bodies indicate laminated (Fl) or massive (Fm) mudstones and
a high sedimentation rate (Plint, 1983). The a few separate sand sheets, as well as evapor-
sheet-like geometry of individual or composite ites and carbonate beds (Table 3). The succes-
sandstone bodies is interpreted as a braided sys- sion is characterized by frequent lateral and
tem, where the interbedded red mudstones vertical transitions between red and green mud-
(floodplain fines) and thin sandstones (LS) repre- stone. The evaporitic beds are laminated gyp-
sent the floodplain. sum or anhydrite, with a white and uniform
macrocrystalline matrix. The most commonly
observed structures are ‘chicken wire fabric’
Facies Association D2: Non-migrating low
mosaics forming closely packed anhydrite nod-
sinuosity braided channels
ules 2 to 5 cm in diameter (‘E’; Table 1 and
Description Fig. 5K). The fine to coarse-grained sandstones
This facies association is typically comprises 5 are grey to light brown in colour, making up
to 40 m thick beds and is composed of 50% sheet and lenticular bodies 01 to 1 m thick
amalgamated sheet-like sandstone and 50% extending laterally for hundreds of metres
mudstone (Fig. 6 and Table 3). It consists of which are intimately interbedded with mud-
light brown, light yellow and light red, well- stone (W/T = 200 to 300; Fig. 7). The fine-
sorted medium to very coarse-grained sand- grained sandstone intercalations show parallel
stone to gravel with limestone, evaporite, ophi- laminations (Sl), small-scale symmetrical and
olite and metamorphic clasts, and locally asymmetrical ripple laminations (Sr and Sw),
containing red pebble-size mud chips (Ss). and trough cross-beds (St). The architecture ele-
This facies association is close in characteris- ments include laminated sand sheets (LS) and
tics to D1, but is less amalgamated, with sandy bedforms (SB; Table 2). The limestone
thicker fluvial plain packages separating the beds correspond to dark grey dolomitic mud-
individual sand beds. Furthermore, individual stone, and attain thicknesses of a few decime-
sandstone beds are less laterally extensive (W/ tres (‘C’; Table 1 and Fig. 5L). These beds
contain ostracods and plant debris, such as bodies (Fig. 9). This lateral facies transition is
charophytes (i.e. green alga), but exposure fea- recorded on both sides of the basin at a dis-
tures were not observed in this unit. tance of ca 500 m from the margins of the
mini-basin. The conglomeratic beds comprise a
Interpretation small proportion of rounded to sub-angular
This assemblage with dark grey dolomitic mud- white anhydrite and gypsum clasts up to 8 cm
stone, red-green mudstone, evaporitic facies and in diameter evenly distributed throughout the
sandstone bodies represents a progressive transi- unit (Fig. 5A). These evaporitic clasts are inter-
tion to a saline lacustrine environment (e.g. Duna- preted as diapir-derived detritus (e.g. Lawton
gan & Turner, 2004). The dolomitic mudstone & Buck, 2006).
facies reflects the establishment of a perennial
lake (e.g. Warren, 2006). This perennial lake
Unit 2: Fluvial terminal splay and playa-lake
records small-scale symmetrical ripples (Sr) in
the sandstone–siltstone alternations which are Unit 2 attains a thickness of 400 to 600 m and is
thought to be formed by wind-driven waves in dominated by Facies Association B (Table 3). It
water depths of a few centimetres (e.g. Allen, consists of clearly defined single-storey sheet-
1981). The evaporitic beds represent periods like fine-grained sandstone bodies, containing
characterized by high evaporation rates relative to 80% interbedded mudstone material as well as
groundwater and surface water input into the lake local evaporitic facies (Fig. 8C). This unit is
(e.g. Dunagan & Turner, 2004; Warren, 2006). characterized by a 600 m thick depocentre in
This saline lake facies association corresponds to the western part of the mini-basin, which forms
the end of continental sedimentation in the Emir- halokinetic growth strata (Figs 9 and 10; e.g.
han mini-basin. Giles & Lawton, 2002). This unit shows basin-
wide thinning towards the eastern boundary,
with low-angle progressive unconformities
STRATIGRAPHIC ASSEMBLAGES AND between stratal packages (Fig. 9). The eastern
SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS part of the deposit exhibits lateral facies transi-
tion from fine-grained sandstone beds to flood-
The facies associations discussed above occur plain mudstone towards the eastern boundary
stacked together to form six stratigraphic units with no evidence of evaporitic facies.
(Table 3 and Fig. 8A). Units 1 to 6 correspond to The sequences in the western part initially
the vertical stacking of several individual facies show small low-angle progressive unconformities
associations, and are bounded by relatively sharp onlapped by a succession of upturned stratal
and/or erosional surfaces at the scale of the Emir- packages, with 90° unconformities between each
han mini-basin. These stratigraphic assemblages small sequence and no thickness variation (Figs 9
exhibit some spatial and temporal variations and 10). The sequences in the small low-angle
which are described below. progressive unconformities also exhibit lateral
facies transition from fine-grained sandstone beds
to floodplain mudstone towards the western
Unit 1: Fluvial conglomerate and floodplain
boundary with a disappearance of the evaporitic
mudstone
facies 700 m from the boundary. However, the
Unit 1 attains a thickness of 100 to 300 m and overlying stratal package records preservation of
is dominated by Facies Association A the sandstone bodies and evaporitic beds until the
(Table 3). This unit consists of clearly defined western salt wall, even in the upturned structures.
single-storey sheet-like conglomerate bodies
and contains 80% interbedded mudstone
Unit 3: Fluvial terminal splay and floodplain
which is distributed into two depocentres in
mudstone
the middle part of the mini-basin (Figs 8B to
10). The facies association making up Unit 1 Unit 3 attains a thickness of 150 to 350 m and is
exhibits a thinning of strata with onlap and dominated by Facies Association C, with sand
low-angle unconformities present towards the content increasing towards the top of the succes-
basin margin (Figs 9 and 10). The conglomer- sion (Table 3 and Fig. 8D). This unit exhibits a
ate bodies are localized in the central part of basin-wide gradual thinning from 350 to 150 m
the mini-basin and pass laterally into flood- towards the eastern basin margin over a distance
plain mudstone and very thin silty fine sand of 2 km (Figs 9 and 10). The mudstone propor-
A North South
Unit 5
Unit 4
Unit 3
Salt Wall
50 m Unit 2
Outcrop Expression: Emirhan mini-basin Unit 1
B North South
Salt
Wall
Wedge
Sheet-like
elements
60 m
Fig. 8. Representative views of the
Emirhan mini-basin and the six
units. Locations of panoramic views
are shown in Fig. 3A. (A) Shows an
Unit 1 overview of the Emirhan mini-
basin. (B) Unit 1 consists of fluvial
C South North
conglomerate and floodplain
mudstone, and reaches a thickness
of 100 to 300 m with overturned
beds dipping 70° close to the salt
80 m diapir until vertical in the upper
part of the unit. (C) Unit 2 consists
of fluvial terminal splay and playa-
lake, and reaches a thickness of 400
to 600 m with vertical and
Sheet-like elements
overturned beds dipping 80°.
Representative views of the
Emirhan mini-basin and the six
Units. Locations of panoramic
Unit 2 views are shown in Fig. 3A. (D)
D North South Unit 3 consists of fluvial terminal
splay and floodplain mudstone and
Single-storey element reaches a thickness of 150 to 350 m
can be traced >2 km laterally with overturned beds dipping 80°.
Unit 4
(E) Unit 4 consists of amalgamated
migrating braided channel complex,
and reaches a thickness of 400 to
800 m with overturned beds
dipping 70. (F) Unit 5 consists of
non-migrating low sinuosity
channels, and reaches a thickness of
400 to 900 m with overturned beds
Sheet-like dipping 70°. (G) Unit 5 consists of
2m
elements saline lacustrine deposits and
reaches a thickness of 50 to 150 m
Unit 3 with overturned beds dipping 70°.
Fig. 8. (Continued)
tion in this unit increases progressively towards truncated by a younger sequence (Figs 9 and 10).
the east with lateral facies transition from fine- The western part of Unit 3 records a preservation
grained sandstone beds to floodplain mudstone. of the facies and stratal package towards the wes-
This change commences 900 m from the eastern tern salt wall (Fig. 9). The sandstone beds con-
edge of the mini-basin. In contrast, the western tain rare rounded to sub-angular white anhydrite
margin records no thinning of the sequences, and gypsum clasts ranging from 1 to 3 cm in
although each is individually strongly upturned diameter (i.e. diapir-derived detritus) which are
very close to the edge of the mini-basin and is evenly distributed throughout the unit.
derived debris, which prevents direct observation

Unit 4: Amalgamated migrating braided
of the field relations. Unit 4 exhibits a homoge-
channel complex
neous facies assemblage and distribution all the
Unit 4 attains a thickness of 400 to 800 m and is way along the unit with evaporitic clasts.
dominated by Facies Association D1 (Table 3).
This unit is characterized by a high proportion of
sheet-like sandstones that are laterally and verti- Unit 5: Non-migrating low sinuosity braided
cally amalgamated, and the lack of preservation channels
of floodplain mudstones (Figs 8E and 9). Unit 4 is Unit 5 attains a thickness of 500 to 900 m and is
a largely isopachous deposit, although a minor dominated by Facies Association D2 (Table 3).
depocentre is identified in the eastern part of the Unit 5 comprises both a multi-storey and a
Emirhan mini-basin (Fig. 10). This stratigraphic sheet-like sandstone body with abundant preser-
unit is affected by an upturning of the sequence vation of floodplain mudstone (Fig. 8F). The
sets, which are truncated and onlapped by marine width to thickness ratio of the sandstone bodies
deposits of the Karaca€oren Formation at the east- between Unit 4 and Unit 5 decreases signifi-
ern boundary of the mini-basin (Figs 9 and 10). cantly (W/T from 800 to 200; Fig. 7). This unit is
An upturning of two sequences is observed near characterized by a depocentre localized in the
the western boundary of the mini-basin, and these western part of the mini-basin with a thinning of
sequences are truncated and overlain by a youn- the unit towards the eastern boundary. However,
ger sequence (Figs 9 and 10). The western edge of the succession is partly eroded and onlapped by
this unit is partially covered by modern diapir- marine deposits of the Karaca€ oren Formation
Legend: mini-basin
Unit 6 70
Quaternary Unit 6: Saline Lacustrine deposit
Lacu Marine (Karacaören Fm.) Unit 5: Non-migrating low sinuosity
s braided channels
trine Lacustrine deposits Unit 4: Amalgamated migrating braided
Evaporitic structures: channel complex
diapir, glacier, etc Unit 3: Fluvial terminal splay and
Sandstone beds
Unit 2: Fluvial terminal splay and
Evaporitic beds playa-lake
Unit 5 Limit of Units Unit 1: Fluvial conglomerate and
Fault
70 Limit of hook geometry Onlap, Downlap Toplap, Truncation
Evaporitic weld Unconformities between non-marine
and marine deposits
?
Fluvial
Unit 4
70
80
Unit 3
80
80
Unit 2
ake
Playa-L
55
85
Unit 1 80
Emirhan
0m 500
Fig. 9. Map showing distribution of sandstones and six units making up the Karayun Formation in the Emirhan
mini-basin. The map shows the depositional boundaries between the units and the stratal geometries.
A Western margin EMIRHAN MINI-BASIN Eastern margin

680
660
990
B
980
970
960
950
2500 Regional unconformity: Transgression N

940
930
920
Regional unconformity: Transgression

910
900
890
880
Unit 6
870
860
850
840
830
820
810
800
790
780
770
760
750
Sandst
one
740
730
720 2420
710 2410
700 2400
690 2390
680 2380
Mudst
670 2370
660 2360
one
650 2350
640 2340
630 2330
620 2320
610 2310
600 2300
590 2290
2280 580
580
570 2270 570
560 2260 560
550 2250 550
540 2240 540
A8 F
530 2230 530
520 2220 520
2210 510
510
500
500 2200
490
490 2190
E2
480
480 2180
470 2170 2170 470
a G f m g mc c
460
460 2160
100 m
450 2150 450
2000 Unit 5
440 2140 440
430 430
2130 430
a G f m g mc c
2120 4200
420
410
410 2110
400 400
2100
390 390
2090
380
380 2080
370
370 2070
360 360
2060
2050 350
350
2040 340 340

340
330 330
330 2030
320 320
320 2020
310 2010 310 310
2000 300 300

300
290 290
290 1990
280 280
280 280 1980
270 270
270 270 1970
260 260 1960 260 260
250 250 1950 250 250
240 240 1940 240 240
230 230 1930 230 230
220 220 1920 220 220
210 210 1910 210 210
200 200 1900 200 200
190 190 1890 190 190
180 1880 180 180
170 170 1870 170 170
160 160 1860 160 160
150 150 1850 150 150
140 140 1840 140 140
130
A7
130 130 1830 130
120 120 1820 120 120
110 110 1810 110 110
100 100 1800 100 100
90 90 90 90
1790
80 80 1780 80 80
E1
1770 70 70
F
70 70 1770
C
a G f m g mc c
D Datum
60 60 1760 60 60
Fig.10B
50 50 1750 50 50
40 40 1740 40 40
Expansion Surface
30 30 1730 30 30
20 20 1720 20 20
10 10 1710 10 10
0 0 1700 0 0
a G f m g mc c a G f m g mc c a G f m g mc c a G f m g mc c 1190
1690
1180
1680
1170
1670
1160
1660
1150
1500
1650
1140
1640
1130
1630
1120
1620
1110
1610
1100
1600
1090
1590
1080
1580
1070
1570
1060
1560
1050
1550
A6
1040
1540
1030
1530
1020
B6
1520
1010
1510
1000
1500
990
Unit 4
1490
980
1480
970
1470 1470
a G f m g mc c 960 960
1460 a G f m g mc c
950
1450
940
1440 90
930 100
1430 80
920 90
70
1420
910 80
60
1410
900
70
B4
50
1400
890
60
40
1390
B3
880
50 30
1380
870
40 20
1370
860
30 10
1360
850 20 0
1350
a G f m g mc c
840
10
1340
830 0
1330
a G f m g mc c
820
1320
810
1310
800
1300
790
1290
B5
780
1280
770
1270
760
1260
750
1250
740
1240
730
1230
720
1220 a G f m g mc c
1210
Sequence Boundary A5
1200
1190
1180
1170
1160
1000
1150
1140
1140
a G f m g mc c
1130
1120
1110
FD
1100
1090
1080
1070
1060
1050
1040
720
1030
710
1020
700
1010
690
Unit 3
1000
680
990
670
980
660
970
650
960
640
950
630
940
^ ^ ^
620
930
610
920
A4
600
910
590
900
580
890
570
880
560
870
550
860
860
a G f m g mc c
540
850
530
840
520
830
510
820
500
810
B2
490
800
480
790
470
780
460
770
450
760
440
750
430
430
740 a G f m g mc c
4200
730
410
720
400
710
390
700
380
690
370
680
360
670
350
660
340
500
650
330
640
320
630
310
620
300
610
290
600
280
590
270
580
Unit 2
260
570
250
560
240
550
230
540
220
B1
530
210
520
200
510
190
500
A3
180
490
170
480
160
470
150
460 a G f m g mc c
450
440
430
430
a G f m g mc c
420
290
410
280
400
270
390
260
380
250
370
240
360
230
350
C: Fluvial terminal splay and

220
Facies associations
340
210
330
200
320
190
310
180
300
170
290
160
280
150
270
140
260
E: Saline Lacustrine deposit

130
B: Fluvial terminal splay and

250
Unit 1
120
240
110
230
100
220
90
playa-lake
210
80
200
70
190
60
D2: Non-migrating low sinuosity

180
A1
50
250 m
170
40
A: Fluvial conglomerate and

160
0m
30
150
A2
20
140
braided channels
10
130
0
120
a G f m g mc c
110
100
90
a G f m g mc c
D1: Amalgamated migrating Onlap, Downlap

braided channel complex Toplap, Truncation
Fig. 10. (A) Stratigraphic and facies assemblage panel for the Emirhan mini-basin, based on field mapping and
correlation of measured outcrop sections. The panel summarizes major stratigraphic thickness changes and angu-
lar stratal relationships across the study area. (B) Google Earth satellite view of the eastern part of Unit 5 in the
Emirhan mini-basin, showing lateral facies changes from sandstone beds to floodplain mudstone, occurring at a
maximum of 500 m from the marine unconformity towards the west.
(Figs 9 and 10). The lower part of Unit 5 exhibits DEPOSITIONAL MODEL
a lateral facies change from sandstone beds to
floodplain mudstone, occurring at a maximum The stratigraphic evolution of the Emirhan mini-
distance of 500 m laterally from the unconfor- basin has been established via: (i) the character-
mity in the east (Fig. 10B). The termination of ization of facies assemblages and interpretation of
sequences at the western boundary does not the geomorphic significance; and (ii) assessment
show any upturning, thinning or facies assem- of the significance of stratal stacking patterns of
blage change; the sandstone bodies abut directly sediment bodies (architectural elements). From
against the diapir. this analysis, three depositional palaeoenviron-
ments are interpreted: (i) playa-lake and distal
fluvial fan, (ii) braided fluvial; and (iii) saline
Unit 6: Saline lacustrine deposits
lacustrine (Fig. 9).
Unit 6 attains a thickness of 50 to 200 m and is
dominated by Facies Association E (Table 3 and
Depositional environment
Fig. 8G). This unit conformably overlies Unit 5
and thickens towards the west. Unit 6 is partly Units 1, 2 and 3: Playa-lake and distal fluvial
eroded and onlapped by marine deposits of the fan deposits
Karaca€oren Formation (Figs 9 and 10). A lack of Units 1, 2 and 3 attain a maximum thickness of
outcrop prevents a detailed analysis of its geo- 1300 m, and consist of red to green floodplain
metry. This unit records no obvious lateral mudstone with 10% isolated sandy or conglo-
change in the facies assemblage. merate bodies and evaporite deposits. Sandy
and conglomerate bedforms (SB and GB) and (e.g. Warren, 2006). Sandy bedforms (SB) and
laminated sand sheet (LS) bodies are character- laminated sand sheets (LS) are characteristi-
ized by their small thickness and large areal cally thin and form moderately wide sheet-like
extent, being very poorly channelized and bodies that are mainly isolated from each
mostly isolated from one another. The W/T ratio other. The W/T ratio of these bodies is typi-
ranges from 500 to 900, corresponding to broad cally 800, corresponding to broad sheets. Sand-
sheets. The architectural elements are consistent stone bodies are interpreted as fluvial-
with ephemeral sheet-flood sand beds deposited dominated deltas. This facies association is
in the distal parts of a terminal fan (e.g. Miall, characteristic of a saline lacustrine system with
1996; Cain & Mountney, 2009; North & David- a perennial lake (e.g. Dunagan & Turner, 2004;
son, 2012) with local development of continen- Warren, 2006).
tal saline mudflats environments characterized
by evaporite deposition due to sabkha-related
Regional depositional environment:
processes (e.g. Warren, 2006). The vertical facies
Distributive fluvial system
arrangement records a succession of red and
green mud and evaporite facies that can be Distributive fluvial systems (DFS) represent:
attributed to successive progradation and retro- “deposits of a fluvial system which in planform
gradation of the system (Fig. 8C; e.g. Jackson displays a radial, distributive channel pattern”
et al., 1990). (Hartley et al., 2010). The fluvial sand bodies of
the Emirhan mini-basin described here lack the
Units 4 and 5: Fluvial braided deposits with distinct river channel incisions developed in
low sinuosity many arid to semi-arid climatic settings. As
The combined thickness of these units varies such, they are similar to both modern (Hartley
from 1300 m at the western boundary to 800 m et al., 2010; Weissmann et al., 2010, 2013;
at the eastern boundary of the mini-basin. Units Davidson et al., 2013) and ancient examples of
4 and 5 are characterized by sandy bedforms DFS (Fig. 10; Friend, 1978, Parkash et al., 1983;
(SB), laminated sand sheets (LS) and especially Stear, 1983; Kelly & Olsen, 1993; Nichols &
by gravel bars (GB), which result in a marked Fisher, 2007; Cain & Mountney, 2009). Recogni-
change in mean grain-size. These units are tion of this type of depositional system in the
dominated by poorly channelized amalgamated Emirhan mini-basin is based on the identifica-
sheet-like sandstone bodies interbedded with tion of the following features: (i) evidence for
rare examples of floodplain fines in Unit 4 and sand deposition largely via non-confined sheet-
more abundant floodplain fines in Unit 5 like flow; (ii) the occurrence of playa deposits;
(Fig. 9). The W/T ratio of the sand bodies is (iii) the sheet-like geometry and form of the
200 to 800, corresponding to broad sheets. sandstone bodies; and (iv) an absence of valley-
Architectural elements comprise vertically and fills and notably incised channels.
laterally amalgamated channel bodies with The radial form of many distributive fluvial
multi-storey and multi-lateral sheet sandstones systems (DFS) is recorded by the pattern of pal-
marking a change in the dominant stacking pat- aeocurrents at a regional scale (e.g. Friend, 1978;
tern. This facies association is characteristic of Nichols & Fisher, 2007). However, palaeocurrent
proximal braided river plains, particularly in data collected from the Emirhan mini-basin are
arid regions where ephemeral run-off forms a concentrated from a small area such that a regio-
network of shallow and poorly defined interact- nal radial form is not evident. Furthermore, the
ing channels (e.g. Miall, 1996; Cain & Mount- drainage pathways of the fluvial system can be
ney, 2009; North & Davidson, 2012). modified at local scale by the salt walls which
can compartmentalize the rivers (e.g. Banham &
Unit 6: Saline lacustrine deposits Mountney, 2013a).
This unit comprises a 100 m thick succession The playa-lake deposit of Units 1, 2 and 3, is
of dark grey dolomitic mudstone, red-green interpreted as a distal or basinal zone in a DFS
mudstone, evaporitic facies and sandstone model, according to the Nichols & Fisher (2007)
bodies representing a progressive transition to and Weissmann et al. (2010) classification
a saline lacustrine environment with a peren- (Fig. 11). The depositional setting is envisaged to
nial lake (Fig. 9; e.g. Dunagan & Turner, 2004; be analogous in part to the terminal fluvial sys-
Warren, 2006). The dolomitic mudstone facies tems of the modern Lake Eyre basin (e.g. Fisher
reflects the establishment of a perennial lake et al., 2008). The fluvial braided system of Units
N Distributary fluvial system model

Fig. 11. Schematic depositional
model of a sheet-flood dominated
fluvial distributary system Proximal area
representing the Karay€ un Medial area
Formation, modified after Cain & ^ ^
Mountney (2009). The proximal Distal area
^ ^ ^
^
area is characterized by unconfined Alluvial
flow in alluvial environments. The Plain
^
medial area is characterized by Lacustrine ^
^ Ephemeral
ephemeral streams (unconfined
terminal splay), and the distal area Playa-Lake stream
exhibits playa-lake and lacustrine Fluvial
environments. Non-coeval depositional environments
4 and 5 can be associated with the proximal area and connectivity of sandstone bodies. Further-
of a DFS or the distributive zone, which is well- more, it is associated with a change in channel-
drained, whereas the lacustrine deposits of Unit body type from single-storey to multi-storey and
6 represent the distal part of a DFS (Fig. 11). multi-lateral sheet-like sandstones and a decrease
in the proportion of floodplain deposits (Fig. 12).
Highly variable discharge during the accumula-
Evolution in stratigraphy and sedimentary tion of Unit 4 may have been responsible for the
architecture of the distributive fluvial systems poor development of incised channels and may
with time ultimately have facilitated an avulsive pattern of
channel relocation in response to frequent and
The continental deposits of the Emirhan mini-
abrupt channel switching. The rapid aggradation
basin show an upward change from the playa-
of channels, the strong amalgamation and the
lake facies of Units 1, 2 and 3 to large-scale
increase in grain size can be related to more
highly amalgamated fluvial facies of Units 4 and
frequent episodic flood events accompanied by
5. This vertical succession represents a prograda-
an intensification of overall discharge. Unit 5
tion of the DFS system into the mini-basin. This
records a decrease in sandstone-body connectiv-
transition from distal to proximal facies is
ity associated with an increase in floodplain pres-
recorded by a marked facies transition that is
ervation (Figs 8E, 8F and 9). Unit 5 is overlain by
characterized by an abrupt net increase in mean
the uppermost continental deposition in the
grain size from fine-grained sand to very coarse-
mini-basin, the saline lacustrine facies, Unit 6.
grained gravel, and in the average number, size
Fig. 12. View showing very rapid transition from playa-lake facies association (Unit 3) to large-scale fluvial
braided facies association (Unit 4), displaying an abrupt progradational signature. Location of this panoramic view
is shown in Fig. 3A.
This transition from multi-storey and multi-lat- Karay€ un Formation was influenced by salt flow-
eral sheet-like sandstones to single-storey with an age within diapirs and salt walls that resulted
increase in the proportion of floodplain deposits, in a complex history of generation of localized
which culminates in the onset of lacustrine sedi- accommodation development, as discussed fur-
mentation, is interpreted to record a retrograda- ther below (Fig. 10).
tion of the DFS. In the Emirhan mini-basin, the 5 to 50 m thick
The Emirhan mini-basin displays numerous stratigraphic depositional sequences and strati-
changes in the facies assemblages and the pattern graphic units have boundaries characterized by
of stacking of stratal units. Collectively, these the following:
record the influence of regional factors that influ-
1 Hook geometries characterized by thinning
enced the style of sedimentation, including
of isopachous sequences or stratigraphic units
climate and tectonics. Furthermore, the style of
and upturning of drape-folds very close to the
sedimentation also exhibits lateral variation in
mini-basin boundary (within 250 m), with sub-
the facies assemblage distributions and several
parallel lower and upper boundaries (Fig. 13B
stratigraphic thickness changes across the mini-
and C; e.g. Giles & Rowan, 2012).
basin, and an important deformation of the strat-
2 Wedge geometries characterized by thinning
al packages near the edges of this mini-basin.
of the growth strata of the sequence or strati-
These features suggest the influence of a local
graphic unit towards the boundary (Fig. 13D;
salt-tectonic control.
e.g. Giles & Rowan, 2012).
3 T-shaped geometries characterized by a
straight contact of the sequence stratigraphic
DISCUSSION
unit with the salt boundary (Fig. 13A).
The sedimentological and structural framework,
Controls on sedimentary architecture and
and interpretations within the Emirhan mini-
pattern
basin, are discussed below and summarized in
Based on regional geology and the lack of mar- Table 4.
ine equivalent facies anywhere in the studied
area, the Sivas Basin is considered to be endor-
Emirhan mini-basin fill stages
heic (Poisson et al., 2011). The drainage is thus
dissipated internally as a terminal fluvial fan Unit 1
system and isolated from the Paratethyan Both margins of Unit 1 demonstrate onlap rela-
domain (Poisson et al., 2011). Therefore, tionships and wedges that affect each sequence
eustatic variations cannot be invoked to explain and display basin-wide thinning onto salt pil-
the observed cyclicity within the Oligocene lows that represented inflated highs (Figs 10
succession, the ephemeral nature of the sedi- and 14). The sandstone bodies are concentrated
mentation – as well as the flood events – or the in the central part of the unit and pass laterally
occurrence of evaporitic facies associated with on both sides into floodplain mudstone (Fig. 9).
a playa-lake environment in the mini-basin. Thus, the axis of the fluvial system was
The Emirhan mini-basin appears to be domi- focused into the area of maximum subsidence,
nated by several allogenic controlling mecha- which led to differential loading of underlying
nisms: sediment supply rate and type, the salt. Furthermore, the presence of multiple suc-
generation of accommodation, regional tectonics cessive onlaps onto the diapiric topography
(including halokinesis) and climate. marks an enlargement of the playa-lake system
Sedimentation adjacent to passively-rising as the mini-basin filled, indicating an increase
salt diapirs results in halokinetic growth strata in the ratio of sediment accumulation rate ver-
that vary in thickness and in angular relation- sus the rate of diapiric salt-rise (Fig. 14; e.g.
ships (Giles & Lawton, 2002; Giles & Rowan, Giles & Rowan, 2012). Finally, diapiric topogra-
2012; Rowan et al., 2012). The Emirhan mini- phy generated by salt withdrawal may have
basin records variable and localized thickness been sufficient to shed diapir-derived detritus
changes in the stratigraphic succession and into the mini-basin; the evenly distributed
angular discordances being related to salt tec- occurrence of evaporitic clasts in the conglom-
tonic activity such as salt withdrawal or fall, eratic beds suggests a diapiric subaerial expo-
evacuation and salt diapir rise or inflation. sure upstream in the drainage area (Table 4;
These features suggest that deposition of the e.g. Lawton & Buck, 2006).
Fig. 13. Photographs and satellite views displaying typical interaction between sediment and salt tectonic acti-
vity. Locations of panoramic views are shown in Fig. 3B. (A) Google Earth satellite view of T geometry affecting
Unit 5 on the western border (diapir). (B) View of hook geometry affecting Unit 4 (400 m) on the eastern border
(diapir), truncated and onlapped by marine deposits. (C) View of hook geometry affecting a seqence of Unit 3 on
the western border (weld). (D) Google Earth satellite view of wedge geometry affecting a sequence of Unit 2 on the
western border (diapir).
HOOK
WEDGE WEDGE
? Unit 6 Uplift and angular
truncation due to salt
T movement
Unit 5
Depocentres Growth of diapir

switch from one
side to the other ?
Legend:
Localized Discordance
Depocentre
Onlap
depocentre Growth of
200 m Truncation diapir
WEDGE
? Sediments covered
Unit 4 diapir
HOOK
Localized small
depocentre
200 m Deposition on an unrestricted area

HOOK WEDGE
Growth of diapir
Unit 3 acts a topographic
high and confines
sediment
Growth of diapir
Localized
depocentre
maintained by
ongoing salt
withdrawal Localized depocentres
200 m Deposition on a restricted area
HOOK WEDGE
Local angular
unconformity
developed on Unit 2
Growth of diapir
diapir (Halokinetic
sequence boun-
Localized
dary)
200 m depocentre Deposition on a restricted area
High topographic WEDGE WEDGE

diapir prevents Unit 1
communication
Localized Growth of diapir
between adjacent
mini-basins 200 m depocentres Deposition on a restricted area
Fig. 14. Diagrammatic cross-section illustrating the subsidence of Emirhan mini-basin through time. Dark lines
indicate stratigraphic unit boundaries and dashed lines indicate some sequence boundaries.
Unit 2 no variation of sandstone content in the facies

The initiation of Unit 2 is marked by a drift of assemblage. The absence of distinct facies
the locus of mini-basin subsidence to the west changes and thickness changes within the
(Fig. 14). The playa-lake at this time was hook structures suggest that the sedimentary
restricted to the western area of the mini-basin layers partly covered the western diapir at the
and the succession records wedge geometries sequence time scale. However, as is the case
onlapping the diapirs on both sides (Figs 10 and in Unit 2, at the overall scale of Unit 3,
14). These features imply an enlargement of the the sediment-accumulation rate was low rela-
playa-lake system, indicating an increase in the tive to the rate of diapiric salt rise, thereby
ratio of sediment accumulation rate versus dia- explaining the preserved relationship in the
piric salt-rise rate (e.g. Giles & Rowan, 2012). succession of hook geometries (Fig. 14; e.g.
The sandstones bodies and the evaporitic facies Giles & Rowan, 2012).
are concentrated in the central part of the unit
and pass laterally on both sides into floodplain Unit 4
mudstone. Differential sediment loading within Following the episode of playa-lake expansion,
the mini-basin can explain this spatial variation. the Emirhan mini-basin records a sudden
The overlying sequences exhibit a succession change in sedimentation marked by the arrival
of wedge geometries onlapping towards the east- of coarse-grained sediments with an increase of
ern diapir, and these relationships record a sand content corresponding to the onset of flu-
small enlargement of the playa-lake system vial deposition represented by Unit 4 (Figs 6
(Figs 10 and 14). However, the western part of and 12).
Unit 2 shows a succession of sequences affected This influx of sediment modifies the equili-
by hook geometries (Figs 13D and 14), which brium between accommodation and sediment
together with the lack of spatial variation in supply rate. The transition between Unit 3 and
facies imply that the sediment partly covered Unit 4 is highlighted by a distinctive surface
the diapir at this time (Fig. 14). These features corresponding to a sequence boundary (e.g.
indicate that, during the development of each Martinson et al., 1999). The sequence boundary
unitary hook sequence, the sediment-accumula- corresponds to an abrupt decrease in the ratio of
tion rate may have been relatively higher than accommodation to sediment supply (e.g. Martin-
the rate of diapiric salt rise, thereby enabling son et al., 1999). This surface represents an
sedimentation to cover the western diapir at the abrupt change in the sequence stratigraphic
sequence time scale (e.g. Giles & Rowan, 2012). architecture and facies assemblage of the succes-
However, at the overall scale of Unit 2, the sedi- sion from mudstone-dominated single-storey
ment-accumulation rate was low relative to the sandstone bodies (ca 20% sand by volume), to
rate of diapiric salt rise, thereby explaining the multi-storey sheet-like sandstone bodies (ca
succession of hook geometries. Finally, during 80% sand by volume; Fig. 12). This abrupt
the deposition of Unit 2, the salt wall and diapir increase in the grain size and change from iso-
were probably expressed at the surface as topo- lated single to multi-storey sheet-like sandstone
graphic relief. This topographically elevated bodies reflects a significant rise in sediment sup-
exposed evaporite material was a likely source ply and higher energy hydrodynamic conditions,
for mobilization of sulphate-rich fluids feeding possibly related to a regional climate change,
the playa-lake environment and thus facilitating with more humid conditions potentially linked
the precipitation of evaporitic beds in the mini- to a tectonic event bringing coarser-grained sedi-
basin (e.g. Lawton & Buck, 2006; Paz & Rossetti, ment into the basin (Temiz, 1996; Poisson et al.,
2006). 2010). Unit 4 is an isopachous deposit in the
central part of the mini-basin, implying a signifi-
Unit 3 cant decrease in the rate of salt displacement
Unit 3 also exhibits a series of wedge geome- during sediment deposition (Fig. 10). This unit
tries that record an enlargement of the fluvial is characterized by a major hook geometry
system on the eastern boundary of the mini- which affects the entire stratigraphic unit with a
basin compared to Unit 2 (Figs 10 and 14). 90° angular unconformity overlain by marine
However, the western part shows five hook deposits (Karaca€ oren Formation) on the eastern
geometries with angular unconformities ca 90° boundary (Fig. 13B). The geometry of the strata
and very limited thinning close to the diapir within the large hook structure with a broad,
(Figs 13C and 14). The hook geometries record 400 to 800 m wide zone of thinning and upturn
implies that the fluvial system was unrestricted Unit 5

and covered the eastern diapir (Fig. 14). On During accumulation of Unit 5 the sandstone
this eastern side of the mini-basin, the bodies became more isolated, although retaining
sediment-accumulation rate was higher than the the same grain-size trend (Fig. 9). This
rise of diapiric salt at the time scale of the change may reflect an increase in the generation
sequence. The observed large hook geometry of of accommodation. The distinctive surface
this isopachous stratal package abutting against between Units 4 and 5 might be an expansion
the eastern diapir therefore demonstrates a post- surface marking a change from a compressed
depositional halokinetic deformation phase that multi-storey to an expanded single-storey fluvial
probably occurred during accumulation of Unit architecture (Figs 8E, 8F and 10; e.g. Martinson
5 (Fig. 14). However, although the western part et al., 1999). Unit 5 is characterized by a depo-
of Unit 4 shows small hook geometry at its base, centre localized in the western part of the mini-
the outcrop of the overlying deposit is partially basin (Figs 10 and 14). The development of this
covered by salt debris and this prevents a unit is associated with a wedge geometry in the
detailed analysis of the geometrical relationship eastern part partially eroded and onlapped by
to the salt wall. During deposition of Unit 4, marine deposits (Fig. 9). This geometry and the
local available accommodation was low and the lateral facies change from sandstone beds to
eastern diapir was probably buried to leave only floodplain mudstone towards the east can be
minor topographic surface expression. The sedi- interpreted to indicate synsedimentary salt with-
ment accumulation rates are being relatively drawal and preferential subsidence in the wes-
high compared to rates of diapiric salt rise at tern part of the mini-basin, which served to
this time (e.g. Andrie et al., 2012; Giles & restrict the rivers to the western part of the
Rowan, 2012). mini-basin (Figs 10B and 14). These features
Table 4. Synthesis of depositional environments, stratigraphy, accommodation space/sediment supply ratio and
type of halokinetic geometry, as well as interpretations of accommodation type and rates of sediment accumula-
tion and salt rise for the six units of the Emirhan mini-basin.
mark a resumption of generation of local accom- glomerate; (B) fluvial floodplain terminal splay
modation. On the western flank of Unit 5, the and playa lake; (C) fluvial plain sheet flood; (D1)
sequences show some fluvial channels abutting amalgamated, migrating braided channel com-
with a straight contact against the diapir, form- plex; (D2) non-migrating, low sinuosity channels;
ing a T-shaped geometry (Figs 13A and 14). This and (E) saline lacustrine deposits. The infill is
geometry reflects a continuous equilibrium characterized by: (i) sheet-like sand deposits; (ii)
between sediment accumulation and diapiric playa-lake deposits with evaporites; (iii) saline
salt-rise through time. lacustrine deposit; (iv) progradation of the system
from playa-lake to braided system; and (v) an
Unit 6 absence of deeply incised channel forms and pro-
The upper continental Unit 6 is characterized by nounced incised valleys. At the regional scale,
a progressive transition to a saline lacustrine the assemblage of depositional environments
environment indicating a reduction in clastic sed- identified can be related to the evolution of a
iment supply corresponding to a gradual increase large distributive fluvial system.
of the ratio of accommodation to sediment supply At a local scale, halokinesis has played an
(Fig. 6). Unit 6 crops out only in the western part important role in influencing the geometry of the
of the mini-basin (Figs 9, 10 and 14). This unit is individual sedimentary sequences and the facies
also eroded and onlapped by marine deposits, distributions within these sequences in the Emir-
and the restricted nature of the outcrop prevents han mini-basin. The stratal relationships present
a detailed analysis of the geometrical relationship both within and between halokinetic sequences
with the salt wall (Fig. 9). record a continuous process of salt evacuation
during the down-building of the mini-basin.
Local accommodation generation driven by
Controls on asymmetrical evolution
mini-basin subsidence in response to sediment
Despite apparently experiencing an approxi- loading by initial basin-fill deposits resulted in
mately constant rate of sedimentation accumula- confinement of the sedimentation due to the
tion within each sequence, the type of down-building of the mini-basin and concomi-
halokinetic geometry is very different from one tant uplift of surrounding salt, thereby focusing
side of the mini-basin to the other (Figs 10 and sedimentation over a limited surface-area associ-
14). The greatest degree of stratigraphic thickness ated with the initiation of depocentres. This
change occurs in Unit 2 where a thick depocentre confinement restricted the extent of the fluvial
records 700 m of sediment fill, which thins late- system and drove spatial variations in the facies
rally to 100 m towards the eastern basin margin. distribution recorded in the Emirhan mini-basin.
Thus, the rate and timing of diaper rise varied at Furthermore, the confinement of the fluvial sys-
each side of the developing mini-basin, thereby tem was probably accentuated by the growth of
giving rise to asymmetrical preserved geometries. salt walls expressed at the surface as topographic
The diapir-rise rate is a function of subsidence of highs which are point source for the remobiliza-
the Emirhan mini-basin as a whole, but is also tion of evaporite. The occurrence of evaporitic
constrained by adjacent mini-basins (e.g. Quirk & clasts (i.e. diapir-derived detritus) evenly distrib-
Pilcher, 2012). The diapir-rise rate can be also uted in the sandstone beds suggests a diapiric
dependent on the regional tectonic shortening subaerial exposure upstream in the drainage
(e.g. Trocm e et al., 2011; Callot et al., 2012). area.
Indeed, the observed large hook geometry of Unit The Emirhan mini-basin also records signifi-
4 reflects a post-depositional halokinetic defor- cant temporal variation in the stratigraphic
mation phase. This strong and sudden reactiva- assemblage. The very sharp transition from playa-
tion of salt movement probably is related to a lake facies to large-scale highly amalgamated flu-
renewed regional tectonic shortening. vial facies records progradation of the distributive
fluvial system (DFS) into the mini-basin. This
change seems to be controlled by regional
CONCLUSIONS changes such as climate and tectonic events
rather than localized factors such as halokinesis.
This investigation of the Emirhan mini-basin The sedimentation pattern within the mini-basin
characterizes its sedimentary filling, which can is related to changes in the ratio of sediment accu-
be divided into six main facies associations, as mulation rate versus diapiric salt-rise rate
follows: (A) fluvial floodplain mudstone and con- through time (Giles & Rowan, 2012). The rate of
sediment supply, the accommodation, and the Andrie, J.R., Giles, K.A., Lawton, T.F. and Rowan, M.G.
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Cain, S.A. and Mountney, N.P. (2009) Spatial and temporal
evolution of a terminal fluvial fan system: the Permian
We are grateful to Total SA for their financial sup- Organ Rock Formation, South-east Utah, USA.
port. C€umhuriyet University is warmly thanked Sedimentology, 56, 1774–1800.
for support and help during the field work. Paolo Callot, J.P., Trocme, V., Letouzey, J., Albouy, E., Jahani, S.
Dattilo, Kevin Hill and Damien Huygue are and Sherkati, S. (2012) Pre-existing salt structures and the
folding of the Zagros Mountains. Geol. Soc. London Spec.
thanked for valuable discussions on several Publ., 363(1), 545–561.
aspects of this review article. We would like to Callot, JP., Ribes, C., Bonnel, C., Kergaravat, C., Poisson, A.,
thank the reviewers K.A. Giles, B.D. Trudgill and Temiz, H., Vrielynck, B., Orszag-Sperber, F., Ringenbach,
S.G. Banham, and Chief Editor N.P. Mountney for JC. and Salel, JF. (2014) Salt tectonics in the Sivas basin
their helpful suggestions and constructive com- (Turkey): crossing salt walls and minibasins. Bull. Soc.
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assistance in the field. Many thanks are due to Tectonophysics, 195, 29–46.
Michael Carpenter for improving the English. We Ciner, A., Kosun, E. and Deynoux, M. (2002) Fluvial,
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depositional evolution and cyclicity in the Sivas Basin
A. Pichat, E. Legeay and G. Hoareau. (Lower to Middle Miocene), Central Turkey. J. Asian Earth
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Fluvial Sedimentation in A Salt-Controlled Mini-Basin: Stratal Patterns and Facies Assemblages, Sivas Basin, Turkey

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Fluvial Sedimentation in A Salt-Controlled Mini-Basin: Stratal Patterns and Facies Assemblages, Sivas Basin, Turkey

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Sedimentology (2015) 62, 1513–1545 doi: 10.1111/sed.

Fluvial sedimentation in a salt-controlled mini-basin: stratal

© 2015 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2015 International Association of Sedimentologists 1513

INTRODUCTION Venus, 2014) and the Precaspian Basin (Russia;

Kangal Basin TAURUS

Code Lithofacies General Characteristics Interpretation

Scours filled by cobbles,

Architectural elements Grain size Description Interpretation

Sediment gravity Matrix-supported conglomerates Lobe or sheet-like, Lobe, sheet gravel

Stratigraphic Width/thick- Sandstone

Unit 6 Sh, Sr, Sm, St SB

600 E during flooding events

facies associated with clay laminae in decime- Interpretation

Representative sedimentary Legend:

md: red/green mudstone

Symbol: St, Gt : Trough-cross stratified Water-escape stucture Regional

derived debris, which prevents direct observation

A Western margin EMIRHAN MINI-BASIN Eastern margin

2500 Regional unconformity: Transgression N

Regional unconformity: Transgression

570 2270 570

560 2260 560

550 2250 550

540 2240 540

520 2220 520

470 2170 2170 470

2040 340 340

310 2010 310 310

2000 300 300

260 260 1960 260 260

250 250 1950 250 250

240 240 1940 240 240

230 230 1930 230 230

220 220 1920 220 220

210 210 1910 210 210

200 200 1900 200 200

190 190 1890 190 190

180 1880 180 180

170 170 1870 170 170

160 160 1860 160 160

150 150 1850 150 150

140 140 1840 140 140

120 120 1820 120 120

110 110 1810 110 110

100 100 1800 100 100

C: Fluvial terminal splay and

E: Saline Lacustrine deposit

B: Fluvial terminal splay and

D2: Non-migrating low sinuosity

A: Fluvial conglomerate and

D1: Amalgamated migrating Onlap, Downlap

N Distributary fluvial system model

Depocentres Growth of diapir

200 m Deposition on an unrestricted area

High topographic WEDGE WEDGE

Unit 2 no variation of sandstone content in the facies

implies that the fluvial system was unrestricted Unit 5

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