Neutron-Induced Gamma Ray
Spectroscopy for Reservoir Analysis
Peter Westaway, SPE, Schlumberger Technical Services
Russel Hertzog, SPE, Schlumberger Overseas S.A.
Ronald E, Plasek, SPE, Schlumberger Well Services
Abstract
The weighted least-squares (WLS) approach to spectral
analysis has enabled more information to be extracted
from the downhole recorded induced gamma ray spectra
than was previously possible, GST™ (gamma ray spec-
troscopy tool), with its optimized inelastic and capture
spectral modes, permits analysis of most and often all
significant elements present in the formation and pro-
vides the possibility of evaluating hydrocarbons, salini-
ty, lithology, porosity, and shaliness,
Data have been obtained in a wide range of conditions
in open and cased holes with the GST tool both in its pre-
sent and experimental versions. This paper presents field
examples to demonstrate the versatility and potential of
the technique, not only as an effective oil-finder in-
dependent of water salinity conditions but as a valuable
input to a more complete interpretation of well logs,
Introduction
Nuclear well logging has been long established as a
means of evaluating reservoir porosity and hydrocarbons
in open hole and behind casing, 1 The count rates of
neutrons or gamma rays returning to one or more detec-
tors are measured and related to the formation rock
characteristics according to the physics of the neutron in-
teractions that have occurred, For example, high-energy
neutrons interact with the surrounding formation nuclei
and can induce gamma ray emission, Most conventional
neutron/gamma spectroscopy techniques for well log-
ging that have been developed to date are based on in-
tegral counts in rather broad energy windows, 2-6
In this paper, we discuss an alternate technique that
allows an accurate and detailed formation evaluation.
0197-7520/83/0006-9461 $00.25
Copyright 1983 SOCiety of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
JUNE 1983
Gamma rays emitted from the formation nuclei are
limited to specific and well-defined energies governed
by the laws of quantum mechanics, Each element
(isotope) has a characteristic spectrum of gamma rays
that can be emitted from a given neutron interaction,
Therefore, an element may be identified by its gamma
ray spectral shape or signature whose emission intensity
is related to the elemental concentration,
The GST too1 7 measures the relative yields of gamma
rays resulting from the interactions of neutrons with dif-
ferent elements present in the formation. The
measurements are based on a WLS shape analysis of the
observed gamma ray spectral distribution. This is a
recently introduced approach to induced nuclear log-
ging. 8 Neutron induced gamma rays are analyzed
downhole in terms of intensity in each of more than 200
discrete, narrow energy increments. From this detailed
measurement of formation spectral response to neutron
bombardment, eight constituent elements can be iden-
tified and their proportions estimated. These elements,
C, 0, Cl, H, Si, Ca, Fe, and S, are significant in forma-
tion mineralogical and fluid analysis. A considerable
amount of new information is thus made available in the
form of a continuous or quasicontinuous well log for a
more comprehensive evaluation of the formation.
Because of its immediate commercial interest, em-
phasis in a previous publication 8 was placed on the ap-
plication of the carbon and oxygen measurements in
estimating hydrocarbon saturation. This approach has
the advantage of being unaffected by the presence of
salts (particularly NaCl) in the pore fluid, and has had
encouraging success in the monitoring of reservoirs
where salinities were either unknown, variable, or too
low for conventional neutron logging. At the same time,
553

GST TIMING PROGRAMS
NEUTRON
CAPTURE T BURST
SPECTROMETRY
nRJ1ruL
o 7 4 b II l(j '1 42
MUt TlPlES OF
SIMULTANEOUS
MEASUREMENT [l;rilJIiL
o ] 4 6 I q 10 '1
MUl [IPlES Of
TOT EQUATION = N, 2 N2 + N] = 0
Fig. 1-GST capture-tau-mode timing program.
the Cl and H data provide a means of obtaining salinity.
Evidence suggests, too, that in certain conditions, we
may expect the carbon-to-oxygen fraction to be insen-
sitive to lithology, particularly sand/tuffite mixtures and
sands of moderate (nonorganic) shaliness.
We present log examples obtained with the GST tool
in both its production prototype and experimental forms.
[The experimental prototype is called the inelastic gam-
ma tool (lGT). 8] These field data have been gathered in
a wide variety of conditions in the Middle East, Far East,
and South America. These examples show how the
measured elemental fractions correlate with rock and
fluid characteristics. The objective of this paper is to
discuss and to emphasize new applications and inter-
pretations of these spectroscopy measurements.
The downhole tool, described in Table I, consists of a
pulsed-neutron accelerator l4-MeV neutron source pro-
ducing about 3 x 10 8 neutrons/sec, a complete downhole
spectrometer system using a NaI(TI) detector and a
multichannel data-acquisition system. Gamma ray spec-
tral intensities are analyzed in 256 channels covering an
energy range of 0 to 8 Me V. All spectral information is
sent uphole to a CSU™ (Ciber Service Unit) computer
logging unit, which sends operating and stabilization
commands to the downhole tool.
Principles of the Technique
Neutrons are emitted at 14 MeV from a pulsed-
accelerator source. The details of neutron interactions
with atomic nuclei are discussed in Ref. 8. Two major
categories of neutron interactions producing gamma rays
are used.
I. Fast Neutron Interactions include inelastic scatter-
ing and neutron reactions. They require neutron energies
of several Me V, and involve extremely short excitation
lifetimes. Gamma ray emission therefore occurs prompt-
ly after neutron emission and relatively close to the
source.
2. Neutron capture occurs at or near thermal neutron
energy. The neutron is absorbed and gamma rays may be
produced. Capture events occur relatively late after the
neutrons have been slowed down and may take place far-
ther from the source.
Among the commonly occurring elements giving de-
tectable gamma ray yields from fast neutron interactions
(particularly inelastic) are C, Ca, Fe, 0, S, and Si. In
554
NEUTRON BURST
INELASTIC MODE ~r=J TIME (usee)
o 100
y RAY
COUNT RATE =~~ ==IN=EL=AS=TlC=&=C=AP=,~=UR=E=C=AP=TU=RE=J1
_____
20 40 84 100
SPGE;iERSAl f1 BURST 1 BKGND 1 LATE CAPTURE 1 BURST 1\
BACKGROUND
't? t? %'
Ed
~-EJ=~
T ----11__
61
T - - -...._
BURST BACKGROUND NET INELASTIC CAPTURE
SPECTRUM SPECTRUM SPECTRUM SPECTRUM
Fig. 2-GST inelastic-mode timing program.
neutron capture, the technique is sensitive to Ca, Cl, Fe,
H, S, and Si.
Measuring System
The GST tool is operated in either of two timing modes,
described fully in Ref. 7. In the "capture-tau mode"
(Fig. 1), the capture gamma ray spectrum is accumulated
during the capture gate, which follows the neutron burst
after a delay period to allow borehole contributions to die
away. The basic timing unit is continuously varied ac-
cording to a simultaneous measurement of formation
decay time, I:. This is accomplished by a gating se-
quence similar to that of the TDTTM (Thermal Neutron
Decay Time)-K tool, except that the background gate is
set during the ninth and tenth cycles, which have no
neutron bursts. The background gate is used to correct
the capture spectra for oxygen activation and other
decaying spectral yields.
In this manner, the position of the capture spec-
troscopy interval is adjusted to maximize formation
signal while minimizing the early borehole contri-
butions.
The "inelastic mode" has a fixed timing cycle (Fig.
2). Gamma rays from fast neutron interactions are
detected during the neutron burst itself. A short "capture
background" gate is used to subtract out any capture
events that may also be detected during the burst gate, so
that a "net inelastic spectrum" (or more exactly, a "net
fast neutron-induced spectrum") is obtained. The ex-
perimental IGT used only this fixed timing mode, and its
capture spectrum was accumulated during a detection
gate following the background sampling. This "late cap-
ture" gate has been retained in the GST tool inelastic
mode for use III evaluating borehole capture
contributions.
The spectra are accumulated continuously in the CSU
computer, and at regular sampling intervals the WLS
spectral fitting analysis, described in the next section, is
performed. The spectra are simultaneously recorded on
magnetic tape.
As an example, the spectra in Fig. 3 were obtained in a
laboratory oil-saturated (<1>=36%) sandstone, containin,g
a 7-in. (17.8-cm) saltwater-filled casing, cemented in a
IO-in. (25.4-cm) hole.
Several features of the different modes of tool spectral
measurement are shown in this figure. The top spectrum
SOCIETY OF PE':-ROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
lOUU

lUU
I 0'':------- C
0---
,
0/
NET INELASTIC SPECTRUM

CAPTURE SPECTRUM MEASURED

IN INELASTIC MODE

TABLE 1-GST TOOL DESCRIPTION

length, It (m) 37 (11.3)

Diameter, in. (cm)
logging cable
Maximum pressure, psi (MPa)
10
Temperature, OF (0C)
Data acquisition
Detector/size, in. (cm)
Combinable with
GAMMA RAY ENERGY (MeV) .. Modes
logging speed, ftlhr (m/h)
Fig. 3-lnelastic and capture spectra measured in laboratory
formations.
3.625 (9.21)
heptacable
20,000 (138)
300 (150)
bidirectional-telemetry and
CSU*
Nal(TI), 2'12 x 4 (6.4 x 10)
CCl, SGT (gamma ray),
AMS, NGT
capture-taulinelastic
capture-tau mode=600 (183)
inelastic mode = stationary
(5 minutes) or eight passes
at 150 (46)

is a capture background corrected inelastic spectrum.
The poor signal-to-background ratio is caused in part by
the many unresolved (Doppler-shifted) excitations in the
tool materials and formation produced by the fast
neutrons. Comparing the inelastic spectrum with the
three capture spectra in this figure, it can be seen that the
capture spectra have significantly less tool-related con-
tinuous backgrounds and that the elemental spectral
peaks are much easier to resolve. In addition, it can be
seen that the capture-tau mode timing effectively reduces
the borehole signal which can be seen by the relative in-
crease in intensity of the formation silicon peaks com-
pared with the tool and casing iron peaks. Note that all
the spectra shown in this paper are semi logarithmic
plots. Any change that is visible to the eye in such spec-
tra represents significant changes in actual spectral
yields. However, computer processing is sensitive to
small changes in the spectra that are not easily recogniz-
ed by visual inspection. A boron sleeve may be attached
around the tool pressure housing to obtain a further
reduction in borehole signal. The improvement in the
tool sensitivity to the formation can be seen by the ap-
parent additional increase in the formation silicon
intensity.
The WLS Analysis
A complete description of the WLS spectral fitting pro-
cedure can be found in Ref. 8. A library of standard
elemental spectra is used. A given standard represents
the spectrum the tool would record if surrounded solely
by that element. Fig. 4 shows the basic set of standards
used for the inelastic and capture spectral analysis.
The computer determines the linear combination of the
elemental standards that best fit the accumulated
downhole spectrum, according to a least-squares
criterion. The "elemental yield coefficients," which are
the proportions of the total logging spectrum attributed to
each element, are computed and recorded on tape. Cer-
JUNE 1983
tain "elemental yield ratios," shown in Table 2, are also
recorded. These ratios are used to identify qualitatively
and to measure changes in the macroscopic properties of
the formation.
This approach allows, in principle, the identification
of any element present in the formation giving a
measurable gamma ray yield from either fast or capture
events. It requires simply the inclusion of the corre-
sponding standard in the library.
Data Output
The data available at the well site consist of taped and op-
tical recordings of C, 0, Si, Ca, Fe, Cl, and H elemental
yields (note that Si, Ca, and Fe are measured in both cap-
ture and inelastic spectra); yield ratios: carbon/oxygen
(COR), iron indicator (IIR), lithology indicator (LIR),
porosity indicator (PIR), and salinity indicator (SIR);
and a macroscopic thermal neutron-capture cross sec-
tion, derived from tau and comparable to that of the TDT
log.
In addition, printouts are available of tool status in-
dicators and selected control functions such as crystal
resolution, spectrometer gain and offset, to monitor the
functioning of the downhole spectrometer system.
Logging
Continuous logging at 600 ft/hr (183 m/h) has been
found to give acceptable statistical precision in capture
spectroscopy, further improved by averaging two or
more passes. Capture spectra are accumulated and
analyzed over each 6 in. (15 cm) of tool travel.
To obtain a reasonable statistical level from fast
neutron measurements, a much longer sampling period is
mandatory in the inelastic mode. Stationary measure-
ments lasting 5 minutes taken every 2 ft (0.5 m), for in-
stance, have proved successful with the GST tool, pro-
ducing a quasicontinuous log in CSU playback. Eight-
minute stations were taken with the IGT. Comparable
555

IIlOO
'UU
~
~
§
>
GAMMA RAY ENERGY (MeV)
Fig. 4-lnelastic and capture WLS-fitting standards.
precision (and a truly continuous log) has been obtained
by averaging eight passes run at 150 ft/hr (46 m/h), re-
quiring about the same total operating time.
Although GST capture-tau mode logging is con-
tinuous, several capture examples shown in this paper
were taken concurrently with the inelastic stationary
measurements using the experimental IGT.
Reprocessing of Data
The set of standards required for linear combination in
the WLS analysis may depend on the local environment.
New elements such as S, not normally used in the real-
time fitting, may be needed, while others deemed un-
necessary for the particular environment could be
omitted. *
Temperature effects on the detector crystal (causing
peak broadening) and very small changes (of the order of
< 1 %) in spectrometer calibration alignment will alter
the tool's operational response slightly. Since all the
downhole spectra are accessible from tape, such
systematic effects can be modeled, and the response
standards corrected, in an off-line reprocessing.
°It is possible to reduce statistical uncertainty of the fitting coefficients by keeping the
number of standard spectra used during the analysis to the minimum necessary to
describe the logging measurement correctly. Therefore, the logs can be reproc·
essed off·line using a reduced set of standards that does not contain response
functions for elements that have an insignificant contribution (for example, < 2%) to
the overall spectral measurement. At the same time, a comparison is made between
the observed spectra and those computed from the standards to measure the
goodness of fit by using a normalized chi·square parameter. 8 The parameter
enables one to judge the quality of analysis, the assumed standards used during the
computation, and whether or not alternative corrections for spectral nonlinearities or
new element response functions are required.
556
1[JOO
lOll
10
GAMMA RAY ENERGY (MeV)
All the logs used in this paper have been reprocessed,
correcting for the temperature-induced resolution
degradation, gain or offset shifts, and nonlinearities at a
computing center. However, with the commercial in-
troduction of the GST tool, real-time spectral reproc-
essing has become a feature of the CSU service.
Some General Comments on Log Data
Fast neutron interactions are relatively rare and, because
of their high energy requirements, tend to occur close to
the source. Inelastic spectroscopy data are therefore
characterized by a shallow depth of investigation
[typically 5 to 10 in. (12.7 to 25.4 cm)] and a high
statistical uncertainty, which is brought to an acceptable
level by taking stationary measurements or by averaging
slow continuous passes. Borehole signal from fluid, cas-
ing, and cement is large. To identify the wellbore fluid
and locate any oil/water interface, a gradiomanometer
survey is needed.
Neutron capture occurs after the neutrons have
migrated farther out. Capture spectroscopy is a deeper
measurement, 8 to 12 in. (20.3 to 30.5 cm) from the
source, similar to TDT-K near detector, with a better
statistical uncertainty. The capture-tau mode timing
reduces the borehole signal. A boron-sleeve fluid-
excluder has been tested successfully as a means of fur-
ther reducing borehole effects, such as Fe and Ca, from
casing and cement.
Reference should be made to caliper and Cement Bond
Logs to check on hole size and the condition of the ce-
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
 TABLE 2-RECORDED EXPERIMENTAL YIELD RATIOS

Yield
Ratio Interaction Name Label
c/o inelastic carbon/oxygen ratio COR
CI/H capture salinity-indicator ratio SIR
H/(Si+Ca) capture porosity-indicator ratio PIR
Fe/(Si+Ca) capture iron indicator ratio IIR
Si/(Si+ Ca) capture and inelastic lithology-indicator ratio LlR

ment sheath. Washouts, poor cementation, and behind- SP Ph I1R

casing channeling are environmental effects that can af- 15mV
05 2.5

fect the GST data. __ ::J.l"t. __ .E!! __ 1l.5 S COR PIR CALIPER
0 10
Our field testing experience has shown the following. GAMMA RAY <f>CNL

0 20030 (LST PU) 0

I(oLlR1.25 0 04 0.55 030 6" 16"
In Open Hole. Openhole observation wells have been TOP
logged in the Middle East as a means of regularly
r( ~~
H

I)~5r
monitoring the depletion of reservoirs under natural --. .- ) ----- -~
~"
f ('-----
waterdrive and freshwater injection. In a properly con- ( '0;-: :, < :::::=-
f ,~ ~ ----- --~-~-,..-
trolled well, invasion from the well bore should not -" «"
r,'
~ ...
occur. "t ___
<-
~
I> < /---------
In Cased Hole. Although the casing and cement reduce -=<;::-::
the tool sensitivity to formation signal, both capture and
inelastic data are interpretable in terms of lithology and }~ ~fr(? /; ~
--,----_ ..
------ , ~
hydrocarbons. Invaded zone will be measured if mud
filtrate has not dissipated.
,"/'
?
~:
OIL
WATER \ ./
IN
« ,
"l
, CASING

. )( > ,.-:
In Exploration or Development Wells. The invaded
,'>
,
-,
/

(t
-,
zone will be measured primarily, unless a special mud
system is used. (This must be kept in mind when inter- . i
< ,,
preting COR and SIR data but should not be important
~
'-. ---

{}
TOP

~
F
for lithology.) The presence of oil in the open borehole
gives improved sensitivity to the COR measurement { "
! )

t 1 \)
because of the reduction in the borehole oxygen TOP ,
~-~
background. For the same reason, smaller boreholes also '-.. E

.-...-
~
"
increase the dynamic range of the carbon/oxygen ~
-', <l:t"
measurements. '- ,
<...,:
:( ~
L .~
Several field examples are discussed next to give the frup ,,
P 0 ,,- /

reader a qualitative understanding of the spectroscopy :

,
responses in oil-bearing formations. After those ex- j ,

amples, we examine models for quantitative inter- ( ~; TOP

(
C
pretation. ~~
) i ~,
:
Field Examples
Example 1
The example shown in Fig. 5 is from a development well
{ frup
B i:
: /--- -

~ .~
in South America. Two weeks after casing had been -' frup ~ >

cemented, an induced gamma ray spectroscopy log was

.t.
;_1 A : 1;1

'~
run with the IGT. The casing fluid had been displaced by
oil, and at the time of logging, the oil/water interface
was at 2,205 ft (672 m). Except for the interval of 2,300 Fig. 5-Example 1, lithology log response.
to 2,350 ft (701 to 716 m), the CBL showed the casing to
be well cemented. Casing size was 7 in. (17.8 cm) in
8*-in. (22.2-cm) hole.
Core data indicated that the lithology of this interval
ranges from volcanic silicates and quartz to calcite and
anhydrite. Fig. 5 shows some of the spectroscopic in-
dicator ratios (8-minute stations) along with openhole
logs. In the following discussion, the spectroscopic data
are tiedin with the supporting logs and information ob-
tained from cores.
JUNE 1983 557
 GAMMA RAY '" CNL ILO
{CORRECTED! -- -- (eu)
11 31
- - -- -- (sndpul (II m)
45 \50
GAMMA RAY <I> CNl
Th IlR
05
----- ------50
(1978) GAMMA RAY PIR COR
(1978) (TOTAL) (ppm) (ppm) % SIR LlR
45 15
41L _____ ..11.0 COR 065 04Q2 04

R (ES) 2 TOT (1978)

SP
(1940) (1940) (1978)

0.18

Fig. 6-Example 2, owe in a freshwater environment. Fig. 7-Example 3, lithology and hydrocarbon response in a
shale-sand sequence.

Zone A. Cores indicate rhyolite with abundant pheno-
crystals of quartz.
The spectroscopic lithology indicator ratio (LIR) reads
close to unity, corresponding to a fonnation containing
silicon with no detectable calcium (the thin cement
sheath is apparently not contributing). There is some iron
present, and natural gamma ray activity is high. The
COR averages zero except at the top of the section,
which was later perforated and produced oil. (The
presence of hydrocarbons may still be masked by mud
filtrate.)
Zone B. Cores indicate volcanic minerals, probably
rhyolite, altered phenocrystals of quartz, and orthose
feldspar.
There is a significant increase in porosity, which is
clearly shown by the spectroscopic PIR, as well as by
neutron and density curves. A slight reduction in gamma
ray level and iron content can be attributed to alteration.
COR is close to zero.
Zones C and D. Cores indicate rhyolite with feldspar
and a high percentage of quartz, and some slightly
altered or totally altered feldspar and clay.
Zone C appears to have a high clay content, as in-
dicated by the minimum self-potential (SP) and the
caliper showing a washout, while Zone D has good SP
and porosity, very similar to Zone B. The general in-
crease in COR as we approach Zone E probably results
from the presence of carbonates since no hydrocarbons
are indicated on openhole logs. Iron level remains low
except at 2,435 ft (742.2 m); this is in fact close to a cas-
ing collar, but might also correspond to siderite, for
instance.
Zone E. Cores show a conglomerate contammg
fragments of rhyolite and andesite in a matrix of shaly
sand, frequent calcitic cementation, and fine sand and
clay laminations. Rhyolite content increases toward the
base.
Iron content increases sharply at the base and tails off
toward the top. LIR shows that there is calcium present
and that at least part of the increase in COR is caused by
carbonates. This is particularly marked at 2,400, 2,390,
and 2,380 ft (732, 728, and 725 m) associated with low
natural radioactivity. The upper 20 ft (6.1 m) appear to
be a mixture of silicates and carbonates, according to
LIR and COR, with some shale streaks. The bottom 10 ft
(3.05 m) were perforated and produced oil.
Zone F. Cores indicate shaly sand with fine fragments of
quartz and feldspar.
Iron content is low, LIR reads close to 1.0. COR
shows some carbon at 2,328 ft (710 m).
Zone G. Cores show a limestone conglomerate with
fragments of volcanic silicates of low porosity im-_
pregnated with oil, and some thin clay and anhydrite
beds. Over the bottom 20 ft (6.1 m), there is calcarenite,
partly oolitic, also impregnated with oil, with thin clay
laminae.

558 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

 The transition from Zone F to Zone G is seen as a
sharp decrease in LIR and an increase in COR respond-
ing to CaC0 3 (and hydrocarbon). The wellbore
oil/water interface introduces the shift on COR at 2,205
ft (672 m). There are some fluctuations in iron content,
particularly at the boundary and toward the top. The
shale beds are indicated by an increase in LIR and
decrease in COR.
PIR correlates with neutron porosity, and shows a
strong increase in the shale washout at the top of Zone
G. The iron level is slightly higher here. There is a gra-
dient in LIR over the top 40 ft (12.2 m) of this zone. The
intervals that were perforated in Zone G are also shown
in Fig. 5.
Zone H. Cores indicate intercalations of shales,
anhydrite, calcarenitic limestone and shaly limestone
with volcanic fragments.
The anhydrite beds are identified by their spec-
troscopic sulfur yield. From their high spectroscopic
HR, we might also suspect the presence of an iron-
bearing mineral such as pyrite. The resulting low
calcium contribution causes PIR to read high. Over this
section, LIR responds to the presence of varying propor-
tions of calcium and silicon. The COR level is high in
the good porosity oil-bearing carbonate intervals and
decreases at the anhydrite beds. The top section of Zone
H was perforated as indicated in Fig. 5.
This example was chosen because of the wide range of
lithological response shown by the spectroscopic tech-
nique. Although this example was a sequence of sta-
tionary logging measurements made with the experimen-
tal IGT, it should be noted that similar results for PIR,
LIR, and HR are available as a continuous logging
measurement using the capture-tau mode optimized
gating in the GST tool.
Example 2
This well was drilled and completed in 1940 with a
6%-in. (16.8-cm) casing in an 8 1/2-in. (21.6-cm) hole.
Production had been from several sands below the inter-
val shown; the well was dead and full of water when
relogged in 1978. An electrical survey (ES) with SP was
the only openhole log available.
Fig. 6 shows part of the sequence of shales and quartz-
itic sands, with a connate water salinity of 5,000 ppm
(5000 g/cm 3). Initial water saturations were believed to
be about 20% in Sand A, 30 to 40% in Sand B, and 50%
in Sand C.
Compensated neutron, gamma ray, and TDT logs
were run in 1978, along with the IGT. Stationary spec-
troscopy readings were made and COR is shown in the
figure. For connate water having such a low salinity, the
TDT log does not distinguish any variations in hydrocar-
bon saturation. However, the COR profile clearly shows
transition zones in Sand B at 6,300 ft (1920 m) and in
Sand A at 6,404 ft (1952 m). A caliper log was not
available. Assuming the hole to be in-gauge, a tentative
evaluation of COR indicates S w =60% below the
oil/water contact (OWC) and 10% above in Sand A,
80% below the OWC and 40% above in Sand B, and
50 % in Sand C.
JUNE 1983
No new production results were available at this time,
but Zones A and B were being produced in nearby wells
with a water cut.
Example 3
The well shown in Fig. 7 was drilled with an inverted
emulsion oil-base mud. Hole size was 8% in. (22.2 cm).
Lithology involves a series of deltaic sands containing
quartz, clay, and tuffite minerals, separated by shale.
Formation water salinity is low and variable. As part of
the openhole logging series, stationary inelastic and cap-
ture spectroscopy measurements were taken over a
number of sands. A short interval of the well is shown in
the figure. From the supporting logs, deep induction
resistivity, CNL porosity, NGT (natural gamma ray
spectroscopy analysis), and TDT sigma are shown.
There is a good correlation between the IIR and
capture-cross-section sigma, indicating that the shales
are all iron-bearing. Using these data with the potassium
level obtained from the NGT tool, two types of shale can
be distinguished. Between 812 and 780 ft (247 and 238
m) the shale is possibly chloritic, while above and below
this interval it is glauconitic. Some calcium content is in-
dicated by the LIR at 855, 849, 791, and 785 ft (261,
259,241, and 239 m). Referring to the CNL porosity,
tight calcite streaks may be inferred at three of these
depths. This must be kept in mind when evaluating the
high COR readings.
The SIR responds to salinity and saturation. In this
section it indicates that the water in the sands is fresher
than that associated with the shales, where it reaches a
level of 0.8 to 0.9. However, SIR reads higher in the
zones where the lithology is assumed calcitic.
PIR, essentially a spectral measurement of hydrogen,
is compared with neutron porosity on approximately
compatible scales. With the exception of the low porosi-
ty streak at 812 ft (247 m), which was straddled by two
stations and hence does not show on the PIR, the agree-
ment is quite good.
The borehole oil contributes a carbon offset of about
0.25 to the observed COR. Shales tend to read close to
this, however, a higher COR associated with uranium
activity (seen with the NGT tool) is a sign that organic
material is present. The induction resistivity is respond-
ing to changing water salinity in addition to hydrocarbon
saturation. It has also been proposed 9 that when tuffite is
present, the resistivity is influenced by a variation to the
m factor (cementation) in Archie's equation. The COR is
insensitive to water salinity and may be fairly immune to
the contamination of quartz sands by tuffite minerals (ex-
cept calcite). Perhaps for these reasons there is some dif-
ference between the relative magnitudes of the COR
readings and the induction resistivities.
The following water saturations were obtained from an
evaluation of COR assuming there was no invasion from
the low-water-Ioss, oil-mud system.
Water Saturations
Calculations. In Zone C, with S w = 85 % at the bottom
decreasing to 60% at the top, a repeat formation test ob-
tained a sample containing 45 % water having a salinity
of 3,000 ppm (3000 g/cm 3). Zone D had Sw=85% at
the bottom decreasing to 60% at the top. Zones E and F
showed Sw =75%, Zone G, 50%, and in Zones A, B,
559
 CAPTURE , MODE INELASTIC MODE

OPEN HOLE CASED HOLE IIR 2: COR

I -----_ .. _--._-- 2 2£ _______ ~ 10
S PIR
PIR ILD PIR ILD a (%) lOa
SIR
o 50 lIR SIR
------- &-----~ -l.Q __ Jl ____ !..o 06
- 0120 a --------a
20
065 0.4 CDR
COR r!!:~---J!2.E -------- J l _..---~ Jl
SIR
0.2 0.4
LlR SIR
0

k-o
025
UR :j'-- (
\
) CASING .....)
SHOE .... '"
,
\
'')
\
' ...
\
0_1)5 ) J

r--
2 0 1.2.§.
,/
=--= 4S5D
I }
4950 f--------f-----4r-----1I
,, 7 I J I
I
I
,'/ ('/ /
'-,> ( ~
"/ ' (/ / {
( I
)
"1 ..... ---..
I
II
I
I
I
I
I
" "\
.I
I
\
> WATER ?
)( ""-
'- ' - '"
I r-
,,"
,..~

I IN I MAJOR OWC
I
I
.Pl~
<'--~
HOlE
~ (
",j,) I
(
WATER
IN
\
HOLE 50aa f-----t-----1----'(Ir---1

~
I
\ I
<I
l
I
I
I
I
I
~':o
'I..> I
"- \
1'\ ( "> (
<

Fig. 8-Example 4, gas-cap identification in open and cased Fig. 9-Example 5, continuous capture logging and stationary
hole. inelastic logging in a clean carbonate reservoir.

and H, Sw was not interpreted with certainty because of
the possible calcite content.
Test Results. Zones D, E, F and G were swab tested
together, and produced oil with 28% water. Zone A was
swab tested separately, and produced oil with 4 % water.
Example 4
This example shown in Fig. 8, from the same well as Ex-
ample 3, demonstrates the tool response to the presence
of gas. The stationary measurements obtained in the oil-
filled open hole and those obtained in oil-filled 5 'h-in.
(14-cm) casing after completion are compared. The
openhole deep induction resistivity is also displayed for
reference.
The signature of the gas cap is a decrease in COR and
PIR and an increase in SIR. This is the consequence of a
decrease in carbon and hydrogen atomic concentration
associated with the gas (Table 2). The gas effect is more
pronounced in the cased-hole readings. Invasion from
the drilling mud may have masked the effect of gas on
the shallow reading inelastic carbon/oxygen measure-
ments in the openhole log, but dissipated once casing
was set. The presence of this gas cap was confirmed by
both open- and cased-hole CNL and TDT logs.
Example 5
Example 5 is from the Middle East: an 8V2-in. (21.6-cm)
barefoot observation well was drilled in a clean car-
bonate reservoir. It is situated between the producing
wells and a series of injectors, and permits regular
monitoring of the OWC and fluid-water breakthrough.
Connate water is of high salinity and conventional
monitoring by induction and TDT logs has proved effec-
tive 10 until the breakthrough of the very fresh flood-
water. At that time, the resulting mixing and lowering of
salinity introduces uncertainty into the interpretation.
560
These observation wells are maintained with a slight
pressure gradient from the formation into the wellbore,
and experience has shown that reinvasion by hole fluid is
unlikely.
Fig. 9 shows a continuous capture spectroscopy
survey run in GST capture-tau mode at 600 ft/hr (183
m/h). The simulaneous capture-cross-section sigma is
displayed along with the indicator ratios and the sulfur
yield. A series of closely spaced 5-minute inelastic mode
stationary measurements was run the following day, and
these are shown on the right of the figure.
Over the 3 years since drilling, regular monitoring by
conventional methods has traced a progressive saline
water influx, with the OWC rising from its initial level of
5,100 ft (1554 m).
A gradiomanometer survey located an oil/water inter-
face in the fluid column at 4,968 ft (1514 m). However,
this had dropped to 4,991 ft (1521 m) when the capture-
tau mode passes were run, and then had risen to 4,975 ft
(1516 m) when the inelastic passes were made. This is
inferred from the shifts on SIR and PIR (capture-tau
mode), and the COR (inelastic mode), at the correspond-
ing depths, caused by the borehole background signal.
The upward movement can be confirmed by comparing
SIR obtained in capture-tau mode with that from in-
elastic mode shown on the right side of the figure.
The LIR is near zero in the dolomitic limestone. There
is an increase in sulfur yield above 4,942 ft (1506 m), ac-
companied by a higher sigma as the anhydrite cap rock is
approached.
The major OWC is at 4,986 ft (1520 m). Sensitivity of
the COR is reduced by the presence of water, and
therefore an oxygen background, in the wellbore. But the
contact is clearly detected by an increase in COR from
about 0.20 in the depleted section to 0.27 just above it:
This is accompanied by a large decrease in sigma and a
decrease in SIR, indicative that water salinity is still
high.
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
 TABLE 3-S0ME ATOMIC DENSITIES IN UNITS OF
RESERVOIR MONITORING
AVOGADRO'S NUMBER (6,023 x 10 23 )
GST vs TOT GST vs oH
Density Oxygen Carbon
(g/cm 3 ) (atoms/cm 3 ) (atoms/cm 3 )
Limestone 2.71 0.081 0.027 SALINITY INDEX
Dolomite 2.87 0.094 0.031
Quartz sandstone 2.65 0.088
Anhydrite 2.96 0.087
Oil 0.85 0.061 (kppm) 250 50 %
Water 1.0 0.056
Feldspars
Microcline 2.56 0.074
Albite 2.62 0.080
Anorthite 2.76 0.079
Micas 11
---
0.085 4950
Muskovite 2.83
Biotite 3.08 0.081
Glauconite
Sample 1 2.51 0.074
Sample 2 2.65 0.075
Clays11
JIIite 2.53 0.082
Kaolinite 2.42 0.084
Chlorite 2.77 0.082
Montmorillonite 2.12 0.077

Above the well bore fluid interface, high COR cor-

responds to the undepleted part of the reservoir, having
good porosity. This correlates with low sigma and SIR.
However, in this section, from 4,970 to 4,959 ft (1515 to
1512 m), a premature breakthrough has occurred along a
high-permeability layer. It is characterized by a marked
5000
dip in the COR readings. The associated increase in
sigma and SIR suggests that this is an influx of relatively
saline water.
Fig. 10 shows the computed hydrocarbons based on an
interpretation of COR. The results are compared with the
evaluation based on sigma, assuming a sigma water
representing the original high connate-water salinity. In
the comparison with initial hydrocarbons in place, the
shaded area represents total depletion since drilling in
1976.
The close agreement between the COR and sigma
results suggests that the incoming water is still at or near
its original salinity. A computation of salinity was made Fig. 10-Computer-processed interpretation analysis of
Example 5.
from SIR (capture-tau mode), and is shown on the left of
the figure. There appears to be some freshening of the
water at the breakthrough; however, the response of SIR
resulted primarily from the increase in water saturation. These terms are defined in the Nomenclature. Each
contribution is weighted according to its bulk volume
Interpretation Models and the atomic concentration (atoms of carbon or oxygen
Interpretation and tool response are introduced in Refs. per cubic centimeter that it contains. Be and Bo account
1, 7, and 8. The relations between physical atomic con- for the borehole background signals, and A is the ratio of
centrations and the resulting spectral yields are complex. the average fast neutron interaction cross sections for
The yields depend on the neutron flux distribution and carbon and oxygen.
interaction cross sections, which are integrated over the Since a, (3, 'Y, and b are constants for the specified
neutron energy and the borehole and formation space, lithology and fluids concerned, and Be and B 0 are con-
weighted by the elemental concentrations themselves. stant for a hole configuration, S w can be calculated
As discussed in Ref. 8, a simple physical model was pro- directly from COR if the porosity is known.
posed to facilitate interpretation of COR in terms of Table 3 lists the atomic concentrations of carbon and
porosity and hydrocarbon saturation. COR equals spec- oxygen for common lithologies and fluids. These con-
tral carbon yield divided by spectral oxygen yield: stants are simply calculated from the matrix (or fluid)
density, gram molecular weight (GMW), and the atomic
[a(1-cjJ) + (3cjJSo + B e] multiplicity per molecule in units of Avogadro's
A .................... (1) number. For example, in pure limestone (CaCO 3), the
['Y( 1 - cjJ) + bcjJS w + B 0 ]
oxygen atomic density (0.081) is
JUNE 1983 561
 0.8· .. ·· .. ·.; . . . . . . . . . ;· . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . .
··· ... A
.
·· ..
8.5" OPEN HOlE
0.7 OIL-FILLED ...... ; .... i'···:·········
·· ..
SW = 0.5
t-,..-:--:.--r ........ . 0.5 ..•..•....•.•.•• .• .... ....................... .
0.6 ! I ...... : ... !
1....... >..". . . . . "" :.
~

·· ..
8.5" OPEN HOlE
....... ." OIL·FILLED
..... /;
COR ~-r-"" : ~ ~ ~: . : .......... SW =0.5
. ~ ........ )./.-:' ...... ~ ........ .
...,. • .., ' i . •

0.5 ......... ~ ••• : ~ • + •••••• : •• ~ •••••• : ••••••••• : 0.4

· •
.", .
",.
.""
I J •
: ~., ,,~
........ ~ J :
COR 't1'(t"ilG".,04J •
SW= 1.0
0.4 •.•...•.• : •• :-.'':'~ i rl :: ~ ~ ! i : ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
.. ···
+ •••••• : ••••••••• : ••••••••• : J J

... 0.3 • • • • •, . . ) • ) J J J J 1 J .. ~ j I. ~ ~ " " •• ~ ~ • J ~ , ••••••

. •
.. "",
........ 1
",. J" J 1 J J I 1 2 ,
S JJ ) 1 " 4 1 2 2 )
) ) 1 • , 'I 4 4 4 • ,
I " I 1 S
1 • • S2
7 ~ 7 , ~
"" J ~ .,,,
"""'1111011
'I R

l J 6 q J ~ J ~ •
•
•

Z-AXIS: SIR " 1~ I: ~ ~ ~ , • :: ::: : I ~ .1: qlJl1::12

0.3 · ·.: :
.
........••••..•••••••••••••••••••••••.•
. .-",,"..
~
.). 14
"
"
SW = 1.0 :

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2: . . . . • . . • . : . • . • . • . . . : . . . . . • • . • : •..•.•••• : • . • . . • . . • :

POROSITY
··
,
.
.
..
.
.
."
. "

:Z . AXIS: GAMMA RAY : : :

·· . .. "
"
0.1: . . . . . . . . . : • . . . . . . . . : . . . . • • . . . : . . . . • • . . . : •••...... :
05! .•.......••.••.••..•••••••••.•••..•••••. o m ~ ~ ~ ~
•

:
···
:
•

..
:
•

.
t

Bj CNL POROSITY

: 85" OPEN HOLE : • .

...
04;" WATERFILlED •••••• ; ••••••••• : •••••••••. 0.6· ' .. , . , .... , .. , ................
· .
.

.
·.···· .... 8.5" HOLE· 5.5" CSG · .
. ..............
o3: . . . . . . . . . : . • . • . . ..• : . . SW 0
0.5: .
OIL·FILLED · . .
: : : =
COR : • I I' ·
04 . . . . . . . . . : ...•••••. .: . . . . . .
I!
: I
I;> I;> 1 1 1 1 " } t I
Ill! · .
I 1
, 1 I
•
J I
J
I 1 "
to j 1 1 ' 1 I I 1 1 7 1 I ) '
I 1 t I f, 2 j " " 1 ~ J
COR
" I" 1
1'1
I ' 2)"
1 I 1 2;> I.,
1 I
'I"
I ) I " 1>10 4 " " ' ) J
II I 2 'I 'S I
1 0 " " t,,;> "\0 I
1 J I SW=1.0
01; . • . • • • . • • : • • • • • • • •• ••••••••• • •••••••••
··· ..
: Z AXIS. FR~OUENCY
PLOT
· .
0: . . . . . . . • . : • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • • • •• • •....•...
Z· AXIS: GAMMA RAY
. ................... , .. , .......... .
SW= 1.0

o 01 02 0.3 0.4 10 20 ~ ~ ~

POROSITY CNL POROSITY

Fig. 11-Crossplots of carbon/oxygen tool responses.

-y( atoms/ cm 3 ) = 3p(limestone )/GMW (limestone). causes the downward trend towards Sw =0.75. The cor-
responding increase in SIR is shown on the Z-axis plot.
.................................. (2) Fig. lIb is a water-filled open hole. Note how the
borehole oxygen background, term B 0 in Eq. I, brings
A set of borehole terms has been derived from down the level of COR, and more importantly, greatly
laboratory and field data. In Examples 6 and 7, discussed reduces the dynamic range of the response. Statistical
earlier, we used a typical Be of 0.02 in the oil-filled hole uncertainty on the COR (5-minute standard deviation
(with Bo =0) and a typical Bo =0.05 in water-filled estimated at ±0.015) becomes more significant in these
holes (with Be =0). conditions. Figs. Ilc and lid are from the sandy shales
For a given set of conditions, the appropriate set of of Example 3. Fig. Ilc is an oil-filled open hole. Fig.
constants in Eq. 1 defines the unique family ofresponse lid is an oil-filled cased hole. The casing (because of the
curves for COR vs. porosity. This resembles a fan oxygen in the cement sheet) has a similar effect on COR
graduated in terms of Sw (similar to the familiar sigma as the water in Fig. lib. Had there been water in the cas-
vs. porosity crossplot of the TDT log). It is not in the ing, the S w = 1.0 line would have coincided with the
scope of this paper to discuss interpretation in detail. porosity axis (COR=O). Carbon-free shales tend to lie
However, to demonstrate the major characteristics of the on the Sw = 1.0 line, and can be used as a calibration
COR response, we show in Fig. II typical COR vs. level. These have high gamma rayon the Z-axis plot.
porosity fans for four sets of borehole conditions, all en- The model (Eq. 1) appears to be a satisfactory approx - •
countered in the logs discussed in this paper. Fig. Iia is imation for porosity of more than 10% and has been
the oil-filled openhole limestone section of Example 5. verified by field and laboratory data. 8 Similar
The undepleted interval corresponds to the points close models 13,14 can also be extended to the other inelastic
to Sw =0 (upper curve), while the water breakthrough and capture yields or ratios shown in Table 1.
562 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
 .~ .............................................. .
8 ......... : ......... B~

.32 •••
6.25" OPEN HOlE
WATER-FILLED .
• • • • to • • • • • • • • • • • to • • • • • • • • • •
.
PIR
•• ,~ I
.21.1 • •
.24 I ) : : ~ •• 1 ; : t •••••• t • : ••••••••• :
SIR
,... ···
..
I! I . .
.: ·:
+.
I. t

·••

···
I
t

., .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
to • • • • • • • • • •
• •

. ..
.,,. ..
.. ..
...... , ..................... . 08
Z. AXIS: FREQUENCY PLOT
·
:
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
.,.
~ ~ 1~ 1~ 200
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
SAliNITY XSW ICOR) IlQIIlm)

Fig. 12-Crossplots of salinity and porosity tool responses.

It is interesting to note that unlike the other elements,

atomic oxygen occurs in many minerals at a fairly
uniform atomic concentration, despite a wide range of
bulk densities and complexities of chemical formula. In
the feldspar, mica, and clay samples II presented in
Table 3, the oxygen coefficient remains quite close to
0.08.
Thus, we may assume that in a sandstone containing
quartz mixed with feldspars, micas, and even clays, the
COR of a given porosity and hydrocarbon saturation re-
mains fairly insensitive to the nature of the mixture. This
is significant in a tuffaceous sand, for instance, where
the presence of tuffite minerals has the perturbing effect
on other logs, including resistivity. II Of course, this ap-
plies only to carbon-free minerals. In shaly sands this
hypothesis must be applied with caution since the actual
effect of the shale will depend not only on its chemistry
but also on the bound water it contains and its manner of
distribution (dispersed, granular, etc.). Probably at low
shale fractions the effect is small, certainly less than
what we see in the TDT, neutron, or resistivity logs.
The COR equation can be modified to accommodate
mixtures of minerals, provided their atomic concentra-
tion coefficients are known. Accurate interpretation then
requires precise chemical analysis of the constituents.
In Fig. l2a, we show the empirical relation between
the PIR and porosity seen in a clean limestone reservoir,
similar to that in Example 5. Referring to Table 2, one
can see that a model for PIR (hydrogen divided by
silicon plus calcium) is a function of total porosity divid-
ed by matrix volume. Good trends are often observed
with some scatter caused by statistics and lithological
variations. Nonzero offsets will depend on the amount of
borehole hydrogen seen. Calculations of oil saturation,
So, or water saturation, S w, require appropriate shale (or
bound water) corrections to porosity measurements.
Fig. l2b demonstrates the observed dependence of
SIR on salinity and water saturation in a 61,4 -in.
(15.9-cm) oil-filled hole in a limestone formation. Sw
has been computed from COR. Salinity was estimated by
taking sigma (GST or TDT) and back-computing 1: w by
entering S wand porosity in the standard TDT response
equation:
The relationship between 1: wand salinity is provided
by Chart TCOR-2. 12 It must be appreciated that SIR,
like 1:, responds to the product of S wand salinity, and
any estimate of salinity is dependent on the S w used.
Conclusions
This paper has outlined the operating principle,
response, and interpretation of the GST induced gamma
ray spectroscopy logging services. Using a WLS fitting
technique, up to eight elements are identified and their
relative spectral yields computed. Several examples have
been presented to demonstrate qualitatively a wide range
of tool responses to lithology and fluid nature.
These new data may be applied in a more comprehen-
sive analysis of well logs. Currently interpretation
development efforts are directed at precise quantitative
formation evaluation using the capture data for
lithological analysis. Recent success in detailed forma-
tion evaluation using models based on the elemental
yields are also discussed in Refs. 13 and 14.
In addition, computations based on the relative carbon
and oxygen yields have proved effective in hydrocarbon
evaluation under conditions of very low, mixed, or
unknown water salinity, where it is difficult to interpret
resistivity and TDT logs. This amply justifies the in-
creased operating time imposed by the high-reading
statistics of the inelastic carbon and oxygen analysis.
The GST tool is both an open- and cased-hole service.
Its application may be extended to old cased wells and
workovers where tubing inside diameter is greater than
3.8 in. (9.7 cm) and wellhead pressure <2,000 psi (138
MPa).
Acknowledgments
We thank J. Grau and J. Schweitzer at Schlumberger-
Doll Research for reprocessing the spectral logs used for
the examples included in this paper. We also thank the
oil companies for permission to use logs from their
wells. Finally, several simplifications and clarification

JUNE 1983 563

of the text resulted from recommendations by the SPE
Editorial Review Committee.
Nomenclature
A = ratio of average carbon and oxygen fast
neutron (gamma ray producing) cross
sections
relative carbon- and oxygen-
concentration contributions from the
borehole
hydrocarbon saturation
water saturation
atomic concentration (atoms per cubic
centimeter) for carbon in matrix
(lithology dependent), Eq. 2
atomic concentration of carbon in
formation fluid
atomic concentration of oxygen in
matrix (lithology dependent)
atomic concentration of oxygen in
formation fluid
capture cross section from log
capture cross section of hydrocarbon
cross section of matrix
thermal-neutron-decay time constant
porosity, fraction
References
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564
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SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, Corpus Christi, July 5-9.
SI Metric Conversion Factors
ft x 3.048* E-Ol m
in. x 2.54* E+OO cm
mL X 1.0* E+OO cm 3
psi x 6.894 757 E+OO kPa
*Conversion factor is exact. SPEJ
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office July 12, 1980.
Paper accepted for publication July 10, 1981. Revised manuscript received Jan. 27,
1983. Paper (SPE 9461) first presented at the 1980 SPE Annual Technical Con-
ference and Exhibition held in Dallas Sept. 21-24.
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL