Catena 193 (2020) 104609

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Catena
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Color in subtropical brazilian soils as determined with a Munsell chart and T

by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy
⁎
Priscila Vogelei Ramosa, , Alberto Vasconcellos Indaa, Vidal Barrónb, Diego Silva Siqueirac,
José Marques Júniorc, Daniel De Bortoli Teixeirad
a
Department of Soils, Faculty of Agronomy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 7712, 91540-000 Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil
b
Department of Agronomy, University of Córdoba (UCO), C4 Building, Rabanales Campus, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
c
Department of Soils and Fertilizers, Research Group CSME – Soil Characterization for Specific Management, State University of São Paulo (UNESP), Via de Acesso Prof.
Paulo Donato Castellane s/n, 14883-292 Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
d
Center of Agrarian Sciences, University of Marília (Unimar), Av. Hygino Muzzy Filho, 1001, 17525–902 Marília, São Paulo. Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The color of soils provides useful information about their origin and allows their classification. Soil color has
Spectroscopy traditionally been determined with a Munsell chart; lately, however, alternative techniques such as diffuse re-
Iron oxides flectance spectroscopy (DRS) have enabled more accurate quantification. In this work, we determined the color
Hematite parameters hue, value, chroma and reddening index using a Munsell chart and a DRS instrument for comparison.
Goethite
The data obtained from the DRS measurements were used to develop an accurate soil color map for the Rio
Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
Grande do Sul state in Brazil (RS). DRS data were also used for removable continuum calculations to determine
the [hematite/(hematite + goethite)] ratio [Hm/(Hm + Gt)] of Brazilian soils. Based on suchratio, the soils
were classified as goethitic [Hm/(Hm + Gt) ≤ 25%], goethitic–hematitic [25 < Hm/(Hm + Gt) ≤ 50%],
hematitic–goethitic [50 < Hm/(Hm + Gt) ≤ 75%] or hematitic [Hm/(Hm + Gt) ≥ 25%]. Color parameters
differed between the two measurement methods, with the Munsell chart often overestimating or under-
estimating the DRS results. Based on the [Hm/(Hm + Gt)] ratio, the target soils were mainly goethitic.

1. Introduction
The color of soil provides useful information about its organic and
mineral composition. For example, this morphological feature can be
used to confirm the presence of organic matter in soil (Viscarra Rossel
et al., 2006; Pretorius et al., 2017). Iron and manganese oxides asso-
ciated to organic matter are the main inorganic pigments in soil
(Bigham et al., 2002; Viscarra Rossel et al., 2010; Bahia et al., 2015).
These minerals account for brown, yellow, red and dark hues in soil,
which depend on the particular oxide. Thus, hematite, maghemite,
goethite, lepidocrocite and ferrihydrite span the hue ranges 7.5R–5YR,
2.5YR–5YR, 7.5YR–2.5Y, 5YR–7.5YR with value ≥6 and 5YR–7.5YR
with value ≤6, respectively (Torrent et al., 1983; Schwertmann, 1993;
Scheinost and Schwertmann, 1999).
In highly weathered tropical and subtropical soils, organic matter
and iron oxides have a strong influence on chemical properties such as
macro- and micronutrient uptake (Almeida et al., 2003; Fink et al.,
2016a; Fink et al., 2016b) and physical properties such as aggregation,
drainage and soil resistance (Carvalho Filho et al., 2015; Mazurana
et al., 2017), therefore obtaining accurate soil color parameters is re-
levant. In fact, the significance of soil color as a pedogenetic and ped-
oenvironmental indicator has led to its usage for classification purposes.
For example, the Brazilian Soil Classification System (SiBCS; Santos
et al., 2018) uses color to define attributes and diagnostic horizons, and
also to discriminate between soil suborders, whereas the American
System (USDA, 2014) uses this soil property to distinguish soil groups.
Soil color has traditionally been determined with a Munsell chart
(Scheinost and Schwertmann, 1999). The chart contains a large set of
color chips with which soil samples are compared. The ease of use of
the Munsell chart has led to a widespread use in soil science. However,
charts can give spurious results owing to the need to exactly match soil
color to a limited number of color chips (Shields et al., 1966; Scheinost
and Schwertmann, 1999). In addition to the inherent difficulty of visual
matching, the usefulness of the chart is limited by the ambient light
conditions and the viewer’s experience (Torrent and Barrón, 1993).
Soil color has been used to develop pedotransfer functions for

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: priscilavogeleiramos@gmail.com (P.V. Ramos).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104609
Received 6 August 2019; Received in revised form 6 December 2019; Accepted 12 April 2020
Available online 24 April 2020
0341-8162/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P.V. Ramos, et al.
estimating soil attributes that are difficult to measure. Scheinost and
Schwertmann (1995) determined the yellow color of the soil to predict
the Fe content for pedogenic iron oxides and, subsequently, the phos-
phate sorption capacity. A Munsell chart allowed Van Tol et al. (2016)
to assess soils from southern Africa for plasticity. Although the chart has
enabled substantial advances in Soil Science, the advent of some novel
techniques has allowed soil color to be more accurately determined.
Among the techniques, Scheinost and Schwertmann (1999) used a
colorimeter to measure color in three different systems. Fan et al.
(2017) suggested using smartphones to determine soil color. In addition
to these, diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), which allows soil color
to be measured in a rapid, accurate manner. For example, Sánchez-
Marañón et al. (2015) used spectrophotometric color measurements of
Spanish soils in sulfuric environments to identify active sulfuration.
DRS measurements have also been used to estimate the erodibility
coefficient of Brazilian soils with a view to identifying differences in
production potential (Almeida et al., 2003; Dantas et al., 2014; Do
Carmo et al., 2016; Cruz et al., 2018); relating color to mineral com-
position in Australian soils (Davey et al., 1975); estimating the organic
matter content of Chinese soils (Chen et al., 2018), in Japan to study
different degrees of weathering, pH effects and temperature of mineral
crystallization (Nagano and Nakashima, 1989; Nagano et al., 1994) and
investigating the presence of iron compounds in Russian soils
(Vodyanitskii et al., 2018).
In many works, through spectral curve treatments, the DRS is also
used to obtain an important pedogenetic indicator, the representative-
ness of iron oxides expressed by the [hematite /(hematite + goethite)]
ratio (Barrón and Torrent, 1986; Bahia et al. ., 2015; Silva et al., 2020).
This ratio can be obtained in different ways, either by the band am-
plitudes in the second derivative spectra (Barrón and Torrent, 1986;
Scheinost et al., 1998) or by the continuum removal technique (Clark
and Roush, 1984).
Scheinost and Schwertmann (1999) used the color obtained by
means of a colorimeter to identify iron oxides and hydroxysulfates. The
authors compare the results with those obtained by DRS, stating that
spectra offer better discriminations. Sellitto et al. (2007) compared
color measurements of soils from seven European countries made with
a Munsell chart and by DRS.They found the two sets of measurements
to be moderately correlated and ascribed the differences to light con-
ditions, sample preparation, soil moisture and particle size. In any case,
the DRS method provides more accurate and reproducible data than the
color chart by virtue of its avoiding visual subjectivity. Viscarra Rossel
et al. (2009) comparing colors obtained by both methods, also high-
lights that the Munsell system is not useful in studies of numerical and
statistical analysis.
Based on the foregoing, we hypothesized that DRS allows more
accurate determination of soil color than does the Munsell chart and
undertook the present work with the following three objectives in mind:
(a) to determine the color parameters hue, value, chroma and redness
index with the Munsell chart and by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy for
comparison; (b) to develop a real color map from measurements made
with the more accurate method; and (c) to estimate the relative pro-
portion of the pedogenic iron oxides hematite and goethite in order to
classify the soils according to their [hematite/(hematite + goethite)]
ratio.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Sample selection and preparation
Samples were obtained from the soil bank of the Department of Soils
of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. Legacy data such as
those from soil banks or compilations are being increasingly used lately
on the grounds of their consistency and representativeness (Brown
et al., 2006; Arrouays et al., 2017). The samples used in this work were
representative of different soils from the Rio Grande do Sul state (RS;
2
Catena 193 (2020) 104609
Fig. 1). RS soils are formed from a variety of parent materials, namely:
acid plutonic rocks (granite) and metamorphic rocks (gneiss and
schists) in Serra do Sudeste and Encosta do Sudeste (> 570 Ma); sedi-
mentary rocks (sandstone, siltite, argillite) in Depressão Central
(299–135 Ma); acid volcanic rocks (rhyoliths) in Campos de Cima da
Serra; basic volcanic rocks (basalt) in Alto Uruguai, Planalto Médio,
Encosta Inferior do Nordeste, Encosta Superior do Nordeste, Missões
and Campanha (ca. 130–140 Ma); and recent unconsolidated sediments
in Litoral (< 2 Ma) (CPRM, 2006; Streck et al., 2008) (Fig. 1). The
sampling density was 1 sample/487 km2 and a total of 579 georefer-
enced samples were collected from the 0.00–0.20 m soil layer. Sub-
samples of air-dried fine earth (ADFE) fraction (∅ < 2 mm) were
ground in an agate mortar and used for the color determinations.
2.2. Determination of soil color
The color of each sample was determined with both the Munsell
chart (Munsell Color, 2000) and a diffuse reflectance spectro-
photometer. For chart-based measurements, an amount of 3 g of sample
was placed on a piece of white paper and compared with the chart chips
in order to read out its color parameters. Ambient lighting has been
standardized and constant in the laboratory environment. Measure-
ments were obtained by three different viewers and the corresponding
hue, value and chroma readouts averaged. The color parameters were
converted into red, green and blue (RGB) values by using the software
Wallkillcolor v. 12.18.5 (Van Aken, 2018).
Dry soil color was also determined by diffuse reflectance spectro-
scopy, using a Cary 5000 UV–Vis–IR spectrophotometer from Varian,
Inc. (Palo Alto, CA, USA) equipped with a 110 mm diameter integrating
sphere that accommodated a PMT/PbS detector. Spectral readings
spanned the visible (Vis) and near infrared (NIR) regions, and were
acquired at 0.5 nm intervals over the wavelength range 380–2500 nm.
Color was calculated from the visible spectrum (350–770 nm), which
allows the tristimuli X, Y and Z to be obtained from the equations of
Wyszecki and Stiles (1982). Tristimuli were converted into hue, chroma
and RGB values by using Wallkillcolor.
RGB data were used to construct separate hue, value, chroma and
redness index (RI) maps. RI allows one to use the Munsell notation to
predict soil attributes such as hematite content (Torrent et al., 1980). RI
was determined from the following equation:
RI = [(10 − Hue) × Chroma]/Value (Torrent and Barron, 1993).
The percent difference between the parameter values obtained with
the two measurement methods was calculated as [(Munsell – DRS)/
DRS] × 100], the DRS method being used as reference on the grounds
of its increased sensitivity. A negative difference indicated under-
estimation and a positive one overestimation of the DRS values with the
Munsell chart.
Maps were constructed by using the software ArcMap 10.4 con-
sidering the mapping unit boundaries from the digital file of Soil Map of
in the Rio Grande do Sul state (Brasil, 1973). A variable number of
samples was collected for each mapping unit. Because each sample was
accompanied by its RGB color, we used the average value for each
parameter in each unit. The DRS method was used as reference and the
color parameters obtained with it were used to construct hue, value and
chroma maps in order to accurately represent the surface layer color of
soils in RS.
The ratio HR = [Hematite/(Hematite + Goethite) × 100] was
calculated by applying the removable continuum to diffuse reflectance
data. The DRS method allows specific absorption features of reflectance
spectra to be isolated (Clark and Roush, 1984). The procedure involved
joining the peaks observed in the specific absorption band for each
mineral with a straight line. The resulting reflectance values for the
spectral band (Rb) were divided into those of the previous line (Rc).
These calculations allowed the intensity of the absorption band at a
given wavelength (Pc) to be obtained (Fig. 2) and hence the percent
ratio [Hm/(Hm + Gt)] × 100 to be calculated as follows:
P.V. Ramos, et al. Catena 193 (2020) 104609

Fig. 1. Physiographic regions and sample distribution in the Rio Grande do Sul state (Brazil).

PcHm = 1 − (RbHm /RcHm) [Hm/(Hm + Gt)] × 100 = [PcHm/(PcHm + PcGt)] × 100

PcGt = 1 − (RbGt /RcGt) The spectral zones used for these calculations were 415–450 nm for

Fig. 2. Spectral curve and detail of the zones for the bands of goethite and hematite showing the parameters used for the removable continuum analysis. Pc depth of
the absorption band at a given wavelength. Rb reflectance of the spectral band. Rc reflectance of the band in the central continuum spectrum.

3
P.V. Ramos, et al.
Fig. 3. Hue, value, chroma and redness index {RI = [(10 – Hue) × Chroma]/Value}ofthe soils as obtained from Munsell chart measurements and DRS data, and
difference between the two: % Difference = [(Munsell – DRS)/DRS] × 100.
goethite and 535–590 nm for hematite (Scheinost et al., 1998; Bahia
et al., 2015). Based on the results, the surface layer of the soils were
classified as goethitic [Hm/(Hm + Gt) ≤ 25%], goethitic–hematitic
[25 < Hm/(Hm + Gt) ≤ 50%], hematitic–goethitic [50 < Hm/
(Hm + Gt) ≤ 75%] or hematitic [Hm/(Hm + Gt) ≥ 25%].
4
Catena 193 (2020) 104609
3. Results
The hue, value and chroma data obtained with the Munsell chart
spanned the ranges 3–10 YR, 2.0–6.0 and 0.0–6.0, respectively,
whereas those obtained from the diffuse reflectance spectra ranged
from 4.7 to 10 YR, 2.0 to 6.1 and 0.0 to 6.0, respectively. The redness
P.V. Ramos, et al.
index (RI) ranged from 0.0 to 5.2 and 0.0 to 11.7 as determined with
the DRS method and Munsell chart, respectively. The percent differ-
ences between results provided by the two methods ranged from –26.0
to 30.0% for hue, –35.2 to 5.2% for value and –44.1 to 49.2% for
chroma. The differences in RI values were much more marked (–100 to
200%). The amplitude of the color parameter ranges provided by the
two methods, and their percent differences, are illustrated by the con-
tinuous maps of Fig. 3.
Based on the percent difference map for hue, the Munsell chart
underestimated yellow (i.e., the chart provided redder hues), especially
in the northern regions of RS, where the soils formed largely from ba-
saltic rocks. The chart also underestimated color value in the soils from
the northern regions and part of the Campanha region, also of basaltic
origin (Fig. 1). On the other hand, the chart provided extremely over-
estimated or underestimated chroma data for soils from Depressão
Central and the west end of Serra do Sudeste, with a prevalence of
sedimentary rocks. Based on the differential map, the chart over-
estimated RI in soils from Alto Uruguai, Missões, Planalto Médio and
Depressão Central, but underestimated it in soils from Serra do Sudeste,
Encosta do Sudeste and Litoral.
The subjectivity of the soil color notation derived from Munsell
chart measurements led us to use DRS data to construct the color map
for Rio Grande do Sul. For this purpose, we proceeded according to
Viscarra Rossel et al. (2010) and converted the color parameter values
Fig. 4. Surface color of the soils as determined by DRS.
5
Catena 193 (2020) 104609
derived from the diffuse reflectance spectra into RGB hues to develop
the dry color map for the surface layer of the soils (Fig. 4).
Because hematite and goethite are the most commonly present iron
oxides in tropical and subtropical soils (Kämpf and Curi, 2000; Bigham
et al., 2002), we also used DRS data to estimate the ratio between them:
Hm/(Hm + Gt) (Fig. 5). Based on the ratio, 20% of the studied surface
layer of the soils were classified as hematitic, 11% as hemati-
tic–goethitic, 14% as goethitic–hematitic and 55% as goethitic. Not all
goethitic soils exhibited markedly yellow hues, however, because the
yellow color of goethite can be easily masked by the presence of small
amounts of hematite. The ranges spanned by the hue, value, chroma
and RI data provided by the DRS method are shown in Table 1. An
increase in yellow hues from 4.2 YR to 8.0 YR was concomitant with an
increase in value from 4.7 to 5.2 and a decrease in chroma from 4.1 to
3.0; also, as expected, it resulted in a decrease in RI (from 2.1 to 1.0).
The average Hm/(Hm + Gt) ratio for the soils in each region was
also used for classification in the eleven physiographic regions studied.
As can be seen from Table 2, the body of soils from Alto Uruguai,
Missões and Planalto Médiowere hematitic–goethitic, whereas those
from the other eight regions were goethitic. The hematitic–goethitic
soils spanned the ranges 5–5.9 YR (hue), 4.8–4.9 (value), 3.5–4.0
(chroma) and 1.6–1.9 (RI). On the other hand, the goethitic soils
spanned the ranges 7.2–8.8 YR, 4.8–5.4, 2.6–3.5 and 0.7–1.2 for hue,
value, chroma and RI, respectively.
P.V. Ramos, et al. Catena 193 (2020) 104609

Fig. 5. Hm/(Hm + Gt) ratio for the soils as determined from DRS data. No ratio was assigned to the white polygons.

Table 1
Average values of the color parameters used to classify the soils according to their proportions of goethite and hematite.
Soil type Hm/(Hm + Gt) Hue Value Chroma DRS color RI
Hematitic 0–25% 4.2 YR 4.7 4.1 2.1
Hematitic–Goethitic 25–50% 4.8 YR 4.8 3.9 1.9
Goethitic-Hematitic 50–75% 5.5 YR 4.9 3.8 1.7
Goethitic 75–100% 8.0 YR 5.2 3 1
RI: redness index.

4. Discussion
4.1. Correlation between soil color as determined with a Munsell chart and
by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy
The correlation coefficients for the hue, value and chroma data
obtained with the DRS and chart methods were 0.91, 0.85 and 0.79
(P < 0.001), respectively. Fernandes et al. (2017) compared color hue
data for granitic soils from Central Brazil as obtained with the two
methods and obtained r = 0.84 (P < 0.001). Our coefficients are
consistent with those for hue, value and chroma in soils from New
South Wales, Australia (0.71, 0.76 and 0.60; P < 0.001; Viscarra
Rossel et al., 2009); Bay of Naples, Italy (0.95, 0.48 and 0.94;
P < 0.001; de Bonis et al., 2017); and the South Shetland Islands,
Maritime Antarctica [0.85 (P < 0.001), 0.62 (P < 0.05) and –0.13
(P ≥ 0.05); Spinola et al., 2018].
In our study, the Munsell chart overestimated the DRS results in
some cases and underestimated it in others. Thus, the chart under-
estimated hue values below 6 and overestimated those above that level.
The chart also underestimated chroma values below 3 and over-
estimated greater values (Fig. 6). These results are consistent with those
of Fernandes et al. (2017) and Spinola et al. (2018), who found the
Munsell chart to underestimate hue values up to above 7 or 8 and
overestimate higher levels, and also to underestimate color values and
overestimate chroma.
The difference between the readings is probably due to the

6
P.V. Ramos, et al. Catena 193 (2020) 104609

Table 2
Average values of the color parameters and iron contents of the surface layer of soils from the different physiographic regions.
Region Dry color OR Soil type

N Hue Value Chroma RI (%)

Alto Uruguai 83 5.0 YR 4.9 4.0 1.9 65 Hematitic–goethitic

Campanha 60 8.2 YR 5.1 2.7 0.9 5 Goethitic
Campos de Cima da Serra 48 7.6 YR 4.8 2.9 1.1 21 Goethitic
Depressão Central 87 7.2 YR 5.3 3.4 1.2 14 Goethitic
Encosta do Sudeste 13 8.3 YR 5.4 3.0 0.9 4 Goethitic
Encosta Inferior Nordeste 62 7.6 YR 5.4 3.5 1.1 10 Goethitic
Encosta Superior Nordeste 4 7.3 YR 4.9 3.2 1.2 19 Goethitic
Litoral 14 8.8 YR 5.2 2.6 0.7 4 Goethitic
Missões 53 5,9 YR 4.9 3.5 1.6 51 Hematitic–goethitic
Planalto médio 134 5,2 YR 4.8 3.8 1.8 57 Hematitic–goethitic
Serra do Sudeste 17 8,3 YR 5.1 2.8 0.9 5 Goethitic

RI: redness index; OR: oxide ratio [Hm/(Hm + Gt)]

limitations of the technique of human evaluation. According to Sellitto
et al. (2007), the color parameters obtained by Munsell chart are sub-
ject to the subjectivity of visual observation influenced by the adapt-
ability of the eye, the background and the illumination. Viscarra Rossel
et al. (2009) also highlights that the differences between the readings
also depend on the soil type. Australian as soils, Hydrosol, Chromosol,
Vertosols and Sodosol have darker spectroscopic colors, with lower
value and chroma, while hue has more yellow soils for the Ferrosol, the
Hydrosol, the Chromosol, the Gray Vertosol and the Sodosol. Another
aspect is that the DRS allows a greater discrimination of the parameters
as it leads to the determination of intermediate values of hue, value and
chroma (Barrón and Torrent, 1986). Thus, the Munsell system is used
for categorical color qualifications, making it of little use in numerical
and statistical analysis studies (Viscarra Rossel et al., 2009).
4.2. Classification of soils according to their Hm/(Hm + Gt) ratio
Using the removable continuum method allowed us to estimate the
relative proportion of the iron oxides hematite (Hm) and goethite (Gt)
in the soils. Aquino et al. (2016) estimated such a proportion by diffuse
reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) and X-ray diffraction spectroscopy
(XRDS), using the latter technique as reference. They found positive
correlation between the measurements made with both: r = 0.78
(P < 0.01) for hematite and r = 0.98 (P < 0.01) for goethite. Bahia
et al. (2015) compared the time needed to estimate the Hm/(Hm + Gt)
ratio with various methods and found XRDS to require 55.5 h versus
only 20 min with the removable continuum method. Although the Hm
proportions estimated by DRS were slightly higher than those provided
by XRDS, the differences were not significant.
Based on our DRS results, in the surface layer, goethitic soils pre-
vailed in most of the physiographic regions studied followed by he-
matitic–goethitic soils. The factors accounting for the prevalence of
these soils include climate (temperature, rainfall, evapotranspiration),
organic matter, Fe content of the parent material, the pH and degree of
soil weathering (Nagano et al., 1992; Kämpf and Curi, 2000; Bigham
et al., 2002). In this sense, Schwertmann (1971) also approaches the
climate as responsible for the yellowing of the superficial layers of the
soil. Their studies showed that places of cold and humid climate there
are indications that occurs the mineralogical alteration of hematite to
goethite on the surface of the profiles by dissolution and reoxidation
reactions in the presence of organic compounds, which would prevent
ferrihydrite reprecipitation due to the complexation of part of the dis-
solved iron.
Kämpf and Schwertmann (1983) and Pedron et al. (2012) related
environmental factors to the Hm/(Hm + Gt) ratio in two climolitho-
sequences of RS. They found the ratio to increase in the westward di-
rection in east–west transects. The increased proportions of goethite in
the east portion were ascribed to decreased temperatures and
evapotranspiration, and increased rainfall, favoring accumulation of
organic matter in the soils. The steady westward increase in Hm/
(Hm + Gt) was ascribed to a positive temperature and evapo-
transpiration gradient, and a negative rainfall gradient, not favoring
organic matter accumulation and hence formation of hematite at the
expense of goethite. Studies on soils of variable origin in RS have re-
vealed a prevalence of goethite in soils from acid igneous rocks (granite
and rhyolith) and sedimentary rocks (sandstone). By contrast, hematite
prevails in the soils formed from basic igneous rocks (basalt) (Caner
et al., 2014; Mazurana et al., 2017).
Most of the surface layer of the soils had an Hm/(Hm + Gt) ratio
lower than 25% and were thus goethitic. This was largely the result of
the low Fe content of the rocks (e.g., granite and gneiss in the sedi-
mentary rocks of the Depressão Central; and recent unconsolidated
sediments in Encosta do Sudeste). The marked dominance of goethite in
the soils from Campos de Cima da Serra can be ascribed not only to the
lower Fe content of the rhyoliths, but also to the increased average
rainfall and decreased average temperature (Maluf, 2000; Caner et al.,
2014). The increased proportions of hematite in surface layer of the
soils from Alto Uruguai, Missões and Planalto Médio, with Hm/
(Hm + Gt) ratios falling in the range 50–75% and thus classified as
hematitic–goethitic, are due to the basaltic nature of the parent mate-
rial —with a high content in Fe— and to the marked soil development
derived resulting from the prevailing water regime and high tempera-
tures (Kämpf and Schwertmann, 1983; Maluf, 2000; Pedron et al.,
2012; Caner et al., 2014).
The soils from Campanha, Encostas Inferior and Encostas Superior,
three northeastern regions of RS, were goethitic because they were less
markedly developed and weathered despite their originating from ba-
saltic rocks. This was a consequence of a decreased average annual
rainfall and increased evapotranspiration resulting in smaller amounts
of available water for leaching in the Campanha region, and of a sloping
relief boosting surface runoff in the two Encostas regions. In both cases,
increased Fe release through weathering favored the formation of
goethite at the expense of hematite (Kämpf and Curi, 2000; Bigham
et al., 2002).
5. Conclusions
In this work, differences between the color parameters hue, value
and chroma as determined with a Munsell chart and by diffuse re-
flectance spectroscopy (DRS) were quantified with a view to identifying
those cases where chart measurements overestimated or under-
estimated DRS data.
Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy allows the development of accurate
color parameter maps for different soil types, which can be of great help
with a view to relating color to soil attributes and formation. For ex-
ample, the DRS technique allows one to estimate the relative

7
P.V. Ramos, et al. Catena 193 (2020) 104609

Fig. 6. Hue, value and chroma of the soils as determined with a Munsell chart and by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. * Significant at P < 0.05 ** Significant at
P < 0.001 ns Not significant.

8
P.V. Ramos, et al.
proportions of hematite and goethite —and their ratio— in soils. The
Hm/(Hm + Gt) ratio allowed the surface layer of the soils in most
physiographic regions of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul to be
classified as goethitic [Hm/(Hm + Gt) < 25%], while the surface
layer of the soils in three such regions were hematitic–goethitic
[25% < Hm/(Hm + Gt) < 75%].
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Brazilian Coordinating Body for
Higher-Level Staff Improvement (CAPES) for award of a doctoral
sandwich grant to P.V.R, to the National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq) and to Spain’s Ministry of Economy
and Competitiveness (Project AGL 2017-87074-C2-2-R).
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104609.
References
Almeida, J.Á., Torrent, J., Barrón, V., 2003. Cor de solo, formas do fósforo e adsorção de
fosfatos em Latossolos desenvolvidos de basalto do extremo-sul do Brasil. R. Bras. Ci.
Solo27, 985–1002.http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832003000600003.
Aquino, R.E., Marques Jr., J., Campos, M.C.C., Oliveira, I.A., Bahia, A.S.R.S., Santos,
L.A.C., 2016. Characteristics of color and iron oxides of clay fraction in Archeological
Dark Earth in Apuí region, southern Amazonas. Geoderma 262, 35–44. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.07.010.
Arrouays, D., Leenaars, J.G.B., Richer-de-Forges, A.C., Adhikari, K., Ballabio, C., Greve,
M., Grundy, M., Guerrero, E., Hempel, J., Hengl, T., Heuvelink, G., Batjes, N.,
Carvalho, E., Hartemink, A., Hewitt, A., Hong, S.Y., Krasilnikov, P., Lagacherie, P.,
Lelyk, G., Libohova, Z., Lilly, A., McBratney, A., McKenzie, N., Vasquez, G.M.,
Mulder, V.L., Minasny, B., Montanarella, L., Odeh, I., Padarian, J., Poggio, L.,
Roudier, P., Saby, N., Savin, I., Searle, R., Solbovoy, V., Thompson, J., Smith, S.,
Sulaeman, Y., Vintila, R., Viscarra Rossel, R., Wilson, P., Zhang, G., Swerts, M., Oorts,
K., Karklins, A., Feng, L., Navarro, A.R.I., Levin, A., Laktionova, T., DellÕAcqua, M.,
Suvannang, N., Ruam, W., Prasad, J., Patil, N., Husnjak, S., Pásztor, L., Okx, J.,
Hallet, S., Keay, C., Farewell, T., Lilja, H., Juilleret, J., Marx, S., Takata, Y., Kazuyuki,
Y., Mansuy, N., Panagos, P., Van Liedekerke, M., Skalsky, R., Sobocka, J., Kobza, J.,
Eftekhari, K., Alavipanah, S.K., Moussadek, R., Badraoui, M., Da Silva, M., Paterson,
G., Gonçalves, M.C., Theocharopoulos, S., Yemefack, M., Tedou, S., Vrscaj, B., Grob,
U., Kozák, J., Boruvka, L., Dobos, E., Taboada, M., Moretti, L., Rodriguez, D., 2017.
Soil legacy data rescue via GlobalSoilMap and other international and national in-
itiatives. GeoResJ 14, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.grj.2017.06.001.
Bahia, A.S.R.S., Marques Jr., J., Siqueira, D.S., 2015. Procedures using diffuse reflectance
spectroscopy for estimating hematite and goethite in Oxisols of São Paulo. Brazil.
Geoderma Reg. 5, 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2015.04.006.
Barrón, V., Torrent, J., 1986. Use of the Kubelka-Munk theory to study the influence of
iron oxides on soil colour. J. Soil Sci. 37, 499–510. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2389.1986.tb00382.x.
Bigham, J.M., Fitzpatrick, R.W., Schulze, D., 2002. Iron oxides. In: Dixon, J.B., Schulze,
D.G. (Eds.), Soil mineralogy with environmental applications. Soil Science Society of
America Book Series, Madison, pp. 323–366.
de Bonis, A., Cultrone, G., Grifa, C., Langella, A., Leone, A.P., Mercurio, M., Morra, V.,
2017. Different shades of red: The complexity of mineralogical and physico–chemical
factors influencing the colour of ceramics. Ceram. Int. 43, 8065–8074. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.03.127.
Brasil, 1973.Levantamento de Reconhecimento dos Solos do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul.
Ministério da Agricultura, Recife.
Brown, D.J., Shepherd, K.D., Walsh, M.G., Dewayne Mays, M., Reinsch, T.G., 2006.
Global soil characterization with VNIR diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Geoderma
132, 273–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.025.
Caner, L., Radtke, L.M., Vignol-Lelarge, M.L., Inda, A.V., Bortoluzzi, E.C., Mexias, A.S.,
2014. Basalt and rhyo-dacite weathering and soil clay formation under subtropical
climate in southern Brazil. Geoderma 235–236, 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
geoderma.2014.06.024.
de Carvalho Filho, A., Inda, A.V., Fink, J.R., Curi, N., 2015. Iron oxides in soils of different
lithological origins in Ferriferous Quadrilateral (Minas Gerais, Brazil). Appl. Clay Sci.
118, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2015.08.037.
Chen, Y., Zhang, M., Fan, D., Fan, K., Wang, X., 2018. Linear regression between CIE-Lab
color parameters and organic matter in soils of tea plantations. Eurasian Soil Sci. 51,
199–203. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229318020011.
Clark, R.N., Roush, T.E.D.L., 1984. Reflectance spectroscopy quantitative analysis tech-
niques for remote sensing applications. J. Geophys. Res. 89, 6329–6340. https://doi.
org/10.1029/JB089iB07p06329.
CPRM, 2006. Mapa geológico do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. (Accessed 21 November
2016). http://www.cprm.gov.br/publique/media/mapa_rio_grande_sul.pdf.
Cruz, N.N.L., Barbosa, R.S., Moura, M.C.S., Teixeira, D.B., Marques Jr, J., Silva, J.D.F.,
9
Catena 193 (2020) 104609
2018. Color parameters applied to pedotransfer functions in the estimation of soil
atributes. Semina: Ciênc. Agrár. 39, 1477–1488. https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-
0359.2018v39n4p1479.
Dantas, J.S., Martins Filho, M.V., Marques Jr, J., Resende, J.M.A., Teixeira, D.B., Barbosa,
R.S., Siqueira, D.S., 2014. Coeficiente de erodibilidade em sulcos e entressulcosde
Argissolos coesos estimado pela cor do solo. Pesq. Agropec. Bras. 49, 700–707.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2014000900006.
Davey, B.G., Russell, J.D., Wilson, M.J., 1975. Iron oxide and clay minerals and their
relation to colours of red and yellow podzolic soils near Sydney. Australia Geoderma
14, 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(75)90071-3.
Do Carmo, D.A.B., Júnior, J.M., Siqueira, D.S., de Souza, A.S.R., Santos, H.M., Pollo, G.Z.,
2016. Soil color for the identification of areas with different yield potential and coffee
quality. Pesq. Agropec. Bras. 51, 1261–1271. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0100-
204x2016000900026.
Fan, Z., Herrick, J.E., Saltzman, R., Matteis, C., Yudina, A., Nocella, N., Crawford, E.,
Parker, R., Van Zee, J., 2017. Measurement of soil color: A comparison between
smartphone camera and the Munsell color charts. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 81,
1139–1146. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2017.01.0009.
Fernandes, K.L., Ribon, A.A., Marques Jr, J., Bahia, A.S.R.S., Tavares Filho, J., 2017.
Magnetic and spectral signatures of Cerrado soils in the state of Goiás. Brazil. Pesq.
Agropec. Bras. 52, 923–932. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0100-204x2017001000012.
Fink, J.R., Inda, A.V., Tiecher, T., Barrón, V., 2016a. Iron oxides and organic matter on
soil phosphorus availability. Ciênc. Agrotec. 40, 369–379. https://doi.org/10.1590/
1413-70542016404023016.
Fink, J.R., Inda, A.V., Bavaresco, J., Barrón, V., Torrent, J., Bayer, C., 2016b. Phosphorus
adsorption and desorption in undisturbed samples from subtropical soils under
conventional tillage or no-tillage. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 179, 198–205. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jpln.201500017.
Kämpf, N., Curi, N., 2000. Óxidos de ferro: indicadores de ambientes pedogênicos e
geoquímicos. In: Novais, R.N., Álvarez, V.H., Schaefer, C.E.G.R. (Eds.), Tópicos em
ciência do solo. Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, Viçosa, pp. 107–138.
Kämpf, N., Schwertmann, U., 1983. Goethite and hematite in a climosequence in southern
Brazil and their application in classification of kaolinitic soils. Geoderma 29, 27–39.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(83)90028-9.
Maluf, J.R.T., 2000. Nova classificação climática do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Rev.
Bras. Agrometeorol. 8, 141–150.
Mazurana, M., Levien, R., Inda, A.V., Conte, O., Bressani, L.A., Müller, J., 2017. Soil
susceptibility to compaction under use conditions in southern Brazil. Ciênc. Agrotec.
41, 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-70542017411027216.
Munsell Color, 2000. Munsell Soil Color Charts. Revised Washable Edition, New Windsor.
Nagano, T., Nakashima, S., 1989. Study of colors and degrees of weathering of granitic
rocks by visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Geochem J. 23, 75–83. https://doi.
org/10.2343/geochemj.23.75.
Nagano, T., Nakashima, S., Nakayama, S., Osada, K., Senoo, M., 1992. Color variations
associated with rapid formation of goethite from proto-ferrihydrite at pH 13 and
40°C. Clay Clay Min. 40, 600–607. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1992.0400515.
Nagano, T., Nakashima, S., Nakayama, S., Senoo, M., 1994. The use of color to quantify
the effects of pH and temperature on the crystallization kinetics of goethite under
highly alkaline conditions. Clay Clay Min. 42, 226–234. https://doi.org/10.1346/
CCMN.1994.0420213.
Pedron, F.A., Azevedo, A.C., Dalmolin, R.S.D., 2012. Alteração mineralógica de Neossolos
em uma climo-litossequência no Planalto do Rio Grande do Sul. Ciênc. Rural 42,
451–458. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782012000300011.
Pretorius, M.L., Van Huyssteen, C.W., Brown, L.R., 2017. Soil color indicates carbon and
wetlands: developing a color-proxy for soil organic carbon and wetland boundaries
on sandy coastal plains in South Africa. Environ. Monit. Assess.189, 556.https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10661-017-6249-z.
Sánchez-Marañón, M., Romero-Freire, A., Martín-Peinado, F.J., 2015. Soil-color changes
by sulfuricization induced from a pyritic surface sediment. Catena. 135, 173–183.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.07.023.
Santos, H.G., Jacomine, P.K.T., dos Anjos, L.H.C., Oliveira, V.Á., Lumbreras, J.F., Coelho,
M.R., Almeida, J.A., Araújo Filho, J.C. de, Oliveira, J.B., Cunha, T.J.F., 2018. Sistema
brasileiro de classificação de solos. 5th edn. Brasília.
Scheinost, A.C., Schwertmann, U., 1995. Predicting Phosphate Adsorption-Desorption in a
Soilscape. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 59, 1575–1580. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1995.
03615995005900060010x.
Scheinost, A.C., Chavernas, A., Barron, V., Torrent, J., 1998. Use and limitations of
second-derivative diffuse reflectance spectroscopy in the visible to near-infrared
range to identify and quantify Fe oxide minerals in soils. Clay Clay Min. 46, 528–536.
https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1998.0460506.
Scheinost, A.C., Schwertmann, U., 1999. Color identification of iron oxides and hydro-
xysulfates - Use and limitations. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 63, 1463–1471.
Schwertmann, U., 1971. Transformation of Hematite to Goethite in Soils. Nature. 232,
624–625. https://doi.org/10.1038/232624a0.
Schwertmann, U., 1993. Relations between iron oxides, soilcolor, and soil formation. In:
Bigham, J.M., Ciolkosz, E.J. (Eds.), Soil Color. Madison Inc, Wisconsin, pp. 51–69.
Sellitto, V.M., Barrón, V., Palumbo, G., Colombo, C., 2007. Application of diffuse re-
flectance spectroscopy (DRS) to study European volcanic soils: a preliminary ex-
amination. In: Arnalds, Ó., Óskarsson, H., Bartoli, F., Buurman, P., Stoops, G., García-
Rodeja, E. (Eds.), Soils of Volcanic Regions in Europe. Springer, Berlin, pp. 437–452.
Shields, J.A., St. Arnaud R.J., Paul, E.A., Clayton, J.S., 1966. Measurement of soil color.
Can. J. Soil Sci. 46, 83–90. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjss66-012.
Silva, L.S., Marques Júnior, J., Barrón, V., Gomes, R.P., Teixeira, D.B., Siqueira, D.S.,
Vasconcelos, V., 2020. Spatial variability of iron oxides in soils from Brazilian
sandstone and basalt. Catena. 185, 104258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.
104258.
P.V. Ramos, et al.
Spinola, D.N., Portes, R.C., Srivastava, P., Torrent, J., Barrón, V., Kühn, P., 2018.
Diagenetic reddening of Early Eocene paleosols on King George Island, Antarctica.
Geoderma 315, 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.11.010.
Streck, E.V., Kampf, N., Dalmolin, R.S.D., Klamt, E., Do Nascimento, P.C., Schneider, E.,
Pinto, L.F.S., 2008. Solos do Rio Grande do Sul, second ed. Porto Alegre.
Torrent, J., Schwertmann, U., Schulze, D.G., 1980. Iron oxide mineralogy of some soils of
two river terrace sequences in Spain. Geoderma 23, 191–208. https://doi.org/10.
1016/0016-7061(80)90002-6.
Torrent, J., Schwertmann, U., Fechter, H., Alferez, F., 1983. Quantitative relationships
between soil color and hematite content. Soil Sci. 136, 354–358. https://doi.org/10.
1097/00010694-198312000-00004.
Torrent, J., Barron, V., 1993. Laboratory measurement of soil color: Theory and practice.
In: Bigham, J.M., Ciolkosz, E.J. (Eds.), Soil Color. Madison Inc, Wisconsin, pp. 21–33.
USDA – United States Department of Agriculture, 2014. Soil Survey Staff. Key to Soil
Taxonomy, 12th edn. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservations
Service, Washington.
Van Aken, H. Munsell Conversion Software (Version 12.18.5). http://wallkillcolor.com/
Munsell18/CMC%20Instruments.htm. (Accessed 3 April 2018).
10
Catena 193 (2020) 104609
Van Tol, J.J., Dzene, A.R., Le Roux, P.A.L., Schall, R., 2016. Pedotransfer functions to
predict Atterberg limits for South African soils using measured and morphological
properties. Soil Use Manage. 32, 635–643.https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12303.
Viscarra Rossel, R.A., Minasny, B., Roudier, P., McBratney, A.B., 2006. Colour space
models for soil Science. Geoderma 133, 320–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
geoderma.2005.07.017.
Viscarra Rossel, R.A., Cattle, S.R., Ortega, A., Fouad, Y., 2009. In situ measurements of
soil colour, mineral composition and clay content by vis–NIR spectroscopy.
Geoderma. 150, 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.01.025.
Viscarra Rossel, R.A., Bui, E.M., de Caritat, P., McKenzie, N.J., 2010. Mapping iron oxides
and the color of Australian soil using visible–near-infrared reflectance spectra. J.
Geophys. Res. 115, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001645.
Vodyanitskii, Y.N., Kirillova, N.P., Manakhov, D.V., Karpukhin, M.M., 2018. Iron com-
pounds and the color of soils in the Sakhalin Island. Eurasian Soil Sci. 51, 163–175.
https://doi-org.ez45.periodicos.capes.gov.br/10.1134/S1064229318020138.
Wyszecki, G., Stiles, W., 1982. Color science: Concepts and methods, quantitative data
and formulae. 6th edn. New York.