WETLAND MONITORING USING REMOTE SENSING AND

GIS
Report submitted for completion of training

(Training and Research in Earth Eco-System) Program of Space Applications

Centre
RAGENDHU R S
(Registration No. FEN-2020-23-008)
MSc Remote Sensing and GIS

Under the guidance of

DR SHARD CHANDER
SCI./ENGR. –SF
EPSA-GHCAG-LHD
Space Applications Centre, (ISRO) Ahmedabad

Institution
Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies
Kochi – 682506
Kerala

SRTD-RTCG-MISA
Space Applications Centre (ISRO)
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
 Scientific Research and Training Division (SRTD)
Research, Outreach and Training Coordination Group (RTCG)
Management and Information Systems Area (MISA)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. Ragendhu R S, student of MSc Remote Sensing and GIS at Kerala
University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies has completed four months (25-Apr-2022 to 12-
Aug-2022) project on "WETLAND MONITORING USING REMOTE SENSING AND
GIS" under the supervision of Dr. SHARD CHANDER, SCI./ENGR.–SF, EPSA-GHCAG-
LHD, Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad. The research work was carried out
through the Scientific Research and Training Division (SRTD) of Space Applications Centre,
Ahmedabad.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this dissertation entitled ‘WETLAND MONITORING USING REMOTE
SENSING AND GIS’ is an authentic record of work carried out by Ragendhu R S, a student of
Master of Science in Remote Sensing and GIS at Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean
Studies (KUFOS), Kochi (Kerala). This work was carried out under my supervision and
guidance at the Space Applications Centre (SAC), ISRO, Ahmedabad for the partial fulfillment
of the Master of Science in Remote Sensing and GIS.

Dr. SHARD CHANDER

SCI./ENGR.-SF
EPSA-GHCAG-LHD
Space Applications Centre, ISRO
380015-Ahmedabad
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled “WETLAND MONITORING USING
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS” submitted by me is in partial fulfillment for the M.Sc.
Remote sensing and GIS course under the department of Climatic Variability and Aquatic
Ecosystem of Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi, is a record of work
carried out by me at Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad during the period April
2022 to August 2022, under the guidance of Dr. SHARD CHANDER. This work or any part of
it has not been submitted to any other institution/university for the award of any degree. I further
declare that the material obtained from other sources has been duly acknowledged in the project
report

Ragendhu R S
Dept. of Climate Variability and
Aquatic Ecosystems
Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies
Kochi, Kerala
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I express my deep gratitude to God, for all his blessing showered upon me throughout this
project work. I am thankful to my parents who supported me during the ups and downs in my
life.With immense pleasure, I express my indebtedness to my guide, Dr. SHARD CHANDER,
SCI./ENGR.–SF, EPSA-GHCAG-LHD, Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad for
giving me this opportunity to do the project in this prestigious institute and for the valuable
guidance throughout this work in spite of his heavy duties and responsibilities. I am also
thankful to Dr. Girish Gopinath, HOD, and Dr. Shijo Joseph, Assistant Professor, Department
of Climate Variability and Aquatic Ecosystems, Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean
Studies for their valuable support and guidance in helping me complete this work. Finally, I
would like to thank my friends and well-wishers who supported me and gave me the strength
to face all hindrances which I have come across. With great pleasure, I take this opportunity to
express my sincere gratitude to all those who have extended their timely support and valuable
assistance for the fulfillment of this dissertation.

Ragendhu R S
 TABLE OF CONTENT
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................11
1.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE .........................................................................................................13
COVID-19 and surface water quality: Improved Lake water quality during thelockdown (Yunus et al.,
2020) ...........................................................................................................................................................13
Dynamics of Vibrio cholerae in a Typical Tropical Lake and Estuarine System: Potential of Remote
Sensing for Risk Mapping (Anas et al., 2021)............................................................................................14
Improved turbidity estimates in complex inland waters using combined NIR–SWIRatmospheric
correction approach for Landsat 8 OLI data (Surisetty et al., 2018) ..........................................................14
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY.......................................................................................................15
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................................................................16
2.1 STUDY AREA ..................................................................................................................................16
2.2 DATA AND SOFTWARE USED ....................................................................................................18
2.3 METHODOLOGY ...........................................................................................................................19
2.3.1 TO FIND THE WATER EXTENT OF CHILIKA AND VEMBANAD LAKE .................20
2.3.2 TO FIND THE MACROPHYTE EXTENT OF LAKES ......................................................20
2.3.3 WATER QUALITY .................................................................................................................21
3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................26
3.1 WATER EXTENT............................................................................................................................26
3.2 MACROPHYTE EXTENT .............................................................................................................30
........................................................................................................................................................................30
3.3 WATER QUALITY .........................................................................................................................35
3.3.1 CHLOROPHYLL.....................................................................................................................35
3.3.2 SPM............................................................................................................................................39
3.3.3 TURBIDITY .............................................................................................................................43
4 CONCLUSION .........................................................................................................................................47
5 REFERENCE ...........................................................................................................................................49
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Location map of study area contains Vembanad Lake located in the state of Kerala and
Chilika Lake in Odisha. ....................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2 Overall workflow of the study ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 3 Water extent over Chilika Lake ,captured by Landsat 8 on January 06, 2017 and October
29, 2020................................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 4 Water extent over Vembanad Lake as captured by Landsat - 8 on February 3, 2017 and
January 11, 2020. ................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 5 Variability of water extent over Chilika Lake between 2017-2022 ................................... 28
Figure 6 Variability of water extent over Vembanad Lake between 2017-2022 ............................. 29
Figure 7 Macrophyte extent over Chilika Lake as captured by Landsat - 8 on January 06, 2017 and
October 29, 2020 .................................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 8 Macrophyte extent over Vembanad Lake as captured by Landsat -8 on February 3, 2017and
January 11, 2020 .................................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 9 Variability of macrophyte extent over Chilika Lake between 2017-2022 ........................... 33
Figure 10 Variability of macrophyte extent over Vembanad Lake between 2017-2022 ................... 33
Figure 11 Chlorophyll map over Chilika Lake as the image captured by Landsat 8 on January 06,
2017, and October 29, 2020;(a) and (b) are the chlorophyll map obtained by Gurlin-2B NIR-Red
algorithm; (c) and (d) are the chlorophyll map obtained by NDCI-based Chlorophyll algorithm ; (e)
and (f) are the chlorophyll map obtained by OC2- algorithm. ........................................................... 35
Figure 12 chlorophyll map of Vembanad lake as the image captured by Landsat 8 on February 3,
2017, and January 11, 2020;(a) and (b) are the chlorophyll map obtained by Gurlin-2B NIR-Red
algorithm; (c) and (d) are the chlorophyll map obtained by NDCI-based Chlorophyll algorithm ; (e)
and (f) are the chlorophyll map obtained by OC2- algorithm. ............................................................ 36
Figure 13 Variability of Chlorophyll over Chilika lake between 2017-2022 ................................... 37
Figure 14 Variability of Chlorophyll over Vembanad lake between 2017-2022 ............................. 38
Figure 15 SPM map over Chilika lake, as the image captured by Landsat 8 on January 06, 2017, and
October 29, 2020. ................................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 16 SPM map over Vembanad lake as the image captured by Landsat 8 on February 3, 2017,
and January 11, 2020. .......................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 17 Variability of SPM over Chilika lake between 2017-2022 ................................................. 41
Figure 18 Variability of SPM over Vembanad lake between 2017-2022 .......................................... 41
Figure 19 Turbidity map over Vembanad lake, as the image captured by Landsat 8 on February 3,
2017, and January 11, 2020 ................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 20 Turbidity map over Chilika lake, as the image captured by Landsat 8 on January 06, 2017,
and October 29, 2020. .......................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 21 Variability of the Turbidity over Chilika Lake between 2017-2022 ................................... 45
Figure 22 Variability of the Turbidity over Vembanad Lake between 2017-2022 ............................. 45
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Landsat – 8 satellite details and sensor specifications ........................................................... 18

Table 2 Water quality Algorithms used for study ................................................................................ 22

Table 3 Area of water extent over Chilika and Vembanad during 2017 and 2020 ............................. 27

Table 4 Area of macrophyte extent over Chilika and Vembanad during 2017 and 2020 .................. 32
 SUMMARY

Wetlands are the most productive and biodiverse ecosystem on Earth. Remote sensing is the
most efficient tool for monitoring wetlands. In this study, wetland monitoring and health
assessment being done by Remote Sensing and GIS to mainly compare the water extent, aquatic
macrophyte extent, and water quality parameters such as chlorophyll concentration, suspended
particulate matter, and turbidity of Chilika Lake and Vembanad Lake over the year 2017-2022.
Landsat - 8, level 2 Collection 2 data from USGS covering the project area is used to study the
water extent, aquatic macrophyte extent, and water quality parameters. Then compare this result
with Google Earth Engine time series results over the year. In this work, water extent and
aquatic macrophyte extents are determined using MNDWI and NDVI, respectively. In Chilika
lagoon, the amount of water area lost is significant when compared to Vembanad. It denotes
the shrinkage of the water area of lakes. According to the results, macrophyte extent in
Vembanad decreased between 2017-2022. The amount of macrophytes in Chilika Lake grows
from 2017 to 2022. It indicates the deterioration of Chilika Lake. To monitor the ecological
status of the wetlands, various water quality indicators such as Chlorophyll, Suspended
particulate matter, and turbidity is analyzed in detail. Here, the Ocean color Chlorophyll 2 band
algorithm (OC-2), NDCI-based algorithm, and Gurlin 2Band NIR-RED algorithms are utilized
to estimate the amount of chlorophyll. Among these OC-2 derived chlorophyll concentration
was found to be in valid range for both the study areas during the period of analysis. SPM and
Turbidity were also estimated using algorithms proposed by Nechad et al 2010. In terms of
water quality, Chilika Lake has higher levels of SPM, and turbidity than Vembanad. It indicates
the state of the lake's health as it deteriorates. Overall, the results show the high amount of
Chlorophyll concentration in Chilika when compared to Vembanad. Chilika Lake is more
productive than Vembanad Lake, possibly due to higher nutrient levels from the ocean. This
study also shows that cumulative stress on Chilika Lake is greater when in comparison to
Vembanad.
 1 INTRODUCTION

Wetlands are areas with low water levels, frequently close to the ground, that are covered in
living things during the growing season and water saturation period (Barducci et al., 2009).
Wetlands are referred to as the "kidneys of Earth" and are among the most significant and
valuable ecosystems on the planet (Guo et al., 2017). As per Ramsar convention (1975) wetlands
are defined as: “areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent
or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh brackish or salt, including areas of
marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters”. According to the
National Wetland Inventory and Assessment (NWIA-SPACE APPLICATIONS CENTRE,
ISRO), Wetlands are mainly classified into two, Inland wetlands and coastal wetlands. it’s again
classified as natural and manmade. Pond/lake, ox-bow lake or cut-off meander, high altitude
wetlands, riverine wetlands, waterlogged, etc. are examples of inland natural wetlands.
Tank/ponds, waterlogged, and salt pans are examples of man-made inland wetlands. Lagoons,
creeks, sand/Beach, intertidal mudflat, salt marsh, mangroves, and coral are example of natural
coastal wetlands.The salt pan and agriculture pond are belonging to man-made coastal
wetlands.The coastal wetland serves as a significant source of nutrient cycling capacity to
preserve water quality (Schmidt & Skidmore, 2003). Because they trap carbon dioxide, the main
greenhouse gas, as peat, peatlands play a significant role in the carbon cycle. Mangrove forests
serve a significant role in coastal protection and water quality as well as serving as an important
homefor several fish and crustacean species ((Pavithra et al., 2019).
Wetlands can enhance the quality of the water, flood control or damage reduction, protection
of shorelines from heavy storms and flooding, recharge aquifers with purified water, store
surface water as groundwater, control erosion, trap or retain and process pollutants in flooded
soil, filter out pollutants from rivers and streams and use wastewater. Besides the most
importantfunctionalities of wetlands ‘which provide habitat for a wide variety of plant species,
animals,and bird species.Environmental changes in wetlands affect both species and ecosystems.
Largewetlands that are naturally occurring and unharmed are more vulnerable to environmental
changes than smaller wetlands. Therefore, the size and kind of land use in the wetlands'
surrounding areas have a significant impact on the ecological conditions of their ecosystem.
(Amezaga et al., 2002).
Identification of wetlands is possible mainly through the identification of wetland soils or hydric
soil which means the soil is hydro/macro-phytic plants adapted to grow in hydric soil. Among
the most important ones is wetland vegetation, macro-phytic plants are the plants that live, grow
and reproduce in water, which include emerged plants, free-floating, floating leafed, and
Submerged plants. Additionally, it gives fish, birds, and other species a place to live. Therefore,
any modifications to the wetland ecosystem directly reflect the cumulative stress placed on it
through changes in its hydrology, biodiversity decline, deterioration of water quality,
sedimentation and area reduction, the decline in migratory bird population and fish productivity,
and profile growth of undesirable aquatic biota. Water diversion, eutrophication caused by
wastewater influx from point and non-point sources, and erosion are the main causes of wetland
deterioration. Plastics, pesticides, and heavy metal contamination from industrial effluents and
agricultural runoffs are examples of solid waste, sedimentation brought on by riparian buffer
loss, Low quantities of dissolved oxygen, an acidic pH, a shift in salinity, restrictions on the
intake of fresh water, a lack of flushing devices, the invasion of exotic species, etc. Despite the
value of wetlands, about half of them have been lost since the turn of the century (Changes
under the SRES Climate and Socio-Economic Scenarios., n.d.) Therefore, wetland-related
research is crucial to protecting wetlands and reducing climate change.
The most efficient method for mapping and monitoring wetland areas is remote sensing. The
major uses of remote sensing data are to determine the amount and distribution of wetland areas
as well as the types of wetland areas, such as the size of mangrove swamps, freshwater peat
swamps, and non-forested peat lands. Generally, optical /microwave imagery is used to find out
wetland extent, altimeters for wetland water level, lidar/ hyperspectral data for wetland depth
or bathymetry, and Optical /Multispectral/Hyperspectral data for Macrophyte class distribution.
Airborne can provide higher resolution data for smaller regions so we also used hyperspectral
(AVIRIS, AVIRIS-NG) data for wetland monitoring and mapping. The most commonly used
remote sensing satellites for wetland monitoring and mapping are Landsat 1- 5 (MSS), Landsat
4-5 (TM), Landsat -8 (OLI/TIRS), Landsat – 9 (OLI -2/TIRS-2), Resourcesat-2/2A (LISS-
III, LISS-IV), SPOT 1- 4 (HRV), WorldView-2, NOAA(AVHRR), Sentinel-2 (MSI), Sentinel-
3 (OLCI), Hyperion, AVRIS-NG, etc (Guo et al., 2017).
A variety of Spectral Indices can be used to assess the health of a wetland. While NDVI is
typically used to estimate biomass on land, we are using it in this instance to estimate the area
of aquatic vegetation. It can distinguish between plant and water bodies by taking into account
the red (RED) and near-infrared (NIR) bands (Szabó et al., 2016). The NDWI (Normalized
Difference Water Index) improves the landscape's water-related properties. NDWI and
MNDWI, as water-related indices, reflected water better in their values; however, MNDWI
seemed a more reliable indicator as this index was the only one out of the three indices that
 could enhance the water surfaces. This index uses the near-infrared (NIR) and the short wave
infrared (SWIR) bands, and MNDWI (Modification of Normalized Difference Water Index)
uses the green (GREEN) and the short wave infrared it is a vital tool that estimates changes in
wetness over time and shows clearly when the aquatic ecosystem is degrading (Singh & Sinha,
2021). The remote sensing principle behind the estimation of water quality is the difference in
spectral reflectance. In general energy absorption at near-IR and beyond wavelengths is perhaps
the most defining aspect of water's spectral reflectance. Clearwater absorbs only a little amount
of energy with wavelengths under 0.6 m. These wavelengths are characterized by high
transmittance, with a peak in the blue-green region of the spectrum. However, transmittance
and therefore reflectance alter significantly as the turbidity of water varies (due to the presence
of organic or inorganic elements). Large suspended sediment-containing waters have
substantially higher visible reflectance than other "clear" waters. Water reflectance tends to
increase in green wavelengths and decrease in blue wavelengths as chlorophyll concentrations
rise (Remote_Sensing_and_Image_Inter.Pdf, n.d.). High turbidity in aquatic environments is a
result of suspended particulate matter (SPM), which is brought on by bacteria, other
contaminants, metals, sewage disposal, sedimentation, and siltation via examining the
connection between water body reflectance and turbidity. It has been extensively carried out
utilizing OLCI images from Landsat, SPOT, SeaWiFS, MERIS, MODIS Aqua, Terra,
Oceansat, Sentinel-2, and Sentinel-3 (Yunus et al.,2020)
Using surface SPM or total suspended matter, satellites are used to map turbidity in aquatic
settings (TSM) As a result, among them One of the crucial water quality indicators, turbidity
and chlorophyll content serves as a kind of proxy for measuring the degree of eutrophication in
inland coastal systems. (Surisetty et al., 2018)

1.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

COVID-19 and surface water quality: Improved Lake water quality during thelockdown
(Yunus et al., 2020)

In this article, the authors analyze the water quality in Vembanad Lake during the lockdownand
pre-lockdown periods and categorized Vembanad into 11 Zones A–T computed SPM based
on existing turbidity method from Landsat-8 OLI images taken between 2013 and 2020.
According to an examination of SPM concentrations in Vembanad Lakebased on Landsat-8
OLI data, concentrations during the lockdown period were, on average, 15.9 % (10.3 % -36.4
 %) lower than those during the pre-lockdown period. Out of the lake's 20 zones, 18 showed a
decrease. The lowest concentration was seen in April of 2013–2020 in eleven of the zones.
The amounts of particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) in April 2020 were significantly lower
than theywere in April 2019, indicating a significant reduction in the pollution level during
the lockdown. One possibility is that seawater intrusion during high tide, which occurs
frequently in this area, could change the lake's biophysical properties from their initialstate in
the locations closest to the mouth.
Dynamics of Vibrio cholerae in a Typical Tropical Lake and Estuarine System: Potential of
Remote Sensing for Risk Mapping (Anas et al., 2021)

In this study, the Author uses satellite-derived chlorophyll data to map the risk for the entirelake
and analyses the occurrence of vibrio cholera in Vembanad Lake. Here Sentinel - 2A and
Sentinel -3A(MSI) were used. According to in situ measurements and satellite-based
extrapolations, they discovered that the hazards from environmental V. cholerae in the lake
can be relatively high (with probability in the range of 0.5 to 1) everywherein the lake, though
larger values are experienced more frequently in the southern portion of the lake. Vembanad
Lake's hydrodynamics and the artificial barrier that separates it caused the salinity (1-32 psu)
and temperature (23 to 36 C) to vary across space and time. The higher ends of these salinity
and temperature ranges are not considered to be favorable for V. cholerae growth, according
to published research.
Improved turbidity estimates in complex inland waters using combined NIR–SWIR atmospheric
correction approach for Landsat 8 OLI data (Surisetty et al., 2018)

To improve the turbidity retrieval in optically complex waterways, a combination near-

infrared-shortwave infrared (NIR- SWIR) atmospheric correction method for Landsat 8 (L8)
Operational Land Imager data is presented over Chilika lake. ranging from very turbid to
slightly turbid in bands 3 and 4 of the water-leaving reflectance spectrum, respectively, 19
and 92% and 31 and 79% of the ranges are discovered. In severely turbid waters, the SWIR
reflectances in ρw4 and ρw3 are 57% and 66% higher than those of typical NIR correction,
respectively. Contrary to that, In somewhat less turbid waters, this method has produced
reflectances that are 30% higher than the NIR method; however, the NIR method is still
effective in moderately turbid waters. The productive and/or turbid waters were distinguished
using the turbidity index Tind (865; 1610), which was computed using Rayleigh adjusted
reflectances. Applying the NIR method in the other regions and the SWIR method for water
with a Tind > 1.5 thresholds. The current approach is employed to extract turbidity from the
 Landsat 8 band-weighted in situ reflectances for bands 3 and 4, and it is validated against in
situ turbidities, yielding a respectable coefficient of determination of R2 = 0.87. In severely
murky waters, the turbidity obtained from the combination (NIR + SWIR) correction is
around 80-90% higher than that obtained from the NIR-based correction. The current turbidity
algorithm outperformed available single-band turbidity algorithms in the optically
complicated lagoon environment, according to comparisons with those algorithms.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

• Wetland Monitoring using Remote sensing and GIS

• To measure the Extent of water, Aquatic macrophytes, and water quality of lakes by examining
the color of the water and estimating the amounts of chlorophyll, turbidity, and SPM
• Compare these parameters by time series analysis during 2017-2022 using Google Earth
Engine.
• Finally, to compare the physical traits and water quality parameters between Chilika and
Vembanad Lake and use remote sensing to analyze the ecological stability of waterbody.
 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 STUDY AREA

CHILIKA LAKE

Chilika is the largest brackish water lagoon in Asia, which is situated at the southwest corner of the
Puri and Khudra districts, Odisha, and is located on the east coast of India between 19⁰ 54' North
latitude and 85⁰ 05' and 85⁰ 38' East longitudes(Mishra1 & Balabantaray2, n.d.). Study area spread over
89085ha. Lake contains three major estuarine characteristics,that are the greatest waterfowl migration
wintering area in the Indian subcontinent, a hotspot foraquatic species that are susceptible to extinction,
and provide habitat for the Irrawaddy dolphinas well as a highly productive ecosystem with abundant
fisheries resources. The primary inflows of Chilika include 52 streams, which are mainly the Bhargavi,
Daya, Makra, Malaguni, and Luna Rivers. Primary outflows are the old mouth at Arakhakuda, and the
new mouth at Satpada to the Bay of Bengal(www.wikipidia.com). During the monsoon and summer
months, the lagoon's size varies between 1165 and 906 square kilometers. With an average annual
rainfall of 1,238.8mm and 72 rainy days, the lagoon experiences monsoons from the southwest and
northeast from June through September and November through December, respectively. Chilika's
watershed has normal tropical lake surface temperatures, with an average maximum lake surface
temperature of 39.9°C and a minimum temperature of 14.0 °C
annually(https://www.chilika.com/climate.php).

VEMBANAD LAKE

The study area forms a part of the Vembanad wetland system, a recognized Ramsar site, locatedin the
state of Kerala, between 9.9545° N - 9.5214° N latitudes and 76.2105° E - 76.5430° E longitudes (A.P.
et al., 2020). It is a tidal wetland, spread over 12013.47ha. It includes the lower deltaic regions of the
Achencoil, Pamba, Manimala, Meenachil, and Muvattupuzha rivers. It connects the Arabian sea at
Cochin. This wetland has a complex aquatic system of coastalbackwaters, lagoons, marshes, mangroves,
and reclaimed lands, inlaid with networks of natural and man-made channels. The average annual
rainfall in Vembanad lake is 3000 mm. Large-scale land reclamation started at the beginning of the
19th century to form polders for rice cultivation. The closing off of tidal action in the system by the
construction of Thanneermukkom (TM) salinity barrage across Vembanad Lake in 1975. These two
a r e the major human interventions that adversely affected the water system of Vembanad Wetlands.
It has many water and land-use functions such as flood control, pollution control, inland navigation,
tourism, biodiversity, and agriculture. So, there is an urgent need for the conservation of the Vembanad
Wetlands.

Figure 1 Location map of study area contains Vembanad Lake located in the state of Kerala and
Chilika Lake in Odisha.
 2.2 DATA AND SOFTWARE USED

In this project, we used Landsat-8(OLI/TIRS) collection 2 level 2, (Path-140 and Row-46) data during
2017 January 01 and 2020 October 29 data of Chilika lake. Then we used the image (Path-14 and
Row-53) on 2017 February 03 and 2020 January 11 data for Vembanad lake, which are downloaded
from t h e USGS Earth explorer website (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov). Images from Landsat-8
are accessible from 2013 to the present.

Sens Band Band Wavelength( Resolutio

or number name μm) n(m)
OLI 1 Coastal 0.43-0.45 30

OLI 2 Blue 0.45-0.51 30

OLI 3 Green 0.53-0.59 30

OLI 4 Red 0.63-0.67 30

OLI 5 NIR 0.85-0.88 30

OLI 6 SWIR 1.57-1.65 30

1

OLI 7 SWIR 2.11-2.29 30

2

OLI 8 Pan 0.50-0.68 15

OLI 9 Cirrus 1.36-1.38 30

TIRS 10 TIRS 1 10.60-11.19 30 (100)

TIRS 11 TIRS 2 11.50-12.51 30 (100)

Table 1 Landsat – 8 satellite details and sensor specifications

ArcGIS software was used to map water extent, Macrophyte, Extent, and Lake surface temperature of
Chilika and Vembanad. ArcMap 10.5 software is used to map Chlorophyllconcentration, Suspended
Particulate matter, and Turbidity. GOOGLE EARTH ENGINE (GEE) is used for making time series to
compare the results. Google Earth Engine is a cloud-based geospatial analysis platform that enables
users to visualize and analyze satellite images of the Earth
(https://www.google.com/earth/education/tools/google-earth-engine). Using Excel and MATLAB,
the data are displayed as time series charts and monitor the health of wetlands.
MATLAB was used to make Time series Visualization chart of Chlorophyll, SPM, Turbidity and
Water Extent, and Macrophyte Extent result from GEE.

2.3 METHODOLOGY

Figure 2 Overall workflow of the study

2.3.1 TO FIND THE WATER EXTENT OF CHILIKA AND VEMBANAD LAKE

The Landsat-8 data were downloaded from the USGS site and each band's scale was corrected.
Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) readings were estimated utilizing the
corresponding sensors' SWIR’ and ‘GREEN’ bands during 2017 and 2020 data using Map
algebra in ArcGIS software.

𝐺𝑅𝐸𝐸𝑁 − SWIR
𝑀𝑁𝐷𝑊𝐼 =
GREEN + SWIR
water bodies have values greater than 0 and land has some lesser values, allowing us to
distinguish between the waterbody and non-waterbody.
The area of interest (AOI) region was built with Chilika Lake and Vembanad lake. Then extract
this result within AOI and then classified it into the ‘water’ class by assigning threshold as a
value above Zero for are water body. Then obtained the Water Extent map of Vembanad and
Chilika during 2017 and 2020. Then each of the raster images for the class was converted to
vector files and the total areas for the class were calculated for the years 2017 and 2020. This
information was used to calculate the total area of each of the classes over this period. These
calculated areas were compiled and displayed as tables (Analysing Three Decades of Land
Cover Change in Chilika Lake Ecosystem, n.d.).Finally, evaluate the changes by comparing
these findings to the Google Earth Engine time series chart of Chilika and Vembanad Lake
water extent from 2017 to 2022.

2.3.2 TO FIND THE MACROPHYTE EXTENT OF LAKES

Macro-phytic plants are the plants that live, grow and reproduce in water, which include
emerged plants, free-floating, floating left, and Submerged plants. Additionally, it gives fish,
birds, and other species a place to live. Remote sensing of terrestrial vegetation has been
successful due to the unique spectral characteristics of green plants: low reflectance in red and
high reflectance in Near-InfraRed (NIR). The important plant pigments, Chlorophyll a and b,
strongly absorb the energy in the blue (centered at 450 nm) and the red (centered at 670 nm)
wavelengths for photosynthesis; and the internal spongy mesophyll structure of the plant's
leaves is responsible for the high reflectance in the near-infrared (NIR) region (700 – 1300 nm.
The normalized Difference Vegetation Index has also been used in studies of aquatic vegetation,
especially floating and emergent aquatics.NDVI values range from -1 to 1. Vegetation has +ve
values and water has -ve values. (Szabó et al., 2016)
Landsat 8 data of Vembanad and Chilika lake during 2017 and 2020 were used to estimate
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), ‘NIR’ and ‘RED’ bands of corresponding
Landsat sensor data were used to find out NDVI usingmap algebra in ArcGIS software.

NIR − RED
NDVI = ( )
NIR + RED

Same as above water extent processes Area of interest (AOI) region was built with Chilika Lake
and Vembanad lake. Then extract this result within AOI and then classified into a single class
such as ‘Aquatic Macrophyte’ by assigning a threshold as a value above 0.4 are Aquatic
Macrophyte (Shard Chander1* et al., n.d.). Then obtained the Macrophyte Extent map of
Vembanad and Chilika during 2017 and 2020. Then each of the raster images for the class was
converted to vector files and the total areas of the class were calculated for each of the years
during 2017 and2020. This information was used to calculate the total area of the class over this
period. These calculated areas were compiled and displayed as tables (Analysing Three Decades
of Land Cover Change in Chilika Lake Ecosystem, n.d.). Finally, evaluate the changes by
comparing these findings to the Google Earth Engine time series chart of Chilika and Vembanad
Lake Macrophyte Extent from 2017 to 2022.
2.3.3 WATER QUALITY
Parameter Type Algorithm Wavelength Reference
(nm)
Chlorophyll Two-band Gurlin 2 B λ1= 708 nm (Gurlin et al.
NIR-RED 𝑅𝑟𝑠(𝜆1) λ2=665 nm 2011)
𝑅=
ratio 𝑅𝑟𝑠(𝜆2)

algorithm
NDCI 𝑁𝐷𝐶𝐼 λ1= 708 nm (Mishra
based 𝜌(705) − 𝜌(665) λ2=665 nm et.al.,2014;
=
algorithm 𝜌(705) + 𝜌(665) Mishraand
Mishra,2012
)
OC-2 a0 = 0.1977 (O’Reilly et.
algorithm a1 = -1.8117 al.,2000)
 a2 = 1.9743
a3 = -2.5635
a4 = -0.7218
SPM Nechad SPM = λ nm =665 (Nechad
665 nm et.al. ,2010)
𝜌𝑤
algorithm 𝐴ቌ ቍ
1 − 𝜌𝑤
𝑐

A=289.29
C = 0.1686

Turbidity 𝑅𝑟𝑠(λ2)
r = 𝑅𝑟𝑠(λ1)
𝑅𝑟𝑠(λ2)
r = 𝑅𝑟𝑠(λ1) Green λ1= (Arun
(NTU) 560 nm Kumar v.v
T=23.09 ∗
Red surisetty
𝑟−0.233
ቀ 1.28−𝑟 ቁ
λ2=665 et.al.2018)
nm

Table 2 Water quality Algorithms used for study

2.3.3.1 CHLOROPHYLL

We used four different chl-a equations Gurlin two band Red-NIR Algorithm, NDCI, OC2, and
OC3 algorithms for Landsat 8 .
Gurlin 2Band NIR-RED Equation (Gurlin et al., 2011)

2
𝑅𝑟𝑠(708) 𝑅𝑟𝑠(708)
𝑐ℎ𝑙 = 𝑎 ∗ ቆ ቇ +𝑏∗ቆ ቇ+𝑐
𝑅𝑟𝑠(665) 𝑅𝑟𝑠(665)

Here, a = 25.28, b = 14.85 and c = −15.18

using the above equation, When Landsat 8 images of Chilika lake on 06/01/2017 and
29/10/2020 and 03/02/2017 and 11/01/2020 of Vembanad Lake were taken,using the Map
Algebra tool in ArcGIS 10.5 software.
 Steps performed in ArcGIS to find Chlorophyll
1) The natural color composite of the image was loaded in ArcGIS using band 4(Red), band
3(Green), and band 2(Blue).
2) LANDSAT 8 level 2 Collection 2 data ‘band 4’ and ‘band 5’ are corrected by the scale factor
Map Algebra calculation = (float(b)*0.0000275)-0.2)

3) Convert water-leaving reflectance into remote sensing reflectance by dividing each scale-
corrected band by 3.14.
Map Algebra calculation = float (b1)/3.14
4) Find Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI)

𝐺𝑅𝐸𝐸𝑁 − NIR
𝑁𝐷𝑊𝐼 =
GREEN + NIR

Map Algebra calculation = (float(“b3”-“b5”)/float(“b3”+”b5”))

Here Landsat 8 ‘band 3’ and ‘band 5’ are used for NDWI. After using the NDWI equation, the
results show that the water bodies are greater than 0.2 and the vegetation has some lesservalues,
allowing us to distinguish between the two.
5) Find Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI)

𝐺𝑅𝐸𝐸𝑁−SWIR
𝑀𝑁𝐷𝑊𝐼 = GREEN+SWIR

Here ‘band 3’ and ‘band 6’ are used.

MNDWI= (float(“b3”-“b6”)/float(“b3”+”b6”))

After using the MNDWI equation, the results show that the water bodies are greater than 0 and
land has some lesser values, allowing us to distinguish between the two.

6) Water Masking

Allocated the masked MNDWI findings for water masking such that pixels greater than zero
are waterbodies and those less than zero are non-waterbodies.so Land pixels have a value of 0,
while water pixels have a value of 1.
“value”>=0
7) Applying the chlorophyll algorithm
The chlorophyll final results are masked with masked MNDWI. Finally obtainedchlorophyll
concentration of water pixels.
Similarly estimated the Vembanad and Chilika lakes' chlorophyll concentrations using different
equations. And then make a Chlorophyll map of Chilika and Vembanad Lakeduring 2017 and
2020. Then compare the result using the GEE time series chlorophyll chart during 2017-2022

NDCI-based Algorithm (Mishra & Mishra, 2012)

𝜌(705) − 𝜌(665)
𝑁𝐷𝐶𝐼 =
𝜌(705) + 𝜌(665)
𝑐ℎ𝑙 − 𝑎 = 14.039 + (86.115 ∗ 𝑁𝐷𝐶𝐼) + (194.325 ∗ (𝑁𝐷𝐶𝐼 2 ))
λ1= 708 nm, λ2=665 nm

Ocean Chlorophyll 2 Band Algorithm (OC2)

(O’Rilley et al., 1998)

𝑅𝑟𝑠(443)
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ቆ ቇ
𝑅𝑟𝑠(561)

Where Rrs (443) and Rrs (561) are the Remote sensing reflectance of blue and green
2 )+(a3 ∗R 3 )
bands respectively. c = 10a0 +(a1 ∗R)+(a2 ∗R + a4

Similarly estimated the Vembanad and Chilika lakes' chlorophyll concentrations using different
equations. And then make a Chlorophyll map of Chilika and Vembanad Lake during 2017 and
2020. Then compare the result using GEE time series chlorophyll chart during 2017-2022
 2.3.3.2 SPM

Here used (Nechad et al., 2010) SPM equation for Landsat 8, 2017, and 2020 data.
The SPM is computed from water-leaving reflectance (ρw) of the red band (655 nm) usingthe
following equation,

𝜌𝑤
𝑆𝑃𝑀 = 𝐴 ∗ ቌ 𝜌𝑤 ቍ
1−ቀ 𝐶 ቁ

here
ρw = πRrs for the red band (655 nm), A and C are empirical coefficients:
A =289.29 and C = 0.1686.

When Landsat 8 images of Chilika lake on 06/01/2017 and 29/10/2020 and 03/02/2017 and
11/01/2020 of Vembanad Lake were taken, SPM was estimated in the Vembanad and Chilika
lakes using a similar method for estimating Chlorophyll concentrationin ArcGIS. Then make
SPM map over these years using ArcGIS software. Then compare the result using GEE time
series SPM chart during 2017-2022

2.3.3.3 TURBIDITY
(surisetty et.al.2018)
𝑅𝑟𝑠(𝜆2)
𝑅=
𝑅𝑟𝑠(𝜆1)

Here,
Green λ1=560 nm, Red λ2=665 nm derived for Landsat 8
𝑟−0.233
T=ቀ 1.28−𝑟 ቁ

When Landsat 8 images of Chilika lake on 06/01/2017 and 29/10/2020 and 03/02/2017 and
11/01/2020 Vembanad Lake were taken, Turbidity was estimated in the Vembanad and Chilika
lakes using a similar method for estimating chlorophyll concentration in ArcGIS. Then compare
the result using GEE time series Turbidity chart during 2017-2022
 3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 WATER EXTENT

The reduction in waterbody area can be used to directly assess the health of a water body. Here
is an estimate of Chilika and Vembanad Lake's water extent for the years 2017 and 2020. The
extent of water in both Chilika Lake and Vembanad Lake is shown on the map as blue
throughout the year.

Figure 3 Water extent over Chilika Lake ,captured by Landsat 8 on January 06, 2017 and October 29, 2020
Figure 4 Water extent over Vembanad Lake as captured by Landsat - 8 on February 3, 2017 and January 11,
2020.

Year Water Extent (Hectares) Water Extent (%)

Chilika Vembanad Chilka Vembanad

Lake Lake lake lake
2017 80239.77 11008.08 90.07 91.63

2020 80725.95 10816.38 90.61 90.03

Table 3 Area of water extent over Chilika and Vembanad during 2017 and 2020
Table 3 shows the area of water extent over Chilika and Vembanad lakes between 2017 and
2020. Chilika lake has a total area of 89085 hectares, of which 90% contain water. During the
years 2017 and 2020, the water Extent area in Chilika ranges from 80239.77 to 80725.95 ha. The
water extent area in Chilika increases during 2017-2020. While in Vembanad Lake covers an
overall area of 12013 hectares, of which 91% is water. The water Extent area in Vembanad
ranges from 11008.08 to 10816.38 ha, during the year 2017 to 2020. These results indicate that
Vembanad Lake's water extent area reduced from 2017 to 2020.

Figure 5 Variability of water extent over Chilika Lake between 2017-2022

 Figure 6 Variability of water extent over Vembanad Lake between 2017-2022

The amount of water in Chilika is between 43634.77 and 89087.89 hectares. During the year
2017, water extent has a high value on June 15 (89087.89 hectares) and a low value on April
28 (60393.81 ha). In 2018, the high-value day is May 01 (82968.24 hectares), and the low-value
day is March 30(6015 ha). In 2019, the highest value is on September 09(84740.27 hectares),
while the lowest value is on March 01 (61455.30 ha). The peak water extent value for 2020 is
on October 13 (89087.89 hectares) and on June 07(89087.71 ha), while the minimum value is
on April 04(50200.96 ha). In 2021, the maximum value day is October 21 (88690.79 hectares),
and the low-value day is April 07 (43634.77 ha). The highest water extent during 2022 is on
August 22 (80918.68 hectares), and the lowest value is on May 22 (54610 ha). High values of
water extent occur in every May-June and August-October months and low values in June-
August and September months. Throughout the years 2017 to 2022, Chilika Lake's water level
will decline.
While water extent in Vembanad fluctuates between 815.68 and 12014.75 hectares from 2017
to 2022. In 2017, the highest water extent occurred on May 26 (11761.78 hectares), and the
lowest was on August 30(5649.45 ha). In 2018, the maximum value is on August 17 (12014.65
 hectares), while the low value is on April 11 (4083.25 ha). The high value for 2019 is on July
19 (12014.75 hectares), while the low value is on May 16(815.68 ha). In 2020, the highest water
extent value (12014.75 hectares) occurs on May 18, and July 05, and the lowest value was on
September 20(3204.52 ha). In 2021, the highest water extent value (12014.75 hectares) occurs
on July 24, May 21, and October 12, and the lowest value occurs on August 09 (3726.33 ha).
In 2022, the maximum value is on April 22 (12014.75 hectares), while the low value is on May
08 (4906.20 ha). In Vembanad, the water extent from 2017 to 2020 shows progressive growth,
but from 2020 to 2022, there is neither an increase nor a decline, maintaining a consistent water
area.

3.2 MACROPHYTE EXTENT

Figure 7 Macrophyte extent over Chilika Lake as captured by Landsat - 8 on January 06, 2017 and October 29,
2020
 Here is a map of Chilika lake's estimated macrophyte extent from images captured by Landsat
8 on January 06, 2017, and on October 29, 2020. Aquatic macrophyte extent is indicated on the
map by the color red. The lake's predominantly northern region exhibits a considerable amount
of aquatic macrophytes. According to 2017 data, the amount of macrophytes is higher in 2020,
which demonstrates an increase in macrophyte extent in Chilika Lake between 2017 and 2020.

Figure 8 Macrophyte extent over Vembanad Lake as captured by Landsat -8 on February 3, 2017and January
11, 2020

Here is a map of Vembanad lake's estimated macrophyte extent from images taken by Landsat -
8 on February 3, 2017and January 11, 2020. Aquatic macrophyte extent is indicated on the map by
the color red. The lake's northern, central, and southern portions mostly display a considerable
amount of aquatic macrophytes. Compared to 2017, the amount of aquatic macrophytes is
greater in 2020. It indicated an increase in aquatic macrophyte abundance between 2017 and
2020.

Year Macrophyte Extent Macrophyte Extent (%)

(Hectares)
Chilika Vembanad Chilka Vembanad
Lake Lake lake lake
2017 7010.55 969.48 7.87 8.07

2020 11272.68 1359.09 12.65 11.31

Table 4 Area of macrophyte extent over Chilika and Vembanad during 2017 and
2020

Table 4 shows the area of macrophyte extent of Chilika and Vembanad during 2017 and 2020.
Chilika lake has a total area of 89085 hectares, of which 7.87-12.65% contain aquatic
macrophytes. During the years 2017 and 2020, the macrophyte extent area in Chilika ranges
from 7010.55 to 11272.68 ha, which indicates that the area of macrophytes increased during
2017-2020. While Vembanad Lake covers an overall area of 12013 hectares, of which 8.07-
11.31% is aquatic macrophyte. The macrophyte extent area in Vembanad ranges from 969.48
to 1359.09 ha, during the year 2017 to 2020. These results indicate that Vembanad Lake's
macrophyte extent increased from 2017 to 2020.
 Figure 9 Variability of macrophyte extent over Chilika Lake between 2017-2022

Figure 10 Variability of macrophyte extent over Vembanad Lake between 2017-2022

Chilika Lake's macrophyte extent ranges from 137 to 14172.15 hectares. The high value is on
November 6, 2017 (10043.82 hectares), and the low value is on August 18, 2017 (392.36 ha).
The high value is on April 15, 2018 (10978.89 hectares), while the low value is on May 01,
2018 (3039.08 hectares). The high value occurs on July 23, 2019 (11270.78 hectares), while
the low value is on May 4, 2019 (137 hectares). The high value happens on November 14, 2020
(13234.34 hectares), while the low value is on May 6, 2020 (190.389 ha). High macrophyte
concentration values occur on November 01, 2021 (12786.93 ha), and low values on October
16, 2021 (225.76 ha). Macrophytes have a high value on January 4, 2022 (14172.15 hectares),
and a low value on May 28, 2022. (1266.49 ha). High values of macrophyte occur in every pre-
monsoon a post-monsoon season. Among these highest value of Macrophyte Extent appears
during the January, April, July, and November months, and the low value in May, August, and
October months. Between 2017 and 2022, the amount of macrophytes in Chilika Lake
increases.
Simultaneously, Vembanad Lake's macrophyte extent ranges from 49.519 to 4048.50
hectares. 2017 saw a high macrophyte value on October 1, at 2824.85 hectares, and a low value
on June 11 (91.24 ha). 2018 saw a peak value on December 23 (4048.50 hectares) and a low
value on September 18 (49.519 ha). In 2019, the highest macrophyte value (2201.36 hectares)
occurs on November 08, and the lowest value was on July 03 (467.06 ha). In 2020, the highest
macrophyte value (3689.95 ha) occurs on November 26, and the lowest value (August 22) is
560.20 ha. In 2021, the highest macrophyte value (2683.44 ha) occurs on January 29 and the
lowest value (87.44 ha) occurs on September 26. In 2022, the macrophyte value is highest on
February 01 (2946.13 hectares), and the lowest on May 08 (609.83 hectares). From 2017 to
2018, Vembanad Lake had more macrophytes than ever before. Then it gradually decreases
throughout 2019 before increasing throughout 2020, returning to reductions in 2021 -2022.
According to the results, macrophyte extent in Vembanad decreased between 2017-2022
 3.3 WATER QUALITY

3.3.1 CHLOROPHYLL

Figure 11 Chlorophyll map over Chilika Lake as the image captured by Landsat 8 on January 06, 2017, and
October 29, 2020;(a) and (b) are the chlorophyll map obtained by Gurlin-2B NIR-Red algorithm; (c) and (d)
are the chlorophyll map obtained by NDCI-based Chlorophyll algorithm ; (e) and (f) are the chlorophyll map
obtained by OC2- algorithm.
Figure 12 chlorophyll map of Vembanad lake as the image captured by Landsat 8 on February 3, 2017, and
January 11, 2020;(a) and (b) are the chlorophyll map obtained by Gurlin-2B NIR-Red algorithm; (c) and (d)
are the chlorophyll map obtained by NDCI-based Chlorophyll algorithm ; (e) and (f) are the chlorophyll map
obtained by OC2- algorithm.

Here, three different chlorophyll equations specific to Landsat-8 were used. For Chilika Lake,
where the chlorophyll concentration ranges from 0-16 mg/m^3,the OC2 algorithms are in
operation. Vembanad Lake has a chlorophyll content that ranges from 0-20 mg/m^3. Chilika
Lake's chlorophyll map reveals that the northern Sector, central sector, southern and the area
where the lakemouth opens into the sea have higher chlorophyll concentrations than other areas.
Figure 13 Variability of Chlorophyll over Chilika lake between 2017-2022
Figure 14 Variability of Chlorophyll over Vembanad lake between 2017-2022

Chlorophyll concentrations in Chilika Lake range from 1.275 to 15.39 mg/m^3. Chlorophyll
content peaked in Chilika Lake in 2017 on November 17 (15.063 mg/m^3), and it reached its
lowest concentration on August 17(1.61 mg/m^3). Chlorophyll peaks in 2018 on November 25
(14.049 mg/m^3), and Jun 20 has the lowest value (1.15 mg/m^3). In 2019, the high-value day
is October 27 (14.521 mg/m^3), and the low value is on September 09 (1.275 mg/m^3). During
2020 the highest chlorophyll concentration occurs on October 29 (15.39 mg/m^3) and the
lowest value on March 19 (1.375 mg/m^3). While 2021 shows the highest chlorophyll
concentration on February 02 (14.543 mg/m^3) and the lowest on April 23 (1.193 mg/m^3).
During the year 2022, a high concentration occurs on February 05 (13.26 mg/m^3) and a low
concentration on July 15 (1.478 mg/m^3). Chlorophyll concentration in Chilika Lake decreases
during 2017-2020 and then increases during 2021 and again decreases in 2022.
While chlorophyll concentrations in Vembanad Lake range from 0.651 to 19.625 mg/m^3.
Chlorophyll values in 2017 are highest on December 04 (19.625 mg/m^3) and lowest on August
14 (0.676 mg/m^3). In 2018, the highest chlorophyll concentration was recorded on November
05 (13.98 mg/m^3), and the lowest was recorded on December 23 (0.665 mg/m^3). 2019 saw
a peak of 14.812 mg/m^3 of chlorophyll on November 24 and a low of 0.772 mg/m^3 on July
03. Chlorophyll peaks in 2020 on February 12th (13.085 mg/m^3) and reaches its lowest point
on November 26th (0.651 mg/m^3). Chlorophyll reaches its peak in 2021 on October 28 (9.332
mg/m^3) and reaches its lowest point on January 29 (0.79 mg/m^3). Chlorophyll peaks in 2022
on July 27 (8.355 mg/m^3) and peaks in 2022 on February 01 (0.71 mg/m^3). According to the
 results Chlorophyll concentration in Vembanad lake decreased during 2017-2022,
In general, there are two peaks of chlorophyll every year during pre-monsoon season and post-
monsoon season. Among this high chlorophyll in Vembanad lake, the peak occurs mostly in
February, July months, and October to December months and in Chilika lake high chlorophyll
peak occurs mostly in February, July, October, and November months. Low chlorophyll
concentration in Chilika Occurs in April -May, and June-July Months, and Vembanad June-
August, and November-October months.

3.3.2 SPM

Figure 15 SPM map over Chilika lake, as the image captured by Landsat 8 on January 06, 2017, and October
29, 2020.
Figure 16 SPM map over Vembanad lake as the image captured by Landsat 8 on February 3, 2017, and January
11, 2020.

Chilika Lake's northern sector and lake mouth opening portion have higher concentrations of
suspended particulate matter with values between 0 – 80 mg/l. Here, a high SPM concentration
is displayed in red, while a low one is displayed in blue. When compared to 2020, the SPM
concentration in the northern sector and where the lake mouth opens to the sea portion is lower
in 2017.
While Vembanad Lake has moderate concentrations of suspended particulate matter in its
northern and southern sectors, with values between 0 and 35 mg/l. When compared to 2020,
SPM concentration in the northern and southern sectors is high in 2017. Therefore, SPM in
Chilika Lake is relatively high when compared to Vembanad.
 Figure 17 Variability of SPM over Chilika lake between 2017-2022

Figure 18 Variability of SPM over Vembanad lake between 2017-2022

ariability of SPM over Vembanad lake between 2017-2022
SPM in Chilika fluctuates between 17.03 and 82.289 mg/L from 2017 to 2022. SPM peaks in
2017 on May 14 (48.486 mg/L) and troughs on February 07 (21.15 mg/L). SPM values peak in
2018 on January 25 (46.279 mg/L) and dip on February 10 (21.97 mg/L). SPM peaks in 2019
on March 17 (31.488 mg/L) and troughs on June 05 (22.945 mg/L). SPM's peak value in 2020
is on October 29 (32.79 mg/L), and its lowest value is on February 16 (17.03 mg/L). SPM
reaches its peak in 2021 on January 01 (47.214 mg/L) and its lowest point on November 01
(28.75 mg/L). SPM peaks in 2022 on April 26 (82.289 mg/L) and low value on March 09(22.54
mg/L).
At the same time, SPM in Vembanad varies from 3.168 to 35.75 mg/L between 2017 and 2022.
SPM reaches its peak on December 04 (8.65 mg/L) and its lowest point on November 18 (6.17
mg/L) in 2017. SPM peaks in 2018 on April 27 (12.787 mg/L) and troughs on December 07
(3.432 mg/L). SPM reaches its peak in 2019 on October 23 (35.75 mg/L) and its lowest point
on December 26 (5.48 mg/L). SPM reaches its peak in 2020 on June 03 (28.019 mg/L) and its
lowest point on March 31 (3.168 mg/L). SPM peaks in 2021 on January 29 (11.798 mg/L) and
troughs on June 06 (4.07 mg/L). SPM reaches its peak in 2022 on February 2 (7.97 mg/L) and
low value on January 16(6.338 mg/L).

SPM concentration in Chilika Lake is generally highest in January-May, and October, and
lowest in February-March, June, and November. Chilika lake's SPM concentration rises from
2017 to 2022. while SPM concentration in Vembanad Lake generally peaks in January -April,
June, and October-December and the lowest concentration in June and November-December.
SPM content in Vembanad Lake rises from 2017 to 2019 before progressively declining from
2020 to 2022.
 3.3.3 TURBIDITY

Figure 19 Turbidity map over Vembanad lake, as the image captured by Landsat 8 on February 3,
2017, and January 11, 2020
Figure 20 Turbidity map over Chilika lake, as the image captured by Landsat 8 on January 06, 2017, and
October 29, 2020.

Turbidity in Chilika Lake ranges from 0 to 70 NTU. Here, a high Turbidity value is displayed
in brown color, while a low one is displayed in pink color. When compared to 2017, the northern
part of the lake had more turbidity in 2020.
The turbidity in Vembanad lake ranges between 0 and 65 NTU. When compared to 2020,
turbidity concentration in the northern and central sectors is high in 2017. In 2020 central sector
is more turbid than other parts of the lake.
 Figure 21 Variability of the Turbidity over Chilika Lake between 2017-2022

Figure 22 Variability of the Turbidity over Vembanad Lake between 2017-2022

Over the years 2017 to 2022, the turbidity of Chilika Lake ranges between 4.65 and 63.4 NTU.
The highest turbidity reading of 2017 was recorded on August 18 (55.633 NTU), and the lowest
reading was recorded on October 05 (13.579 NTU). Turbidity reaches its peak on March 30
(63.4 NTU) and its lowest point on November 09(11.382 NTU) of the year 2018. The highest
value of turbidity in 2019 is on June 05 (54.619 NTU), and the lowest value is on August
08(4.653 NTU). The maximum turbidity value during 2020 is on October 13 (59.243 NTU),
and the lowest value is on September 11(19.543 NTU). The greatest turbidity reading of 56.807
NTU occurs on October 16 of 2021, and the lowest reading is on June 26(13.648 NTU). The
highest value of turbidity in 2022 is on April 26 (54.169 NTU), and the lowest value is on May
12 (20.709 NTU). March-April, August, and October generally have the maximum and
minimum in September-October and December turbidity during these years. Overall findings
indicate that turbidity will gradually incline between 2017 -2018 then goes to decreases and
again shows a gradual increase during 2019-2020, then decline during 2021-2022.
While the turbidity of Vembanad Lake fluctuates between 0.39 and 64.089 NTU from 2017 to
2022. The lowest turbidity rating of 2017 was on August 30, and the highest value was on May
26 (5.295 and 62.939 NTU, respectively). In the year 2018, turbidity reaches its highest point
on August 17 (60.431 NTU) and its lowest point on January 05 (3.59 NTU). Turbidity reached
its maximum point in 2019 on July 03 (64.089 NTU), and its lowest point on April 14 (6.439
NTU). The highest turbidity reading for 2020 is recorded on December 28 (58.421 NTU), and
the lowest reading is recorded on April 16 (0.39 NTU). The highest turbidity rating of 59.79
NTU is recorded on June 22 and the lowest reading of 6.929 NTU is recorded on December
31 of 2021. Turbidity in 2022 reaches its maximum point on May 24 (55.908 NTU) and its
lowest point on March 05 (2.029 NTU). Turbidity is often highest in May-August and
December and lowest in January, February and December months of these years. Overall
research shows that between 2017 and 2022, turbidity will gradually decline.
 4 CONCLUSION

This study estimated the water extent, macrophyte extent, chlorophyll concentration, SPM, and
Turbidity over Chilika and Vembanad lakes during 2017-2022. Water extent in Chilika varies
from 43634.77 and 89087.89 hectares. High values of water extent occur in every May-June
and August-October months and low values on low values in June-August and September
months. There is a gradual decrease in water extent during 2017-2022. While the water extent
in Vembanad fluctuates between 815.68 and 12014.75 hectares from 2017 to 2022. High values
of water extent occur in every April-July and Aug-Oct months and the lowest values appear in
May-August and September Months. In Vembanad, the water extent from 2017 to 2020 shows
progressive growth, but from 2020 to 2022, there is neither an increase nor a decline,
maintaining a consistent water area. According to Chilika, the amount of water area lost is significant
when compared to Vembanad. It denotes the Shrinkage of the water area of lakes.
Macrophyte extent in Chilika varies from 137 to 14172.15 hectares. High values of macrophyte occur
in every pre-monsoon a post-monsoon season. Among these highest values of macrophyte, extent
appears during the January, April, July, and November months, and the low value in May, August, and
October months. Chlorophyll concentration in Chilika Lake decreases during 2017-2020 and
then increases during 2021 and again decreases in 2022. While macrophytes' extent in Vembanad
is from 49.519 to 4048.50 hectares. In the case of Vembanad highest value of macrophyte, extent appears
during January-February and October-December months, and the low-value June-July and September
months. From 2017 to 2018, Vembanad Lake had more macrophytes than ever before. . Then it gradually
decreases throughout 2019 before increasing throughout 2020, returning to reductions in 2021-2022.
According to the results, macrophyte extent in Vembanad decreased between 2017-2022. The amount
of macrophytes in Chilika Lake grows from 2017 to 2022. it indicates the deterioration of Chilika Lake.
To monitor the ecological status of the wetlands, various water quality indicators such as
Chlorophyll, Suspended particulate matter, and turbidity is analyzed in detail.SPM in Chilika
fluctuates between 17.03 and 82.289 mg/L from 2017 to 2022. SPM concentration in Chilika
Lake is generally highest in January-May, and October, and lowest in February-March, June,
and November. Chilika lake's SPM concentration rises from 2017 to 2022. At the same time,
SPM in Vembanad varies from 3.168 to 35.75 mg/L between 2017 and 2022. while SPM
concentration in Vembanad Lake generally peaks in January -April, June, and October-
December and the lowest concentration in June and November-December. SPM content in
Vembanad Lake rises from 2017 to 2019 before progressively declining from 2020 to 2022.
Here, three different chlorophyll equations specific to the Landsat-8 bands were used. For
Chilika Lake, where the chlorophyll concentration ranges from 1.275 to 15.39 mg/m^3. Here,
the Ocean color Chlorophyll 2 band algorithm (OC-2), NDCI-based algorithm, and Gurlin
2Band NIR-RED algorithms are utilized to estimate the amount of chlorophyll. Among these
OC-2 derived chlorophyll concentration was found to be in the valid range for both the study
areas during the period of analysis. Chlorophyll concentrations in Chilika Lake range from
1.275 to 15.39 mg/m^3. Chlorophyll concentration in Chilika Lake increases during 2017-2020
and then declines from 2021-2022. While chlorophyll concentrations in Vembanad Lake range
from 0.651 to 19.625 mg/m^3. According to the results Chlorophyll concentration in Vembanad
lake decreased during 2017-2022. In general, there are two peaks of chlorophyll every year
during pre-monsoon season and post-monsoon season. Among this high chlorophyll in
Vembanad lake, the peak occurs mostly in February, July months, and October to December
months and in Chilika lake high chlorophyll peak occurs mostly in February, July, October, and
November months. Low chlorophyll concentration in Chilika Occurs in April -May, and June-
July Months, and Vembanad June-August, and November-October months.

Over the years 2017 to 2022, the turbidity of Chilika Lake ranges between 4.65 and 63.4 NTU.
March-April, August, and October generally have the maximum turbidity during these years.
Overall findings indicate that turbidity will gradually incline between 2017 -2018 then goes to
decreases and again shows a gradual increase during 2019-2020, then decline during 2021-
2022. While the turbidity of Vembanad Lake fluctuates between 0.39 and 64.089 NTU from
2017 to 2022. Turbidity is often highest in May-August and December of these years. Overall
research shows that between 2017 and 2022, turbidity will gradually decline. In terms of water
quality, Chilika Lake has higher levels of SPM, and turbidity than Vembanad. It indicates the
state of the lake's health as it deteriorates Overall, the results show the high amount of
Chlorophyll concentration in Chilika when compared to Vembanad. Chilika Lake is more
productive than Vembanad Lake, possibly due to higher nutrient levels from the ocean. This
study also shows that cumulative stress on Chilika Lake is greater when in comparison to
Vembanad.
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