Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

Geological and geophysical methods relevant to decipher the structure and

emplacement of granites: Insights from the Calmayo pluton (Eastern Sierras
Pampeanas, Argentina)
Lucio Pinotti a, *, Fernando Javier D’Eramo a, Silvana Geuna b, Stefania Radice a,
David Gómez-Ortíz d, Néstor Vegas c, Joaquín Coniglio a, María Alejandra Boffadossi a,
María Eugenia Muratori a, Manuel Demartis a, José Kostadinoff e
a
Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra, Biodiversidad y Ambiente (ICBIA) (UNRC-CONICET), Departamento de Geología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físico-Químicas y
Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta Nacional 36 Km 601, (X5804BYA) Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
b
Laboratorio de Paleomagnetismo Daniel A. Valencio, Área Geofísica, Instituto de Geociencias Básicas, Aplicadas y Ambientales de Buenos Aires (IGEBA), Departamento
de Ciencias Geológicas, FCEyN, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Argentina
c
Departamento de Geodinámica, Universidad del País Vasco, Apartado 644, Bilbao, Spain
d
Dpt. Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, ESCET, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933. Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
e
Cátedra de Geofísica, INGEOSUR, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Bahía Blanca, Argentina

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this paper, the evolution of the fabric and 3D geometry of the Calmayo trondhjemitic pluton (512.1 ± 3.4 Ma;
Structure Sierra Chica, Córdoba, Argentina) is analyzed using Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS) measurements
AMS combined with structural and microstructural data. Gravity data reveal that the pluton is a funnel-shaped body
Emplacement fabrics
resting on one main root zone detected below the central portion of the pluton. The microstructural observations
Rocks magnetism
in the trondhjemite rocks show a progressive textural overprint from magmatic, through high-T to low-T solid-
Gravimetry
state deformation textures. This overprint is interpreted to be a consequence of the dynamic emplacement and
local deformation, particularly close to the adjacent Soconcho shear zone. Late oxidation of the magnetic mineral
assemblage (martitization of magnetite) is more intense in the central and southern sectors close to the root zone,
explaining the flat magnetic response of this area, and contrasting with a noisy domain to the northeast where
magnetite is preserved. We propose that the Calmayo pluton was constructed by several pulses that ascended
through a root zone or main conduit. This root zone represents feeder dykes that exploited tension fractures
linked to the Soconcho shear zone. Fluids responsible for the late oxidation would have followed similar paths
through this protracted shear zone.

1. Introduction
Focused in the Calmayo trondhjemite (Eastern Sierras Pampeanas of
Córdoba, Argentina), this work illustrates the usefulness of combining
geological and geophysical methods to analyze the structure and
emplacement of granite plutons. Structural studies on granitoids have
been conditioned, among others, by two factors: 1) the influence of
diapiric models (Ramberg, 1970; Marsh, 1982; Weinberg and Pod­
ladchikov, 1994) on the thinking of how a granite pluton is built
(Bateman, 1984), and 2) the difficulty in recognizing lineations of pri­
mary, magmatic origin (Nédélec and Bouchez, 2015).
Firstly, the impact of diapirism affected virtually all steps of the
formation of a granite pluton, from the ascent of magma to its expansion
at the emplacement site. On the issue of magma ascent, it should,
however, be noted that even Marsh (1982) stated that the rise of blows
of magma as result of a Rayleigh-Taylor instability works in the mantle
but is unlikely to operate in the crust. According to field studies and
thermal considerations, ascent by dyking is currently accepted as the
most reliable mechanism for the migration of granite magma up to mid
and upper crustal levels (Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Hutton, 1992;
Petford et al., 1993). Nevertheless, a model of diapiric ascent of magma
through the middle crust is still being applied to anorthosite intrusions

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lpinotti@exa.unrc.edu.ar (L. Pinotti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.103021
Received 22 June 2020; Received in revised form 10 October 2020; Accepted 5 November 2020
Available online 13 November 2020
0895-9811/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Pinotti et al.
in Proterozoic terranes (Mukherjee et al., 2020). The role of diapiric
models was equally decisive for interpreting the geometry of plutons at
depth as inverted teardrops or mushroom-shaped bodies with thickness
equal or larger than the surface dimensions (Bateman, 1984; Price and
Cosgrove, 1994). Following this belief, most cross-sections accompa­
nying geological maps all over the world commonly represent granites
as column-shaped bodies with steep-dipping contacts that spread quite
deep into the crust. Instead, gravity and seismic data reveal that plutons
usually display flat floors and tabular sheeted geometries, which
respond to a power-law relationship (Petford et al., 2000; D’Eramo et al.,
2006a; Cruden et al., 2017).
Regarding the second factor, the interest of structures in granites
comes from the fact that the magmatic foliation and lineation provide
the best source of information to establish the pattern of magmatic flow
inside a pluton. However, the quasi-isotropic microstructure of many
granitoids makes it difficult to recognize these structures, and magmatic
lineations, specifically, are barely visible to the naked eye (Bouchez,
1997). Just as gravity is a powerful tool to characterize the
three-dimensional shape of plutons, the anisotropy of the magnetic
susceptibility (AMS) helps to overcome the limitations of field structural
observations to recognize lineations in plutonic rocks (Tarling and
Hrouda, 1993). The bulk magnetic susceptibility, k, is the proportion­
ality factor between an external magnetic field and the magnetization
that it induces in a rock sample. The magnetic susceptibility is an
anisotropic property corresponding to a second rank tensor, which can
Fig. 1. (a) Location of the studied zone within the Sierras Pampeanas de Córdoba. CP (Calmayo pluton), HP (El Hongo pluton), SAP (San Agustín pluton). (b)
Simplified geological map of the central sector of the Sierra Chica showing the Calmayo pluton and the trajectories of the regional foliation.
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
be represented by an ellipsoid of k1, k2 and k3 semi-axes (k1 ≥ k2 ≥ k3),
the plane k1-k2 defining the magnetic foliation and k1 the magnetic
lineation. The interest of the AMS comes from the fact that a correlation
can be made usually between the magnetic fabric and the structural
fabric of a rock sample. Readers are referred to Bouchez (1997) for a
comprehensive review on the usefulness and limitations of the AMS in
granites.
AMS has been extensively used as a tool to reconstruct the
emplacement history of igneous rocks (see Bouchez et al., 1990; Tarling
and Hrouda, 1993; Borradaile and Henry, 1997; Borradaile and Jackson,
2010; Mamtani et al., 2013; Raposo and Gastal, 2009; Sbaraini et al.,
2020). The final geometry, fabric patterns and compositional arrange­
ment of magma bodies are a complex record of their construction and
internal flow history (Paterson et al., 1998; Pinotti et al., 2016; Rocher
et al., 2018). Magma injection, flow and differentiation, as well as
regional stresses, all control the internal fabric of magma bodies.
Comparing oriented structures from host rocks with internal magnetic
and deformational fabrics in plutons allows to determine whether the
pluton fabrics reflect the effect of regional tectonic strain or of internal
chamber processes. Additionally, such study may lead to the unravelling
of crystallization conditions and magmatic emplacement as one or more
pulses, at constant or variable physical conditions.
This study deals with the emplacement of the Calmayo pluton, a
small trondhjemite body located at the Sierra Chica de Córdoba
(Argentina). The study combines structural information from the
L. Pinotti et al.
country rocks and structural, petrographic and magnetic fabric data
from the trondhjemite massif. Reflected-light microscopy was also used
to identify the opaque minerals textural relationships, and character and
amount of alteration. In addition, a gravity/magnetic survey has been
carried out on the trondhjemite and country rocks. This combination of
different but complementary geological and geophysical approaches
resulted in a detailed evaluation of the internal structure, flow patterns
and the three-dimensional shape of the Calmayo trondhjemite, which in
turn enables us to understand the evolution history of the magma during
emplacement that integrates the shape and internal structure of the
trondhjemite with the structures of the country rocks.
2. Geological setting
The Sierra Chica de Córdoba (Eastern Sierras Pampeanas, Fig. 1) is
the easternmost range of the Sierras de Córdoba, central Argentina,
which constitutes one of the basement blocks that was uplifted by Ter­
tiary reverse faults between Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits (Jordan
and Allmendinger, 1986; Bonalumi et al., 2005). It comprises
Neoproterozoic-Palaeozoic basement rocks, most of which are Early
Cambrian gneisses and migmatites with minor marbles, amphibolites
and ultramafic rocks, intruded by granite plutons emplaced at various
crustal levels. The metamorphic sequence experienced high-grade
metamorphic conditions, reaching upper amphibolite-facies at P-T
conditions of 750 MPa and 800 ◦ C, respectively, during the Pampean
Orogeny. The protoliths for these rocks have been interpreted as a
predominantly clastic sedimentary sequences that were deposited in the
accretionary prism of the Pampean subduction system (Dalla Salda
et al., 1992, 1998; Rapela et al., 1998, 2018; Casquet et al., 2018;
Weinberg et al., 2018).
The complex structural and metamorphic evolution of this basement
reflects the overprinting of successive orogenic cycles (González
Bonorino, 1950; Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979; Ortiz Suárez et al., 1992;
Rapela et al., 1998, 2018; Ramos et al., 2014; Casquet et al., 2018;
Weinberg et al., 2018). Between Late Cambrian to Middle Ordovician
times (510–460 Ma), the metamorphic basement was intruded by plu­
tons and dykes of tonalite, trondhjemite, granodiorite and to, a lesser
degree, granite that make part of a trondhjemite-tonalite-granite (TTG)
Famatinian magmatic arc (Rapela et al., 1998; Pankhurst et al., 2000;
D’Eramo, 2003; D’Eramo et al., 2006a; 2006b; 2013; 2014; Rapela et al.,
2018). The geochemical features of the TTG magmatism in Córdoba, i.e.,
Na2O, CaO and Sr enrichment, K2O, FeO, Cs, Y and U depletion, low
Rb/Sr ratios, positive or absent Eu anomalies, high [La/Yb]N ratios,
relatively low 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios and variable εNd values, suggest
that a deep magmatic source of probably astenospheric origin was
incorporated to the magma leading to the formation of the trondhjemite
plutons of the Sierra Chica de Córdoba (D’Eramo et al., 2006a).
Ductile and ductile-brittle shear zones frequently controlled the
magma ascent and emplacement during the Famatinian magmatic
events (Demartis et al., 2011; D’Eramo et al., 2013; Boffadossi et al.,
2020). Particularly, the famatinian Calmayo pluton is affected by the
Soconcho ductile-brittle shear zone, a NNW-striking and WSW-dipping
reverse shear belt, which extends for more than 35 km along the
southern part of the Sierra Chica of Córdoba (Martino et al., 1995;
Martino, 2003; D’Eramo et al., 2013).
3. The Calmayo pluton
The Calmayo pluton (Fig. 1), similar to the nearby El Hongo and San
Agustin trondhjemite plutons, belongs to the G-2 magmatic group
defined by Rapela et al. (1998). The three plutons were emplaced at
crustal levels close to the brittle-ductile transition (D’Eramo, 2003;
D’Eramo et al., 2006a, 2006b). High-to medium-temperature meta­
somatic skarns are commonly observed when marbles are in contact
with the trondhjemites.
The Calmayo trondhjemite has an ENE-elongated elliptical shape in
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
plan view, with 4.5 and 2.5 km-long semi-major axes (Fig. 2). The pluton
is essentially discordant, with contacts oriented at rich angles with
respect to the country rock foliations. Two facies of similar trondhjemite
composition comprise the Calmayo pluton: 1) a coarse-grained facies of
hypidiomorphic texture, found in the pluton core, and 2) a fine-grained
porphyritic facies restricted to the pluton rim. The coarse grained facies
contains more than 90% plagioclase and quartz, with biotite as the most
abundant mafic mineral (≤5% wt). Accessory minerals include epidote,
apatite, magnetite, ilmeno-hematite, zircon and titanite. Idiomorphic
epidote with an allanite core is frequent as inclusions in biotite. Crystals
of magnetite and ilmeno-hematite are frequent in biotite, as equiaxial or
extremely elongate crystals (shape ratios >10), respectively, which are
parallel to the (001) cleavage of biotite crystals. The porphyritic
trondhjemite is composed of plagioclase phenocrysts surrounded by a
fine-grained matrix of quartz, plagioclase and biotite that suggests fast
cooling at shallow crustal levels.
From a structural point of view, magmatic structures (foliation and
compositional layering) prevail in the central and western sectors, while
solid-state deformation structures (S-C mylonitic rocks) are found in its
eastern part associated with the Soconcho shear zone (Martino, 2003;
D’Eramo, 2003; D’Eramo et al., 2013). The magmatic layering is drawn
by thin biotite-rich bands alternating with thicker plagioclase- and
quartz-bearing layers (Fig. 2). The magmatic foliation is defined by the
parallel arrangement of the idiomorphic crystals of plagioclase and
biotite. The magmatic origin of the foliation is inferred because these
minerals coexist with equiaxial aggregates of quartz devoid of solid-state
deformation microstructures. The layering and the magmatic foliation
are parallel and show westward dips and N- to NNW-strike (D’Eramo
et al., 2014).
4. Geophysical survey/Geophysical data and results
4.1. Magnetic fabric in the Calmayo pluton
Anisotropy of the magnetic susceptibility (AMS) has been analyzed
on samples from 27 sites from the Calmayo pluton (Table 1). Two or
three oriented cores per site were extracted with a portable drilling
machine, and three cylindrical samples (24 mm in diameter and 22 mm
high) were obtained from each core, affording 213 specimens. Mea­
surements were performed at the Universidad del País Vasco, Spain,
using a Kappabridge KLY-2 bridge (Geofysica, Brno), yielding magnetic
susceptibility values and orientations of the three principal axes of the
AMS ellipsoids (k1 ≥ k2 ≥ k3). The bulk susceptibility, k, is expressed as
(k1 + k2 + k3)/3. The magnetic lineation corresponds to the k1 -axis and
the k3-axis is the pole of the magnetic foliation (k1k2 plane). The
magnetic foliation strikes NNW–SSE to N–S and dips steeply to the west
(Fig. 3). Field and magnetic foliation measurements give similar results,
a fact pointing to biotite as the main mineral phase that defines the
shape fabric in granites. Even if magnetite is present, it mimics the fabric
of the silicate phase (Grégoire et al., 1998); elongate magnetite crystals
parallel to the (001) cleavage of host biotite crystals (Fig. 2 e) support
this interpretation. Moreover, the concordance between the magnetic
and field fabrics points to magnetic anisotropy triggered by
multi-domain magnetite, as single domain magnetite would result in
inverse magnetic fabrics (Tarling and Hrouda, 1993). In the Calmayo
pluton, the magnetic lineation differentiates two structural domains:
S-plunging lineations dominate in the SW part of the pluton, whereas
WNW-plunging lineations prevail in the NE zone (Fig. 3). The Calmayo
pluton can be divided into two structural domains based on orientation
of magnetic lineation: 1) S-plunging lineations dominate in the SW part
of the pluton, where magmatic structures dominate, and 2)
WNW-plunging stretching lineations linked to solid-state prevail in the
NE zone, where the magmatic structures are overprinted by S-C struc­
tures (Fig. 3).
L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021

Fig. 2. High-resolution Bing satellite image of the Calmayo pluton and its host rocks. Black dashed contour shows the boundaries of the Calmayo pluton. (a)
Magmatic banding with a typical layer thickness of 10–15 cm. The layering is parallel to the granite foliation. (b) Microphotograph showing intermediate defor­
mation in plagioclase and quartz (white arrow) on the central pluton region. (c) Microphotograph showing a quartz crystal with incipient chessboard pattern (white
arrow) affected by high temperature solid-state deformation. (d) Magmatic texture showing the idiomorphic shape of plagioclase crystals and the lack of intra­
crystalline deformation in the interstitial grains of quartz. (e) Detail microphotograph showing magnetite crystals with their major axis parallel to the (001) biotite
cleavage. (f) Detail microphotograph showing S-C fabric defined by quartz and biotite in the high strain deformation zone close to the Soconcho shear zone.

4.2. Rock magnetism and magnetic remanence
The nature of magnetic minerals was evaluated through the
following rock magnetic experiments: low-field thermomagnetic curves
were acquired with the CS4 furnace and CS-L cryostat attached to the
MFK1-A Kappabridge. The magnetic remanence carried by the ferro­
magnetic fraction was measured using a three-axis 2G DC squid cryo­
genic magnetometer. Alternating field demagnetization (AF) was
carried out to a maximum of 110 mT (peak) using a static 2G600
demagnetizer attached to the magnetometer. Step-wise thermal
demagnetization up to 680 ◦ C was performed using either a two-
chamber ASC or Schonstedt TSD-1 oven. Isothermal remanent magne­
tization (IRM) up to 2.3 T were imparted by using an ASC IM-10-30
pulse magnetizer, and measured with an AGICO JR6 spinner magne­
tometer. IRM acquisition curves were fitted by cumulative log-Gaussian
(CLG, Robertson and France, 1994) functions using the software
developed by Kruiver and Passier (2001). Thermal demagnetization of a
triaxial IRM (Lowrie test; Lowrie, 1990) was performed, after
magnetizing the samples by a 2.2-T field along the z axis, a 0.5-T field
along the y axis and a 0.1-T field along the x axis (representing hard,
medium and soft coercivity fractions, respectively). Bulk MS was
measured after each thermal step in order to monitor possible magnetic
mineral changes, by using a MS2W Bartington susceptometer.
Reflected-light microscopy was performed in order to identify the opa­
que phases, textural relationships, and character and amount of
alteration.
Magnetic susceptibility shows two modes (Fig. 4), corresponding to
paramagnetic and weakly ferromagnetic classes as defined by Clark
(1999). Classification of rocks based on magnetic susceptibility is based
on the fact that, in the absence of ferromagnetic phases, magnetic sus­
ceptibility is low and correlates with the whole rock iron content, allo­
cated in paramagnetic minerals and determined by chemical analyzes (e.
g. Rochette, 1987). The addition of small amounts of ferromagnetic
material (essentially magnetite) rapidly raises the magnetic suscepti­
bility values well above 10− 3 SI. A magnetic susceptibility greater than
1.25× 10− 3 SI is impossible to achieve with paramagnetic minerals

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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021

Table 1 from paramagnetic minerals, since such low susceptibility values can
AMS data for 27 sampling stations of the Calmayo pluton. only reflect at most trace amounts of ferromagnetic minerals. However,
Site k Pj T k1 k3 susceptibilities in that range can also be attained by summing trace
amounts of ferromagnetic minerals plus even lower amounts of para­
C1 15.39 1.11 0.65 263/12 60/53
C2 265.85 1.31 0.82 183/24 72/40 magnetic minerals, as noticed by Trindade et al. (1999). In fact, the
C3 14.30 1.06 0.60 282/52 76/45 mean magnetic susceptibility of 400× 10− 6 SI observed in type A
C4 109.47 1.24 0.63 314/32 62/31 samples from Calmayo overcomes the theoretical paramagnetic sus­
C5 25.51 1.12 0.51 193/70 63/13 ceptibility, i.e. the expected susceptibility if all the iron in these rocks
C6 36.69 1.11 0.34 303/37 67/37
C7 34.55 1.15 0.52 177/14 81/30
were allocated in paramagnetic minerals. According to chemical ana­
C8 20.5 1.16 0.23 278/66 284/04 lyses performed by D’Eramo (2003) on Calmayo trondhjemite, Fe2O3 is
C9 20.30 1.17 0.24 183/20 80/29 typically around 1.25 wt%, ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 wt%, which would
C10 15.41 1.11 0.48 233/56 79/32 produce a paramagnetic susceptibility of around 65 × 10− 6 (range from
C11 9.36 1.21 0.38 178/52 77/11
15 to a maximum value of 140 × 10− 6 SI). The susceptibility that ex­
C12 261.00 1.21 0.11 183/25 81/22
C13 477.26 1.23 0.53 190/34 80/31 ceeds this value must be attributed to a small amount of ferromagnetic
C14 6.54 1.02 − 0.24 296/82 71/05 minerals in type A samples. The secondary mode at higher susceptibility
C15 32.00 1.10 0.39 214/48 108/15
C16 30.10 1.16 0.31 180/35 70/22
C17 4.46 1.07 − 0.49 262/65 63/22
C18 37.90 1.14 0.51 289/45 35/16
C19 7.56 1.05 0.45 181/35 73/26
C20 60.49 1.22 0.16 234/47 51/39
C21 270.65 1.18 0.50 179/32 80/12
C22 769.14 1.28 0.59 283/62 61/22
C23 493.23 1.32 0.38 318/45 73/19
C24 8.82 1.07 0.42 280/60 59/24
C25 312.35 1.33 1.53 303/50 66/27
C26 27.49 1.11 − 0.04 260/72 48/11
C27 18.15 1.06 − 0.63 263/65 48/11

k: magnitude of the magnetic susceptibility (in μSI); Pj: anisotropy degree; T:

shape parameter; k1: azimuth and plunge (in degrees) of the magnetic lineation;
k3: azimuth and plunge (in degrees) of the pole of the magnetic foliation.

alone, so rocks with higher magnetic susceptibility are termed ferro­

magnetic (Clark 1999). Clearly, values below this threshold may indi­
cate the significant contribution of paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
minerals in varying proportions.
In the case of the Calmayo pluton, the magnetic susceptibility values
were relatively homogeneous within each site; each of them was char­
acterized by magnetic susceptibility either low (type “A”, below 0.7 ×
10− 3 SI, with a peak at 0.4 × 10− 3 SI, paramagnetic after Clark 1999)
or high (type “B”, above 1.8 × 10− 3 SI, with a peak around 3 × 10− 3 SI,
falling in the weakly ferromagnetic class). The highest susceptibilities
were only recorded at sites 2, 21, 22, 23 and 25 (northeast sector of the
pluton, Fig. 5a).
The term “paramagnetic” in the classification scheme proposed by Fig. 4. Histogram of magnetic susceptibility values for Calmayo trondjhemite.
Clark (1999) means that susceptibility is dominated by contributions (n = 52 specimens distributed in 27 sites).

Fig. 3. Foliation and lineation maps in the Calmayo pluton. Lower hemisphere equal area projection of poles to the magnetic foliation (A). Lower hemisphere equal
area projection of lineations in the magmatic (B) and solid-state deformation (C) domains. Modified from Fig. 7 of .D’Eramo et al. (2013)

5
L. Pinotti et al.
Fig. 5. Rock magnetic data. a) Bulk magnetic susceptibility map, b) Intensity of the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) map. Note the high values for magnetic
susceptibility and NRM in the northeastern sector.
values reflects the presence of a higher, even modest proportion of
magnetite, of about 0.2 vol%, in type B samples.
Fig. 6 shows low-field thermomagnetic curves, where the revers­
ibility of the process was checked by alternative cooling and reheating.
Type A samples showed a subdued Verwey transition at low tempera­
tures, and a raise in magnetic susceptibility after 450 ◦ C in a non-
reversible way, denoting the creation of a ferromagnetic mineral dur­
ing heating. The Curie temperature of the newly formed minerals is close
to that of magnetite, 580 ◦ C; however, the structure in the curve reflects
a probably more complex assemblage. The presence of hematite is
Fig. 6. Variation of magnetic susceptibility (arbitrary units) with temperature
(T in ◦ C). Red/blue lines represent heating and cooling curves respectively, with
different traces for distinct cycles of reheating. (For interpretation of the ref­
erences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version
of this article.)
6
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
evident from the final drop at the Néel point in 680 ◦ C, but it cannot be
asserted whether it existed in the sample before heating or if it was
created in the process.
Type B samples show a pronounced peak at Verwey temperature, and
a Curie temperature of 580 ◦ C, typical for nearly pure, MD magnetite.
The raising values of magnetic susceptibility close to the Curie tem­
perature seem to obey to creation of new magnetic minerals, as evi­
denced by the irreversibility on cooling. Hematite, if present, is
completely masked by the much more magnetic magnetite.
All the samples show composite IRM acquisition curves (Fig. 7),
reflecting the mixture of phases with different remanence-acquisition
coercive force (Bcr). Phases with coercitivity lower than 100 mT
constitute about 10–40% of the IRM for type A samples, and more than
90% for type B samples. An intermediate coercivity phase, of about 150
mT, is present in type A samples. Finally, a phase with high coercivity of
about 400–600 mT appears in all of the samples. Those three coercivity
fractions were magnetized along three different orthogonal directions,
and then thermally demagnetized (Lowrie test, Fig. 8). The low coer­
civity fraction showed distributed unblocking spectra mostly below
580 ◦ C, probably magnetite, while both medium and high coercivity
fractions unblocked at 660 ◦ C, pointing to maghemite and hematite,
respectively, as magnetic carriers. As hematite saturation magnetization
is lower than magnetite by more than one order of magnitude, the
observed relations of SIRM imply that hematite is volumetrically more
abundant than magnetite in all of the samples. In fact, magnetite should
be nearly absent in samples type A, according to the subordinate percent
of IRM carried by this mineral.
The intensity of the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) is of
about 60 mA/m for type A samples, and it can reach up to 250 mA/m
(Fig. 5b). On the other side, induced magnetization is expected to be low
according to the low values of magnetic susceptibility. For that reason,
high Königsberger ratio (Q) characterizes type A samples (Fig. 9). The
NRM was also very stable, as alternate field demagnetization was
effective to remove only a minor fraction of it (about 10%), denoting
that the magnetic phase carrying the NRM has coercive force higher
than 110 mT (Fig. 10). Thermal demagnetization revealed discrete
unblocking temperature of 610–640 ◦ C (Fig. 10). The high coercivity
and the range of unblocking temperatures are typical of impure hematite
(hematite with a content of Ti in the order of 10 mol %) or maghemite.
The opaque assemblage constitutes between 0.5 and 2 vol % of the
samples, and is composed by martitized magnetite and ilmeno-hematite
of magmatic origin, indicating oxidizing conditions during the
emplacement and cooling. The ilmeno-hematite is a ubiquitous acces­
sory mineral, which shows as anhedral to subhedral crystals occupying
intergranular positions. The hematite-rich member is usually the host of
disc-shaped rods of exsolved ilmenite-rich member parallel to {0001}
(Fig. 11), a typical texture of equilibration on cooling of an original
ilmenite-hematite (Haggerty, 1991). Magnetite is present either as
L. Pinotti et al.
Fig. 7. IRM acquisition curves for previously demagnetized samples, shown as
linear, gradient and standardised acquisition plots (LAP, GAP and SAP respec­
tively). The components modelled by IRM-CLG 1.0 software (Kruiver and
Passier, 2001) are shown. The abscissa is logarithmic for all three plots.
isolated crystals or in contact with ilmeno-hematite, and shows variable
degrees of martitization, from incipient in samples type B, to nearly
complete in samples type A (Fig. 11).
The relicts of magnetite would be responsible for the fraction of
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Fig. 8. Thermal demagnetization of triorthogonal IRM (Lowrie, 1990) of
specimens from the Calmayo trondhjemite.
Fig. 9. Königsberger factor for type A samples. Q factor for type B samples is
meaningless as NRM is dominated by an unstable and dispersed component
carried by MD magnetite (see text). Most of the samples have Q > 1 (remanent
overcomes induced magnetization), and a significant fraction have Q > 10.
Note the absence of correlation between Q and magnetic susceptibility; this
implies that magnetic susceptibility and remanence are not controlled by the
same mineral, as the abundance of (relict) MD magnetite controls susceptibility,
while abundance of hematite (probably ilmeno-hematite) controls remanence.
lower coercivity in the NRM and IRM, while the highly coercive fraction
would be hematite, either the hematite-member in the exsolved crystals
of ilmeno-hematite, or the martite formed by oxidation of magnetite.
The latter process would also involve the formation of maghemite,
which could carry the medium-coercivity fraction of IRM.
The MD magnetite does not carry significant NRM except for the type
B samples, which show a highly disperse, soft component easily
demagnetized. Hematite, on the other side, carries a relatively strong
magnetization (Q ≫1) which is also very stable; this hematite compo­
nent is present in both A and B type samples, and might contribute to
magnetic anomalies.
4.3. Gravity
A total number of 62 gravity stations were distributed over the
trondhjemite and surrounding areas of country rocks (Fig. 12). Average
gravity spacing within the pluton was of ~300 m whereas the average
spacing outside the trondhjemitic body was of ~1 km. All the
L. Pinotti et al.
Fig. 10. Typical magnetic behavior, normalized intensity plots for thermal
demagnetization of NRM from 0 to 680 ◦ C. A) Most of the sites show hematite
with a small content of ilmenite as the main magnetic carrier. The high coer­
civity shown by AF demagnetization (inner inset) is characteristic of hematite,
while the unblocking temperature (higher than magnetite − 580 ◦ C- and lower
than pure hematite − 680 ◦ C-) indicates a small amount of Ti in the structure. B)
The magnetic component erased at lower temperatures and lower alternate
fields points to magnetite accompanying hematite in a few sites (an AF of 20 mT
was applied previous to thermal demagnetization). Insets in normalized in­
tensity plots show normalized alternating field demagnetization on the
same samples.
measurements were made with a Lacoste & Romberg gravimeter with a
precision of 0.01 mGal. Typical corrections were made in order to
remove both the instrumental drift of the gravity-meter and the Earth-
tide effect. Elevation data were obtained using a Trimble 4600 LS GPS
device which provides, after post-processing of the data, an accuracy of
±5 cm. Terrain corrections were calculated up to 150 m directly on the
field using the Hammer charts, and from 150 m to a distance of 22 km
using the Kane (1962) algorithm.
The normal gravity at sea level was determined using the World
Geodetic System (WGS 84) formula. The average density value used in
8
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
both terrain and Bouguer reductions was of 2670 kg m− 3. Bouguer
anomaly data are relative because of the lack of a calibration base sta­
tion of known absolute gravity value. Gravity data were interpolated by
kriging to a regular grid of 250 m × 250 m to produce a Bouguer
anomaly map (Fig. 12a). The map showed a clear NW–SE regional trend,
which is transverse to the gravity low associated with the pluton and
also to the pluton boundary (solid line). This regional trend, assumed to
be due to deep sources, was removed by using a first-degree polynomial
surface. Fig. 12b shows the residual anomaly map obtained. Thus, the
residual anomaly associated to the Calmayo granitic body shows
amplitude of about − 3.5 mGal and a roughly circular shape.
With the aim to investigate the geometry at depth of the granitic
body, two transverse profiles (Fig. 12) trending NW-SE and NE-SW,
parallel to the axis of the elliptic body, were carried out modeling the
residual gravity anomaly. Each model consists of two density bodies
representing the trondhjemite and the host rock. The end effects owing
to the limited lateral extent of the pluton were corrected considering it
as a 2D structure. From density measurements of rock samples based on
the method of double weighing with paraffin (Smithson, 1971) we find
that trondhjemite and host rock mean densities are 2640 kg m− 3 and
2780 ± 40 kg m− 3, respectively.
4.4. Magnetic survey
The gravity stations were reoccupied in order to obtain magnetic
data with the same spacing and locations than in the gravity survey, so
the distribution and number of magnetic stations is the same that the
gravity stations (Fig. 12). The magnetic survey was done with a Geo­
metrics G-856 Proton Precession Magnetometer with a precision of 0.1
nT. The survey was carried out from May 31st to June 1st, 2009. The
magnetic data processing consisted of: a) removal of the diurnal varia­
tions of the magnetic field; and b) subtraction of the main Earth’s
magnetic field modelled with the International Geomagnetic Reference
Field (Finlay et al., 2010). Due to technical problems in the record of the
closest geomagnetic observatory (Pilar), the data from the more distant
Las Acacias observatory had to be used, which could have generated
some error in the corrected values for diurnal variations. However, the
survey dates corresponded to magnetically quiet days, so the maximum
diurnal variation is expected in the order of 20 nT and concentrated in
the noon hours, which limits possible errors to well below that range.
The resulting magnetic anomaly map (Fig. 12c) shows a noisy pattern of
high-amplitude anomalies (ranging from − 280 to − 20nT) in the
northeastern sector, contrasting with a relatively flat area to the
southwest, where a broad peak of about 50 nT in amplitude is observed,
located close to its central part, roughly oriented with the NE-SW sem­
i-major axis of the pluton. This pattern is expected to persist even in the
case of small errors that may have been made in the correction for
diurnal variation using data from a distant observatory.
4.5. Radiometric survey
At each gravity/magnetic station, a measurement of the total count
data was obtained using a portable hand held Gamma-Ray Spectrometer
model RS-125 Super-SPEC by Radiation Solutions Inc. The measurement
units are counts per second (cps). The highest values of total count
measurements (Fig. 12d), and thus the higher radiation levels, are found
to the metamorphic host rock, reaching up to 210 cps, whereas inside
the pluton the values are significantly lower, ranging from 60 to 20 cps,
with a few outlier values up to 100 cps. Overall, the radiometric
response for Calmayo trondhjemite is weak and relatively
homogeneous.
4.6. Modeling procedure
The modeling software used in this study is GM-SYS version 5.01
from Geosoft. GM-SYS allows interactive modeling of a two-and-a-half-
L. Pinotti et al.
dimensional (2.5D) geological cross section with the ability to quickly
calculate and display the resulting gravity and magnetic response of the
cross section. The calculations of the model response are based on the
method of Talwani et al. (1959), and Talwani (1964), and the algorithms
described in Won and Bevis (1987). The 2.5D calculations are based on
the method used by Rasmussen and Pedersen (1979). Density and
magnetic properties within a given model body were assumed constant.
Iterative adjustments to geologic body configuration, density, and
magnetic properties were made to minimize the root mean square (RMS)
error between observed and calculated gravity and magnetic anomalies.
Due to the fact that GM-SYS calculates the modelled gravity and mag­
netic anomalies simultaneously in real time, the modeler endeavors to
achieve the smallest RMS error possible for both techniques by adjusting
body shapes after designating acceptable density and magnetic
properties.
5. Discussion
5.1. Geophysical modeling
Densities of the trondhjemites and the metamorphic host rocks of
2.64 g cm− 3 and 2.78 ± 0.04 g cm− 3, respectively, were used to perform
gravity models. The use of a unique density for each body is justified by
the fact that density is a physical property dependent on the bulk
composition of the rock, and is dominated by the most abundant mineral
components (e.g. Dentith et al., 2020), which are relatively
9
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Fig. 11. Photomicrographs of iron-titanium oxides
occurrences in the Calmayo trondhjemite, in reflected
light. A to C, site C10. A, oriented rods of ilmenite
(dark grey) hosted by hematite (light grey); larger
ilmenite rods contain small lenses of hematite as a
second generation exsolution. B, rounded “martite”,
hematite (bright white) formed as a product of
magnetite oxidation; small magnetite relicts (grey)
are observed. C, same field as B with partially crossed
nicols, showing hematite patches with different ori­
entations. D to F, site C21 (northeastern sector); D,
exsolved ilmeno-hematite (lower) as in A, coexisting
with magnetite (upper left) partially altered to he­
matite + rutile. E, exsolved ilmeno-hematite (lower)
in contact with magnetite (upper, light grey) partially
altered to hematite (bright white) along the octahe­
dral planes. F, subhedral magnetite (light grey) with
slight hematite alteration along their borders.
homogeneous in both rock types (trondhjemite and host rocks). Indeed,
small variations in the content and nature of accessory minerals are not
expected to significantly modify the density of these rocks. The final
effects owing to the limited lateral extent of the pluton were corrected
considering it as a 2D structure. The overall geometry of the pluton is a
roughly tabular body with steep lateral boundaries and reaching its
maximum thickness at its central part. The minimum residual gravity
anomaly (− 3.5 mGal) is associated to the greater extent of the pluton
(~1 km depth) and is interpreted as the possible area of the pluton root.
Some differences between the two models exist: the best fit for model
1-1’ (absolute RMS error is 0.59 mGal) is obtained when the boundaries
between the pluton body and the metamorphic host rocks are not ver­
tical but dipping moderately outwards, resulting in a more elliptic ge­
ometry. However, profile 2-2’ reaches a best fit (absolute RMS error 0.64
mGal) when the pluton boundaries dip inwards and the thickness of the
body at the eastern boundary is greatly reduced to less than ~50 m,
resulting in a more funnel shape geometry.
The modeling of the magnetic anomalies is more complex than the
gravity ones. Unlike the residual gravity anomaly, which yields a simple
V-shaped curve (Fig. 13), the magnetic anomalies are dipolar in char­
acter with several overlapping anomalies of different amplitude and
extent. Therefore, a reasonable fit by using only a common magnetic
susceptibility value for the whole pluton body is very difficult to obtain
because magnetic susceptibility varies significantly (in orders of
magnitude) with small variations in the abundance of an accessory
mineral, such as magnetite (e.g. Dentith et al., 2020). Thus and thus
L. Pinotti et al.
different areas with different susceptibility values have been used in the
models. Several rock samples distributed along the outcrop of the pluton
were used to obtain representative values for magnetic susceptibility, as
discussed in section 4.3. The samples obtained at the central part of the
body provided values ranging from 3 to 70•10− 5 SI whereas the
northern part is characterized by higher magnetic susceptibility values
ranging from 400 to 1100•10− 5 SI (Fig. 5a). From these data, and in
order to obtain a reasonably good fit between the overall geometry of
the pluton from the gravity and magnetic data, three different areas have
been differentiated in the magnetic models: a western zone with mean
susceptibility values of 20•10− 5 SI; a central part with mean suscepti­
bility values of 50•10− 5 SI and an eastern zone with mean susceptibility
values of 500•10− 5 SI. For the host rocks, a mean value of 70•10− 6 SI
has been used as representative of the gneisses constituting the
10
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Fig. 12. Geophysical data used to constrain the ge­
ometry and internal variations of the Calmayo pluton:
a) total Bouguer anomaly map; b) residual gravity
anomaly map after removal of the regional trend; c)
magnetic anomaly map; d) radiometric map. The red
solid line represents the boundary of the pluton. The
locations of the gravity/magnetic/radiometric sta­
tions are represented as black circles. The two profiles
(1-1′ and 2-2′ ) chosen for the modeling are repre­
sented by black solid lines. UTM coordinates in me­
ters, zone 20 ◦ S. (For interpretation of the references
to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the Web version of this article.)
metamorphic basement. The internal boundaries of the three areas in­
side the pluton provide the best fit (RMS absolute errors of 5.1 nT for
profile 1-1′ and 31.7 nT for profile 2-2’) when subvertical contacts are
used. The petrographic analysis showed that differences in magnetic
susceptibility obey to varying degrees of oxidation of magmatic
magnetite. The presence of fresh magnetite in the northeastern sector
explains the high-amplitude magnetic anomalies. The oxidation
observed in the center and southern parts of the pluton is interpreted as
late-magmatic/deuteric in origin and could reflect protracted access of
fluids near the root zone.
The radiometric response of trondhjemite responds to geochemical
variations in the surface, specifically in the content of K, U and Th
minerals. The weak response obtained is due to the low content of these
elements; on the other hand, the homogeneity of the radiometric
L. Pinotti et al.
Fig. 13. Gravity and magnetic models. Model 1-1′ is a transverse section whereas model 2-2′ is parallel to the elongation of the pluton. No vertical exaggeration has
been used in the models. For a detailed description, see the text.
responses implies that its internal variations are not significant. Varia­
tions in these elements would be expected in the case of magmatic dif­
ferentiation within the pluton and/or different zones of hydrothermal
alteration. The relatively homogeneous mineralogical composition of
the Calmayo trondhjemite pluton suggests that this differentiation did
not occur. However, even in such homogeneous rocks, the magnetic
system is extremely sensitive to redox changes and these changes
significantly modify the magnetic properties, as previously discussed.
5.2. Construction of the Calmayo pluton
The relationship between structures and magma rise has been widely
documented in contractional (Tobisch and Paterson, 1990), extensional
(Hutton et al., 1990; Acocella and Rosetti, 1999) and shear zone envi­
ronments (Hutton and Reavy, 1992; Neves et al., 1996). Shear zones are
planar discontinuities rheologically weakened in the contact zones with
the surrounding materials, which favors their role as channels for the
extraction of magma from deep levels of the crust. The Calmayo
trondhjemitic pluton was formed by the accumulation of numerous,
sporadic and small magma pulses at a crustal level close to the
brittle-ductile transition. The compressional regional stress field oper­
ating at the moment of the intrusion of magma pulses tended to impede
11
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
the space generation and forced magma to flow towards local dilational,
mean low pressure sites, such as the regional boudin necks (D’Eramo
et al., 2013). The eastern sector of the Calmayo pluton is affected by the
Soconcho dextral shear belt that could have acted as the main conduit
for the channeling of trondhjemitic magma. Other similar examples
have been reported by Mamtani et al. (2013), Majumder and Mamtani
(2009) and Bhatt et al. (2017). The geometry obtained from gravity
modeling in the Calmayo pluton is similar to that obtained on other
plutons around the world, such as those of the French Massif Central
(Vigneresse, 1990), and some other examples of the Sierras Pampeanas
(D’Eramo et al., 2006b). The gravimetric study reveals the presence of a
single root or feeding channel, which would have a submeridional major
axis (NNW). The morphology of this root is evidenced by the funnel
geometry shown by the gravimetric anomaly in the central part of the
2-2′ profile (Figs. 12 and 13). From this structure, the pluton expanded
laterally, thus defining its final elliptical shape. The trondhjemitic
magmas that are generated at deep levels of the crust ascend by con­
trasting densities with their host rocks reaching the ductile-brittle
transition zone, where the hydrodynamic force (buoyancy) is insuffi­
cient to fracture the upper brittle crust additional conditions (regional or
local tectonic strain deformation and fracturing) are necessary to
crosscut this zone (Vigneresse, 1995). In the upper crust, the migration
L. Pinotti et al.
of magmas is concentrated in high permeability areas, such as shear
zones. In these areas, sectors of local extension allow magma to rise
continuously throughout the continental crust.
The metamorphic foliation trajectories in the country rocks of the
Calmayo pluton suggest an asymmetric boudin-like structure. This led
D’Eramo et al. (2013) to propose that large-scale asymmetric boudinage
may be an efficient mechanism controlling magma emplacement and
that boudin necks acted as low-pressure magma traps, where magma
accumulated. The same authors also proposed that magma ascent was
channelled through dilatational fractures located in the boudin necks. In
the Calmayo pluton, the gravimetric and magnetometric anomalies
delineate the root of the igneous body, which would represent the main
feeder channel from which magma batches ascended and filled the
chamber. Banding orientation obtained through fieldwork and AMS
measurements (Fig. 3) support the strike of the possible root of the
pluton modelled using gravity and magnetic field data (Fig. 13). This
root is suspected to have been controlled by the Soconcho shear zone.
D’Eramo et al. (2013) reported deformation microstructures from the
magmatic stage to the solid state of high and low temperatures for rocks
located in the eastern sector of the pluton, where shearing is strongly
evident. Given the orientation of these structures (NNW strikes and
moderate dips to the WSW), it could be inferred that this deformation
strip would coincide with the root sector of the pluton in depth. The
WNW trending lineations measured in outcrops in the Calmayo pluton
showing solid-state deformation suggest a reactivation of the magmatic
foliation structures during the late shearing event, generating shear
planes oriented parallel to the magmatic foliations. Moreover, in these
sites the magmatic lineations were overprinted by stretching lineations.
The Calmayo trondhjemite is paramagnetic as a whole, except for the
northeastern sector. The opaque assemblage is dominated by exsolved
ilmeno-hematite, and contains also martitized magnetite in large crys­
tals, clearly in multidomain (MD) state. The presence of weakly altered
to unaltered magnetite crystals observed in rocks of the northeastern
sector explain the higher magnetic signature of these rocks. Magnetic
experiments show that magnetite is volumetrically subordinated to he­
matite, and is mainly MD, in agreement with the microscopic de­
terminations. All these observations allow us to interpret that the
anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility response is mainly controlled by
the preferential orientation of paramagnetic minerals, specially biotite,
and ilmeno-hematite, which is scarce but strongly anisotropic. Magnetic
anomalies, on the other side, are controlled by the abundance of relict
magnetite, that is to say, by the degree of late-magmatic/deuteric
oxidation, which in turn can be related to fluid migration.
According to the above discussed geophysical and geological evi­
dence, we here propose a model for the construction of the Calmayo
pluton in which the Soconcho shear zone deformation played a major
role in controlling the ascent and migration of the trondhjemite magma.
As was stated by D’Eramo et al. (2013) and Pinotti et al. (2016), the
Calmayo pluton have grown incrementally through multiple low volume
magma pulses that ascended from the same magmatic source and filled
the space sequentially in a NE-SW sense. This led D’Eramo et al. (2013)
to place tentatively the last magmatic pulse towards the northeastern
side of the Calmayo pluton, thus explaining the strong overprinting of
solid-state deformation in that part of the magma body. Other field and
petrographic evidence further support this model since only weak
deformation structures generated at the magmatic stage and magmatic
textures predominate towards the southwest of the pluton and fresh
magnetite is more preserved from martitization towards the northeast.
As was shown above, the location of the feeder channels coincides with
the downwards extension of the Soconcho shear zone trace. Therefore,
we consider that this deformation has played a critical role for the ascent
and migration of the magma pulses that filled the Calmayo pluton, as
well as late-stage oxidizing fluids.
12
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
6. Conclusions
- The AMS, magnetic remanence, magnetometry and gravimetry are
very powerful techniques to analyze the mechanisms of transport
and emplacement of the igneous bodies. The mentioned techniques
combined with the petro-structural data obtained in the field allow
us to infer how the rise and emplacement of trondhjemitic magma
occurs at crustal levels close to the brittle-ductile transition.
- The Calmayo pluton was constructed by several pulses. The gravi­
metric and magnetometric anomalies delineate a root, which would
represent the main feeder channel.
- Rock magnetic and petrographic analysis showed that the magnetic
assemblage is variably oxidized, with maximum oxidation in the
central and southern zone, near the modelled root. Martitization of
magnetite would have been caused by fluid migration during late-
magmatic/deuteric stages.
- The Soconcho shear zone would have controlled the ascent and
migration of the trondhjemitic magma pulses for the construction of
the Calmayo pluton. It would have also served as a pathway for fluids
responsible for the late oxidation event.
Authors statements
Lucio Pinotti: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Visualization,
Funding acquisition. Fernando J D’Eramo: Conceptualization, Method­
ology, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Edit­
ing, Visualization, Funding acquisition. Silvana Geuna: Methodology,
Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Re­
view & Editing, Visualization. Stefania Radice: Methodology, Investi­
gation, Formal analysis, Visualization. David Gómez-Ortiz:
Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing - Original Draft,
Visualization. Néstor Vegas: Methodology, Investigation, Formal anal­
ysis, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Visualization.
Joaquín Coniglio: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - Original
Draft, Visualization. Alejandra Boffadossi: Investigation, Writing -
Original Draft, Visualization. María Eugenia Muratori: Investigation,
Writing - Original Draft, Visualization. Manuel Demartis: Writing -
Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing. José Kostadinoff: Method­
ology, Formal analysis, Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors do not have any conflicts of interest to declare.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge: Agencia de Promoción Científica y Técnica (PICT-
1754-16, PICT-2018-01330), SeCyT Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto
(programa 18/C 360) and CONICET (PIP CONICET0916). N. Vegas ac­
knowledges finantial support from the project CGL2017–82976 (Min­
isterio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad/Fondo Europeo de
Desarrollo Regional, European Union). The authors want to thank to
Augusto Rapalini for the editorial assistance, and Manish A. Mamtani
and another anonymous reviewer for their constructive reviews.The
authors also want to thank Ariel Raniolo for help and assistance during
geophysical surveys.
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