Open Cast Mine Boundary detection of Jharia

Coalfield, Jharkhand, India, using optical and

Interferometric SAR data
A Thesis Submitted
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the Degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In
REMOTE SENSING & GIS
Submitted by:
SATYA VEER SINGH
(Enrollment No.147652517518)

Under the Supervision of

Mr. Vinay Kumar

Mr. Ramchandra

Scientist/Engineer-SD

Scientist-SD

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Department

Head Glaciology Division

IIRS, Dehradun , Uttrakhand

RSAC-U.P, Lucknow

to the
Faculty of School of Geoinformatics, RSAC, Lucknow
DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow)
SEPTEMBER, 2016

I dedicate my thesis to my loving parents

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. SATYA VEER SINGH has carried out the dissertation entitled Open
Cast Mine Boundary detection of Jharia Coalfield, Jharkhand, India, using optical and
Interferometric SAR data, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master
of Technology in Remote Sensing and GIS by the Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam Technical
University. This work has been carried out under the supervision of Mr. Vinay Kumar, Scientist
SD Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Department at Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
ISRO, Dehradun, Uttrakhand, and Mr. Ramchandra, Scientist SD , Head Glaciology Division
in Remote Sensing Application Center-U.P., Lucknow.

Mr. Vinay Kumar

Mr. Ramchandra

Scientist/Engineer-SD

Scientist-SD

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Department

Head Glaciology Division

IIRS, Dehradun, Uttrakhand

RSAC-UP, Lucknow

DECLARATION
I, Satya Veer Singh here declare that this dissertation entitled Open Cast Mine Boundary
detection of Jharia Coalfield, Jharkhand, India, using optical and Interferometric SAR
data submitted to Dr. A. P. J Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow (Formerly
Uttar Pradesh Technical University) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
Master of Technology in Remote Sensing and GIS, is my own work and that to the best of my
knowledge and belief. It is a record of original research carried out be me under the guidance and
supervision of Mr.Vinay Kumar, Scientist SD Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
Department at Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, ISRO, Dehradun.

Place: Dehradun

Mr. Satya Veer Singh

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge all the personnel and organizations that directly or indirectly
supported me to conduct this research.
I remain indebted to my supervisor Mr. Vinay Kumar for critical suggestions till the completion
of my thesis. The research would have not been possible to go in right direction without their
care and valuable suggestions. Their academic and moral support indeed inspired me a lot to
work independently throughout the study period.
I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. MKJ Siddiqui Director, RSAC-UP and
Dr. A.L Haldar Head, School of Geo-informatics, RSAC-UP for providing all the opportunities
and recommend me to do my project at Urban and regional studies division, IIRS Dehradun.
I wish to extend a general appreciation to all faculty members and staff working in RSAC-UP for
providing me teaching materials and all those documents which were required in my degree.
I would also like to thank to my friends Abhishek Singh Yadav, Savita, Shikha Rawat, Praveen
and all my M.Techbatchmatefor making my life so easy in the entire study span by their constant
company and support.
Finally, I want to dedicate this thesis to my mother, my beloved sistersMs. Soni, Divya, Deepika
Kushwaha for her love and especially to my father Mr. Balram Singh for his continuous
support at the time when I needed and because of whom I joined this course.

Satya Veer Singh

M.TECH (2014-16)

Table of ContentsY
5

CERTIFICATE......................................................................................iii
DECLARATION....................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................v
List of Figures........................................................................................ix
Chapter 1.................................................................................................1
Introduction.............................................................................................1
1.1 Background............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objective............................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Sub-Objective......................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Research Questions.................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Structure of Thesis................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 2.................................................................................................4
Literature Review...................................................................................4
2.1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).................................................................................. 4
2.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR)............................................................5
2.3 MINING APPLICATIONS OF INSAR..........................................................................7
2.4 D-InSAR (Differenial Interferometric Synthetic Aparture Radar)..........................................8
2.5 Boundary detection using DEM................................................................................... 8
2.5.1 Image segmentation............................................................................................ 8
2.5.1.1 Histogram Based Segmentation............................................................................8
2.5.1.2 Watershed Transformation Segmentation..............................................................10
2.6 SAR data and processing.......................................................................................... 12

Chapter 3...............................................................................................15
Study Area.............................................................................................15
3.1 Geology.............................................................................................................. 15
3.2 Study area............................................................................................................ 15
3.3 Structural lineament................................................................................................ 17
3.4 Faults................................................................................................................. 18
3.5 Coal Reserve & Resources....................................................................................... 19

3.6 Mining scenario.................................................................................................... 20

3.7 Data Used............................................................................................................ 21
3.7.1 SAR data........................................................................................................ 21
3.7.2 Optical Data.................................................................................................... 22
3.7.3 Software used.................................................................................................. 23

Chapter 4...............................................................................................24
Methodology..........................................................................................24
4.1 SAR data processing.............................................................................................. 26
4.1.1 Baseline estimation........................................................................................... 26
4.1.2 Interferogram generation................................................................................. 27
4.1.3 Interferogram flattening...................................................................................28
4.1.4 Phase unwrapping............................................................................................. 28
4.1.5 Orbital Refinement fitting parameters....................................................................28
4.1.6 Phase to Height Conversion and Geocoding.............................................................30
4.2 Mine Boundary detection using HBS & WTS................................................................31
4.2.1 Watershed Transform Segmentation (WTS)............................................................31
4.2.2 Histogram Based Segmentation (HBS)...................................................................34

Chapter 5...............................................................................................36
Results and Discussion.........................................................................36
5.1 LISS IV classified map.......................................................................................... 36
5.2 Histogram Based Segmentation................................................................................. 37
5.3 Watershed Transformation Segmentation......................................................................39
5.4 Overlay of classified map with mine boundaries.............................................................41
5.5 Validation on Google Earth....................................................................................... 45
5.5.1 ALOS PALSAR DATA...................................................................................... 45
5.5.2 Cartosat DATA................................................................................................ 46

Chapter 6...............................................................................................47
Conclusion and Recommendation.......................................................47
6.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 47
6.2 Recommendation.................................................................................................. 47

Chapter 7...............................................................................................48
References..............................................................................................48
Appendix................................................................................................49

List of Figures
Figure 1 Flow chart of Boundary detection by WTS................................................................11
Figure 2 Flow Chart of InSAR DEM generation.....................................................................14
Figure 3 Study area........................................................................................................ 16
Figure 4 Methodology Flowchart....................................................................................... 25
Figure 5 DEM OF ALOS PALSAR DATA............................................................................30
Figure 6 WTS implemented directly on DEM derived from ALOS DEM......................................31
Figure 7 Erosion with a disk structuring element and radius equal to 10 pixels...............................32
Figure 8 Opening- closing by Reconstruction........................................................................32
Figure 9 Image Complement Operation................................................................................ 33
Figure 10 Marker Controlled Watershed Transformation Segmentation of ALOS DEM.....................33
Figure 11 Marker Controlled Watershed Transformation Segmentation of Cartosat DEM..................34
Figure 12 Classified map of Jharia Coal Field........................................................................36
Figure 13 HBS performed on Cartosat DEM........................................................................37
Figure 14 HBS result on ALOS DEM.................................................................................38
Figure 15 WTS performed on Cartosat DEM.........................................................................39
Figure 16 WTS performed on ALOS DEM...........................................................................40
Figure 17 ALOS WTS ON CLASSIFIED MAP.....................................................................41
Figure 18 ALOS HBS MAP ON CLASSIFIED MAP..............................................................42
Figure 19 HBS and WTS detected mines on classified data.......................................................42
Figure 20 Mines detected by HBS on Classified map...............................................................43
Figure 21 Mines detected by WTS on Classified map..............................................................44
Figure 22 HBS and WTS results on classified map....................................................44
Figure 23 Google earth image with ALOS data......................................................................45
Figure 24 Google earth image with cartosat data.....................................................46

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. Ores
recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstone, limestone etc. Mining is required
to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially
in a laboratory or factory. Mining in a wider sense include extraction of any non-renewable
resource such as petroleum, natural gas or even water.
Mining are of two types:1. Underground Mining
2. Open Cast Mining

1. Underground Mining:- In underground mining, minimal amount of overburden is removed for

access of ore deposit. Tunnels or shafts are used for access to these ore deposit. These tunnels or
shafts lead to a more horizontal network of underground tunnels that directly access the ore.

2. Open Cast Mining:- Open pit mining is a type of mining in which the ore deposit extends very

deep in the ground, necessitating the removal of layer upon layer of overburden and ore. Logging
of trees and clear-cutting or burning of vegetation above the ore deposit helps in removal of the
overburden. It involves the removal of natively vegetated areas and therefore it is
environmentally destructive type of mining.

The principal environmental concerns associated with the opencast coal mining are:

Physical disturbance of the landscape

Land stability
Erosion, surface runoff

10

Flooding and sedimentation control etc.

The physical disturbances to a landscape during mining are the very first and the most visible
environmental impacts of coal mining. Some disturbances are common signs of any human
activity such as roads built up, electrical and phone lines brought to the site, offices and
maintenance facilities constructed etc. other disturbances are specific to mining. The amount of
material removed remains visible at the surface and usually disposed of as fill during the
reclamation phase after the active mining operations ceased. Thus, physical disturbances remain
on the landscape until the mining area is reclaimed (Stephen F. Greb et al, 2006).
In coal mining areas with steep topography landslides are of great concerns. Regions with steep
topography are prone to natural landslides and slope failure, but mining can increase the
likelihood of slope failures by removing vegetation from the hillside, disrupting the base of
natural, pre-existing slumps during mining and the road construction, and redirecting surface and
ground water in ways that saturate naturally unstable slopes.
In any excavation or construction site including opencast mines, changes in drainage and
sedimentation are common environmental concerns. Increase in sedimentation can degrade water
quality, smother fauna at the bottom of streams and lakes, act as a carrier of other pollutants, and
clog stream courses, which can lead to flooding.

1.2 Objective
The main objective is to detect mine boundaries using optical and SAR data by using different
segmentation techniques of MATLAB and classification of optical data.

1.3 Sub-Objective

To detect open cast mine boundaries using histogram based segmentation and watershed
transform based segmentation techniques from DEM derived using InSAR and Cartosat

stereo data and their comparative analysis.

Open cast mine mapping using high resolution optical data and overlaying detected mine

boundaries to the open cast mine map.

Validation of open cast mine boundaries with the help of boundaries extracted from
Google earth images.

1.4 Research Questions

Which DEM (Cartosat or ALOS) is able to perfectly delineate opencast mine boundaries?
Which technique (histogram based segmentation or watershed transform segmentation)
provides better result for delineating opencast mine boundaries?

1.5 Structure of Thesis

Chapter 1 describes introduction of thesis, objective, sub-objective and research

questions.
Chapter 2 describes about the literature review. SAR, InSAR, DInSAR, segmentation

techniques is described in it.

Chapter 3 deals with the study area, data and software used. It describes about the data

characteristics, date of acquisition, type of polarisation etc.

Chapter 4 deals with the methodology in this project. Flow Chart, processing of data are

described in this.
Chapter 5 describes with the results and discussion. Boundary dictation, area of mines are

shown on this chapter.

References
Appendix

Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a microwave imaging system. Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) is a microwave radar which combines all weather operation and very high resolution
through aperture synthesis to become a unique remote sensing device for monitoring the earths
surface from orbiting satellites.
All radars are active remote sensing devices with their own sources of electromagnetic waves (in
radio or microwave frequencies) for illuminating a target. The specific advantage of using
microwaves for remote sensing is their ability to penetrate clouds and haze in the atmosphere
enabling remote sensing operations under all weather conditions. Microwaves with frequencies
in the range 1 to 40 GHz (corresponding the wavelengths 30 to 0.75cm)are considered the most
suitable particularly, for studying oceanographic phenomena using airborne and space-borne
radars. Above 40 GHz, the observations start getting affected by atmospheric absorption by water
vapor and oxygen while below 1GHz, there are problems of poorer spatial resolution,
interferences from anthropogenic radio signals and galactic microwave noise.
A SAR system illuminates the earth's surface along one side of the flight direction. The signal
reflected back from the earth's surface in the direction of radar sensor is recorded. The radar
antenna records the strength and the time delay of these return signals. For convenience,
horizontal (H) and vertical (V) orientations are preferred for SAR systems and channels are
represented as HH for horizontal transmit and horizontal receive and HV for horizontal transmit
and vertical receive.
SAR system has three levels of polarizations:

Single polarized- either HH or VV, HV,VH

Dual polarized-(HH and VV) or (HH and HV) or (HV and VV)
Full or quad polarized- All four channels are present - HH, VV, HV, VH.

Full or quad polarimetric mode preserves the full vector nature of the electromagnetic radiations
and therefore is preferred for complete analysis of backscatter power. A fully polarimeric SAR

system also measures the phase difference between different polarization channels which plays
an important role in polarimetric information extraction( W. Boerner, 2004).
Speckle in SAR:- Speckle refers to a noise-like characteristic produced by coherent systems
such as SAR and Laser systems (note: Suns radiation is not coherent). It is evident as a random
structure of picture elements (pixels) caused by the interference of electromagnetic waves
scattered from surfaces or objects. When illuminated by the SAR, each target contributes
backscatter energy which, along with phase and power changes, is then coherently summed for
all scatterers, so called random-walk. This summation can be either high or low, depending on
constructive or destructive interference. This statistical fluctuation (variance), or uncertainty, is
associated with the brightness of each pixel in SAR imagery.
When transforming SAR signal data into actual imagery - after the focusing process - multi-look
processing is usually applied (so called non-coherent averaging). The speckle still inherent in the
actual SAR image data can be reduced further through adaptive image restoration techniques
(speckle filtering). Note that unlike system noise, speckle is a real electromagnetic measurement,
which is exploited in particular in SAR interferometry (InSAR).

2.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR)

InSAR is a technique when SAR system either airborne or space borne can observe the same
area from slightly different look angles. This can be done either simultaneously (with two radars
mounted on the same platform) or with different acquisition times by exploiting repeated orbits
of the same satellite.
SAR systems illuminate the Earth with a beam of coherent microwave radiation, retaining both
amplitude and phase information in the radar echo during data acquisition and subsequent
processing.

This radiation can be described by three properties:

Wavelength - the distance between peaks on the wave.

Amplitude - the displacement of the wave at the peak.
Phase - describes the shift (in degrees or radians) of the wave from some other wave.

SAR interferometry (InSAR) exploits this coherence, using the phase measurements to infer
differential range and range change in two or more complex-valued SAR images of the same
surface.
The resulting difference of phases is a new kind of image, called an interferogram.
For a second SAR image for interferometric measurement, it must be acquired from a slightly
different sensor position. The difference between the acquisitions of the first and second images
determines the type of interferometric results.
Some of the most common forms are:
Across-track (range) used primarily for topographical information, this type utilizes a
difference in across-track position.
Along-track (azimuth) used primarily for ocean currents information and movingobject
detection, this type utilizes a difference in the along-track position, which canbe achieved by a
small difference in acquisition time, on the order of microseconds to seconds.
Differential Interferometry (DInSAR) this method utilizes a difference in time, on theorder of
days to years, and is used primarily to observe glacier or lava flows, if the time difference is
within days. If the time difference is measured in days to years, it can be a very useful method
for studying subsidence, seismic events, volcanicactivity, or crustal displacement.
In order to distinguish cross-track from along-track interferometry is often referred to antenna
arrangements built for motion measurements.
Cross-track SAR interferometers come in two flavors:
Single-pass interferometers record the required two SAR images simultaneously by using a
transmit/receive antenna and a secondary receive antenna mounted some distance away. Repeat
pass interferometers, on the other hand, use images taken at different times, e.g. separated by
days or months.

An image of SAR interferogram is generated by cross-multiplying, pixel by pixel, the first SAR
image with the complex conjugate of the second one. Thus, the amplitude in an interferogram
image is an amplitude of the first SAR image multiplied by that of the second SAR image,
whereas its phase (the interferometric phase) is the phase difference between these two images.
InSAR technique is widely used for generating high quality digital elevation models (DEM)
from space borne and airborne data (Duy Nguyen Ba et al, 2012), due to its advantages over
other methods of generating large area DEM. InSAR is capable of producing DEMs with the
precision of a couple of ten meters whereas its movement measurements have sub-centimeters
precision. Two SAR images (an interferometric pair) are acquired in the shortest possible period
of time, in order to minimize the temporal decorrelation so that surface changes effect is
eliminated. Phase information is then transformed into height values. InSAR technique can be
very useful for DEM generation in remote areas where other sensors are not able to provide data
with a reliable accuracy.
In order to obtain SAR Interferometric data, two spatially separated antennas the physical
separation of which is called the interferometric baseline are mounted on a single platform or one
antenna is mounted on a satellite and data sets are acquired by passing the same area twice.
In the latter case, the interferometric baseline is formed by relating radar signals on repeat passes
over the target area. This approach is called repeat-pass interferometry.

2.3 MINING APPLICATIONS OF INSAR

The modern open pit and underground mining operations usually have significant areas of extent.
They can also influ-ence relatively large portions of terrain adjacent to the crest of an open pit or
above longwall or room-and-pillar extrac-tion areas. The significant extent of mining operations
is an important factor that suggests that InSAR based subsidence-monitoring techniques may be
applicable.
Initial research efforts have focused on the application of InSAR for monitoring of mining
induced subsidence over the coalfields [5]. The research suggests that the method can produce
valuable and accurate results. In the report by [ 4] authors conclude, Mining subsidence can
be detected using 35 day repeat SAR data and SAR interferometry techniques, and that this

subsidence can be measured at the very least to an accuracy of few centimetres. However, there
would appear to be a central dilemma in applying this technique. A balance needs to be found
between a usable temporal separation between images (in terms of interferogram coherence) and
allowing a suitable length of time to lapse for measurable amount of subsidence to occur.

2.4 D-InSAR (Differenial Interferometric Synthetic Aparture Radar)

In D-InSAR analysis, the component relevant to the movement or displacement (i.e. movement),
is separated from other components, namely from orbit and

topography . Atmosphere

generally not considered during D-InSAR processing but subsequently during post-processing
for suppressing or avoiding the component. Orbits is computed based on the orbit geometry of
the data pair and removed at the first step from int. topography may be obtained from a close
temporal interval InSAR data pair or simulated as synthetic phase image from a good quality
DEM of the area and subtracted from int.

2.5 Boundary detection using DEM

2.5.1 Image segmentation
Image segmentation is the process of dividing an image into regions or objects. It is the first step
in the field of image analysis. The basic idea of image segmentation is to group individual pixels
(dots in the image)
together into regions if they are similar. Similar can mean they are the same intensity (shade of
gray), form a texture, line up in a row, create a shape, etc. There are many techniques available
for image segmentation, and they vary in complexity, power, and area of application.

2.5.1.1 Histogram Based Segmentation

Histogram-based image segmentation is one of the simplest and most often used segmentation
techniques. It uses the histogram to select the gray levels for grouping pixels into regions. In a
simple image there are two entities: the background and the object. The background is generally
one gray level and occupies most of the image. Therefore, its gray level is a large peak in the
histogram. The object or subject of the image is another gray level, and its gray level is another,
smaller peak in the histogram.

there are four techniques for Histogram Based Segmentation:1. Manual technique,
2. Histogram peak technique,
3. Histogram valley technique
4. an adaptive technique.
1. Manual technique:-

In the manual technique we

inspects an image and its histogram

manually. We use different threshold value for segmentation results. this value is different for
different images.
2. Histogram peak technique:- This technique uses the peaks of the histogram. This technique
finds the two peaks in the histogram corresponding to the background and object of the image. It
sets the threshold half way between the two peaks.
3. Histogram Valley Technique:- This technique concentrates on the valley of the peaks of the
histogram. Instead of setting the mid-point arbitrarily half way between the two peaks, the valley
technique searches between the two peaks to find the lowest peaks.
4. Adaptive technique:- The final technique uses the peaks of the histogram in a first pass and
adapts itself to the objects found in the image in a second pass (Castleman 1979). In the first
pass, the adaptive technique calculates the histogram for the entire image. It smoothes the
histogram and uses the peaks technique to find the high and low threshold values.
In the second pass, the technique works on each ROWSxCOLS area of the image
individually. In each area, it segments using the high and low values found during the first pass.
Then, it calculates the mean value for all the pixels segmented into background and object. It
uses these means as new peaks and calculates new high and low threshold values for that
ROWSxCOLS area. Now, it segments that area again using the new values.

2.5.1.2 Watershed Transformation Segmentation

The watershed transformation segmentation is a powerful method used as the region based
segmentation approach. watershed transformation is applied on the gray scale image for solving
various segmentation problems as gray scale images can be considered as topographic surfaces.
Here, the intensity of a pixel is regarded as the height of the pixel.
In practice, the watershed is applied to the image gradient and the watershed lines separate
homogeneous regions, giving the desired segmentation result. The gradient image for the
transform is often found using the morphological gradient. However, noise in the gradient image
results in over-segmentation which can have a significant adverse affect on the quality of the
segmentation results. The quality of the gradient estimate has a major influence on them
segmentation performance. So the result of different gradients on watershed has been found with
the help of peak signal to noise ratio.
There are three techniques for watershed transformation segmentation:1. Distance transform approach
2. Gradient method
3. Marker controlled approach
1. Distance transform approach:- In Distance transform approach distance is measured from
every pixel to the nearest non-zero value pixel. Distance can be computed using toolbox function
bwdist as-D = bwdist(f)
A binary image can be converted to a gray level image, which is suitable for watershed
segmentation using different DT.

Input Image

Convert it into Gray Scale

Detect the edges using Prewitt/ Sobel

Operators
Calculate Gradient magnitude

Perform Morphological Operations

Calculate the regional maxima &

reconstruct the image

Superimpose this with the original

image
Clean the edge of the Segmented
image
Compute the background markers

Apply WTS

Visualize the Result

Output Image

Figure 1 Flow chart of Boundary detection by WTS

2. Gradient method:- The gradient magnitude is used to pre process a gray-scale image prior to
using the watershed transform for segmentation. The gradient magnitude image has high pixel
values along object edges and low pixel values everywhere else. Watershed transform would
result in watershed ridge lines along object edges[2].
Visualize the Result
Output Image

3. Marker controlled approach:- A marker is a connected component belonging to an image.

Markers are used to modify the gradient image. Markers are of two types internal and external,
internal for object and external for boundary[3]. The marker-controlled watershed segmentation
has been shown to be a robust and flexible method for segmentation of objects with closed
contours, where the boundaries are expressed as ridges. Markers are placed inside an object of
interest; internal markers associate with objects of interest, and external markers associate with
the background. After segmentation, the boundaries of the watershed regions are arranged on the
desired ridges, thus separating each object from its neighbors [1][3].

2.6 SAR data and processing

Dataset of ALOS PALSAR (L-Band) is used for generation of DEM so that boundary can be
detected by using HBS and WTS techniques.

Following are some keywords used in generation of DEM:1.)Baseline Estimation- it provides information about the baseline values and other InSAR
parameters of the data pair. The parameters help to access the feasibility of the pair for InSAR
processing but they are not used directly in InSAR processing.
Critical Baseline
The generation of an interferogram is only possible when the ground reflectivity acquired withat
least two antennae overlap. When the perpendicular component of the baseline (Bn)increases
beyond a limit known as the critical baseline, no phase information is preserved,coherence is
lost, and interferometry is not possible.
The critical baseline Bn, cr, can be calculated as
Bn,cr = R tan()/2Rr
where Rr is the range resolution, and is the incidence angle. In case of ERS satellites thecritical
baseline is approximately 1.1 km.

The critical baseline can be significantly reduced by surface slopes that influence the
localincidence angle.
2.)Interferogram Generation:- Two SAR images are combined to generate phase difference
image or interferogram. The interferogram is produced by multiplying a complex SAR image of
the slave image with the complex conjugate of the master image.
Interferogram is generated after coregistration of image and orbital refinement. In this project,
SRTM DEM 30 m has been used as the external DEM .
3.) Interferogram flattening:- This module performs the removal phase difference caused due
to the difference in the planimetric position over the terrain with respect to two antenna
positions. It basically subtracts the low frequency phase difference from the interferrogram.
4.) Phase Unwrapping:-

The filtered interferogram can be unwrapped by using different

approaches. The phase in an interferogram represents modulo 2. So, as the phase difference
becomes larger than 2, it gets wrapped and the phase counting starts again to repeat the cycle.
Phase unwrapping is the process that resolves this 2 ambiguity.
5.) Phase to Height Conversion and Geocoding:- In the process of DEM generation, height
calculation and geocoding are the last but essential
step. The height values are calculated from the interferometric unwrapped phase values.
The terrain height may be determined using several methods:

Normal baseline method

Integrated incidence angle method
Baseline rotation method

External DEM

Master SLC

Slave SLC

Co registration ( DEM to
Master)

Co registration (Slave to
Master)

Interferogram

Coherence

Denoise Interferogram

Phase Unwrapping

Phase to Height Conversion

Figure 2 Flow Chart of InSAR DEM generation

Chapter 3

Study Area
3.1 Geology
The Jharia coal basin is the second coalfield in the chain of Damodar Valley coalfield, roughly
elliptical in shape and extends over an area of approx. 450 sq. km. The coalfield consists of four
major sedimentary formations namely Talchir, Barakar, Barren Measures & Ranigunj. The
lowermost Talchir is devoid of any coal bearing formation and lies outside the mining area of the
coalfield. The Barakar and the Ranigunj are the only two coal bearing formations, of which the
former is exposed all along northern and north-eastern part of thesedimentary basin (Fox.1930).
In Barakar Formation, the extraction of coal is being carried out mostly by opencast method.
Thus the discontinuity between Barakar & Barren Measures is easily demarcated as two different
clusters which are not only differ from one another by its geological sequence but also in the
method of mining. Some of the underground mines situated in the central and south-eastern part
of the basins are worked in the Barakar, overlained by Barren Measures. The deposition of the
coal seams, their characteristics and nomenclature in the Barakar formation follows the sickle
shape of the coalfield, varying from WSW-ENE on the western part to E-W in the central and NS in the eastern side with a varying dip of 10-15 (Mukhopadhyay 1981).
Jamunia, Khudia, Katri, Elra Kari Jore ad Chatkari Jore are the six major river/drainage flowing
from north to south over the basin and enters into the Damodar river, which flows west to east .
All these streams are seasonal and gets dried up during the summer season. There are also some
smaller nalah/jores which are tributaries of the aforesaid streams.

3.2 Study area

Jharia coalfield is selected as a study area. It is located in Dhanbad district, the state of
Jharkhand in the eastern part of India covering about 280 square km. The geographic coordinates
of the study area are 2338'00'' to 2350'00"N latitude and 8610'00" to 8630'00" E longitude.
The coalfield is surrounded by Damodar river in the south and has more than 100 coal mines.

coal is mined by both underground and opencast methods. The coalfield has three major coal
formations which are Barakar, Berren measures and Raniganj formations.

Figure 3 Study area

3.3 Structural lineament

Lineament is an important geological feature in coal field areas, as it has an important role in
guiding mine planning and safety. In fire affected coal fields like Jharia Coalfield, the nature of
lineament-fault pattern is of particularly important to understand possible nature of fire
propagation.
The sediments of Jharia Coal Basin bears signatures of different deformational structures like
fold and faults which have a greater influence in understanding the coal mining techniques.
The basin slopes very gently (5-10) towards south near the Southern boundary, the slope of the
basin becomes steeper and then the direction reverses towards north (slope amount (20-30).
The broad structure within the basin is that of a large scale elongated doubly plunging open
syncline (Chandra & Chakraborty 1989). There are number of smaller domes and basins within
the larger structure. These are very open and somewhat elongated and trends E-W parallel to the
trend of the
major basin. On either side of the oval outcrops of the sediments, long, narrow horsts of precambriangniess are exposed with the basin itself. The most important are Dugda high and Durma
inlier in the north-east and the Pathardih high in the east.
The Gondwana sediments are in the nature of tectonic troughs, placed linearly and having faulted
boundaries. Often the magnitude of down throw of the faulted boundaries varies greatly resulting
in the strata dipping towards the faults with a E-W trend and the strata dip towards the southern
boundary is itself a fault, called the Southern Boundary Fault (Fox, 1930).

3.4 Faults
Southern Boundary Fault :
Most prominent fault, trending roughly WNW-ESE along the southern edge of the basin, and is
not a single fracture line but a zone of parallel fractures. A number of interbasinal faults, which
are both inter and intraformational in nature, have been identified. The fault angle varies from
45- 65 with the horizontal, and throw in all cases are normal (Sengupta,1980).
The important among these are :
(1) E-W trending fault system
(2) NW-SE and NNW-SSE trending faults
(3) NE-SW fault systems
(4) Low angle faults
The low angle normal faults have been encountered in Sudamdih mine. The faults have varying
through ranging from a few centimeters to more than 50 metres (Sengupta, 1980). These low
angle faults in the Sudamdih area have created problems in mining. From the surface and
subsurface data now available it is quite evident that all the major faults of the Jharia basin were
initiated as contemporaneous faults. Many of the major contemporaneous faults developed in
short segments and extended their strike lengths in subsequent times (Ghosh and Mukhopadhyay,
1985). The major intra-basinal contemporaneous faults of the Jharia basin occur in systems of
close spaced, nearly parallel faults which sometime branch into two to three forks, some of
which may coalesce again.

3.5 Coal Reserve & Resources

Coal resources of India are being continuously unveiled through systematic exploration.
Geological Survey of India (GSI) is carrying out the task of updating the National Inventory for
Coal since 1972 following the ISP norms, which was first formulated in 1956 and modified later.
Year wise updating of the inventory is being done since 1988 by meaningful compilation of
subsurface data accrued from regional as well as detailed exploration carried out by GSI, Central
Mine Planning and Design Institute, Singareni collieries Company Limited, Mineral Exploration
Corporation Limited and different state Government Agencies. Accordingly the inventory was
finalized as on 01.01.2007 and the total geological coal resource of the country was estimated to
be 2,55,172.4 million tonnes. In pursuance ofthe decision of the 44th sub-committee meeting on
Energy Minerals (Gr. III of CGPB), henceforth the National Inventory of Coal will be updated
financial year wise from 2008 onwards and will be published on 1st May of each year.

State wise distribution of Indian coal shows that Jharkhand tops the list with 74.4 billiontonne
(b.t) followed successively by Orissa (63.2 b.t), Chattisgarh (41.6 b,t), West Bengal (28.3
b.t),Madhya Pradesh (20.3 b.t), Andhra Pradesh (17.7 b.t) and others.
State
Jharkhand
Orrisa
Chhatishgarh
West Bengal
Madhya Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Maharashtra

Resource (In Million Tonne)

74392.15
63233.58
41450.48
28334.84
20346.23
17714.46
9669.53

Table 1 Statewise break up of Indian Coal resource (figures in million tonne) BCCL
report :2015

3.6 Mining scenario

Jharia coalfield has about 100 years history of coal mining and has 40 seams in Barakar and
10seams in Ranigunj measures (Saxena & Singh 1980).
The present day mining situation in the coalfield is briefly described below:
1. Old workings - The yester-year mining practices in the field have left a legacy of
unapproachable abandoned underground mine workings standing on small pillars in a large
number of places. With the passage of time these workings have become waterlogged and the
accurate mine plans are generally not available. Many of these workings are below and by the
side of important surface properties. About a dozen of the unapproachable old workings have
subsided in recent past causing severe damages on the surface in the form of wide - cracks, large
depressions, sinkholes (potholes),blockage of roads and rails, damage to buildings and other
surface properties. The main characteristics of these subsidences were that - indications on the
surface are seen only a few hours in advance, they do not follow any pattern, they cause marked
depressions with wide cracks and steppings, and they are associated with rumbling sound.
2. Extraction thickness - Generally seams less than 1.2m in thickness are considered unworkable.
The maximum extraction thickness may be upto 4.8m in one lift. In case of multi-lift and multisection mining the extraction has been up to about 12m.
3. Depth - The underground workings in the coalfield are generally at depths less than 250m.
Only about 20% of the workings are at greater depths. The maximum depths of the workings
may be around 500m while the minimum may be about 15m.
4. Multi-seam extraction - As stated earlier there are 40 coal seams in Barakar measures and 10
in Ranigunj measures in the coalfield and the total thickness of seams is on average 12% of coal
measures. In these conditions almost everywhere multi-seam mining has been done. In some
situations two or three seams are standing on developed pillars.
5. Multi-section extraction - The maximum thickness of coal seams in the coalfield is around
20m. In the seams, more than 6-7m in thickness, multi-section development has been extensively
done on room and pillar pattern. Suitable methods of exploitation of the thick seams developed
in two to three sections are being looked for.
6. Method of underground extraction - About 80% of production from underground mining is
obtained by board and pillar system and the remaining 20% from long wall mining.

7. Percentage of extraction - The percentage of extraction from the panels in workings without
long wall system varied greatly from about 60 to 80 in both caving and stowing cases.

3.7 Data Used

Data Type
ALOS PALSAR
LISS IV
Cartosat DEM

Date
23-12-09 & 26-12-2010

Purpose
For delineation of mines

2011
2011

boundaries by MATLAB
For Classification of data
For
delineation
of
boundaries by MATLAB

Table 2 DATA Used in project

3.7.1 SAR data

ALOS PALSAR ( Advanced Land Observing Satellite Phase Array type L- band Synthetic
Aperture Radar) is a sensor which can operate at four primary modes with different polarizations
and off-nadir angles:

High resolution single polarization (FBS) mode

High resolution dual polarization (FBD) mode
Fully polarimeric (PLR) mode and
Scan SAR mode

The ALOS data pair used in this study for generating a DEM is of FBS mode, processing level
1.1 is shown in following table:Characteristics
Sensor Mode
Frequency
Wavelength

ALOS PALSAR
Strip map
1.27 GHz
23.62 cm (L band)

Incidence angle
Polarization
Acquisition date

34.3
HH
23/12/2009 & 26/12/2010
Table 3 Characteristics of ALOS PALSAR data

3.7.2 Optical Data

LISS IV data is used to perform land use land cover classification. LISS IV is produced by a high
resolution multi-spectral camera operating in three bands (Green, Red, NIR).
Satellite Name

Resourcesat -2

Sensor

LISS IV

Bands

B2 (0.52-0.59 nm)
B3 (0.62-0.68 nm)

Spatial Resolution

B4 (0.77-0.86 nm)
5.8 m

Acquisition Date

09/12/2011

Table 4 Characteristics of Optical Data

3.7.3 Software used

Softwares
ENVI 5.1
SARscape 5.0
MATLAB R2015a
ArcGIS 10.1

Purpose
Optical data processing and
Classification
InSAR Processing
Boundary detection and segmentation
Analysis and Map composition
Table 5 Softwares used

Chapter 4
Methodology
In this study InSAR derived Digital Elevation Model (DEM) using ALOS
PALSAR and Cartosat DEM were used to perform Histogram Based and
Watershed Transform Segmentation to detect opencast mine boundaries. LISS IV
optical data was used to classify the Jharia mining area using Maximum Liklihood
approach. The opencast mine boundaries extracted using HBS and WTS
techniques were overlaid over the LISS IV classified map. In the Figure below, the
overall methodology is shown below:-

Figure 4 Methodology Flowchart

4.1 SAR data processing

Two InSAR pair are used for generation of DEM.
A satellite SAR can observe the same area from slightly different look angles. This can be done
either simultaneously (with two radars mounted on the same platform) or at different times by
exploiting repeated orbits of the same satellite.
The distance between the two satellites (or orbits) in the plane perpendicular to the orbit is called
the interferometer baselineand its projection perpendicular to the slant range is the perpendicular
baseline.

4.1.1 Baseline estimation

In order to preserve phase information along with coherence, the perpendicular component
(Bperp) of the baseline must be less than a limit known as the critical baseline.
The critical baseline is calculated as shown below:Bcrtical = R tan ()
2Rr
where
is the wavelength of radiation.
R is the range distance.
Rr is the pixel spacing in range.
is the incidence angle.
To be sure that the interferogram generation is possible it is required to check the
perpendicular component (Normal Baseline) of the baseline is less than the critical.
Following table shows the baseline information of ALOS PALSAR data:Parameter
Normal Baseline
Critical Baseline
Time Baseline

ALOS PALSAR Data

638.50 m
13047.025 m
48 days
Table 6 Parameter for Baseline Estimation

4.1.2 Interferogram generation

The interferometric phase is expressed as follows:Phase = tan [Imaginary(I)/ Real(I)].....................1.2

where Imag(I) and Real(I) are the imaginary and real parts of the interferogram
respectively. During the interferogram generation spectral shift and common doppler
bandwidth filtering are performed. As the SAR viewing angle varies in the range
direction it causes the range spectra shift which is solved by performing the spectral shift.
Doppler bandwidth filtering is performed to compensate for different Doppler (squint
angles) which produce shifted azimuth spectra.
An image of SAR interferogram is genearted by cross-multiplying, pixel by pixel, the
first SAR image with the complex conjugate of the second one. Thus, the amplitude in an
interferogram image is an amplitude of the first SAR image multiplied by that of the
second SAR image whereas its phase is the phase difference between these two images.
int = flat + topo + mov + atmos + noise
Equation of interferogram
An interferogarm phase (int) obtained by combining two complex SAR images is
contributed by different components namely, the flat-earth component related to range
distance differences of flat topography (flat), the topographic phase (topo), the
contribution due to ground displacement occuring between two SAR image acquisitions,
measured along line of sight (mov), the phase component due to atmospheric
disturbances or artifacts (atmos) and the contribution due to the remaining noise
sources(noise). A flattened interferogram is generated with (flat) removed by simulating
the satellite geometry and topo removed by providing an external DEM. SRTM DEM
with 30 m spatial resolution was used as an input external DEM file.
The flattened interferogram is filtered to genearte an output product with the phase noise
reduced. The interferometric Coherence image is also generated.

Interferogram Coherence:- The pixel value of a coherence images lies between 0 and
1. The 1 pixel value of a coherence image shows the total correlation and if its value lies
near to zero then it shows total decorelation.
The bright patches in coherence image will be areas of high coherence between the two
images while the dark patches indicate areas where the coherence between the two
images is comparatively low.

4.1.3 Interferogram flattening

Interferogram flattening is a process in which the phase obtained by a surface of constant
elevation on a spherical earth is removed[7]. Thus, only the fringes contributed by the
topographic terrain exist in the flattened interferogram.

4.1.4 Phase unwrapping

It is the method of adding the correct multiple of 2pi to the interferometric phase for each pixel
[6.]. The phase estimates contained in an interferogram are wrapped in the 0-2pi interval which
leads to 2pi ambiguity. This 2pi ambiguity is resolved by the phase unwrapping process.

4.1.5 Orbital Refinement fitting parameters

This step is crucial for a correct transformation of the unwrapped phase information into height
values. It allows both to refine the orbits (i.e. correcting possible inaccuracies) and to calculate
the phase offset (i.e. getting the absolute phase values), or remove possible phase ramps.
The execution of this step is mandatory for Digital Elevation Model generation.

Parameter

A-priori achievable RMS

Orbital shift in X direction
Orbital shift in Y direction
Orbital shift in Z direction
Absolute phase offset
RMS error
Mean difference between SRDEM and
SAR DEM
Standard Deviation between SRDEM

ALOS PALSAR
8.0 m
0.17 m
-0.13 m
-0.50 m
-23.43 rad
5.96 m
30.00 m
13.60 m

and SAR DEM

Table 7 Optical Refinement fitting parameters

4.1.6 Phase to Height Conversion and Geocoding

The absolute calibrated and unwrapped phase is re-combined with the synthetic phase and it is
converted to height and geocoded into map projection. This step is performed by considering the
Range-Doppler approach and the related geodetic and cartographic transformations. The RangeDoppler equations are applied simultaneously to the two antenna, making it possible to obtain
not only the height of each pixel, but also its location (Easting, Northing) in a given cartographic
and geodetic reference system.

Figure 5 DEM OF ALOS PALSAR DATA

4.2 Mine Boundary detection using HBS & WTS

4.2.1 Watershed Transform Segmentation (WTS)
The watershed transform algorithm partitions a gray scale image into regions, which can be
considered as 'catchment basins'. In this case each of these regions are determined by local
minima height values. Therefore, WTS detects opencast mines as separate watersheds.
Some morphological operations have been performed on the DEM images to
avoid over segmentation, which happens when performing the WTS directly on the DEM
images.

Figure 6 WTS implemented directly on DEM derived from ALOS DEM

The marker controlled watershed segmentation was chosen to be performed on the DEM images.
The method of segmentation is as follows:a) Compute a segmentation function. An image is modified so that dark regions are the
objects we are trying to segment.
b) Compute foreground markers. These markers are connected blobs of poxels within each
of the objects.
c) Compute background markers. Background markers are pixels which are not part of any
object.

d) Modify the segmentation function used at the first step so that it only has minima at the
foreground and background marker locations.
e) And finally, compute the watershed transform of the modified segmentation function.
1. The gradient magnitude was used as a segmentation function.
Morphological operations used are:- Erosion- to improve small anomalies by subtracting the objects with a radius smaller
than the SE ( Structuring Element)
- Reconstruction- to reconstruct the eroded image
- Dilation- to fill in the holes and broken areas that are separated by spaces smaller than
the SE.
- Complement- to complement the image after morphological operations.

ALOS DEM

Cartosat
DEM
Figure 7 Erosion with a disk structuring element and radius equal to 10 pixels

ALOS DEM

Cartosat
DEM

Figure 8 Opening- closing by Reconstruction

ALOS
DEM

Cartosat
DEMOperation
Figure 9 Image Complement

2.Foreground markers are computed by using regional minima function on the image
complement. The Regional Minima Function will detect mines.
3. Marking the background in the image resulted from the image complement function.
This is done by converting the image into a binary image based on the threshold value.
4.The gradient image obtained at the first step was modified using the foreground and
background markers.
5. The WTS was performed on the modified image.

Figure 10 Marker Controlled Watershed Transformation Segmentation of ALOS DEM

Figure 11 Marker Controlled Watershed Transformation Segmentation of Cartosat DEM

4.2.2 Histogram Based Segmentation (HBS)

The histogram based segmentation partitions the image into different regions
which are same according to some predefined criteria. A threshold value is required
to perform the HBS.
Throughout the study area five different mining sites are selected. For each of
the five selected mining sites a threshold value is selected after attempting different
threshold value. The one which gives the best shape detection has been chosen.

Choosing different threshold value is required to consider the variation of elevation

over the study area as a threshold value is nothing but the height value. Thus, with
the elevation varying throughout the study area one threshold value one threshold
value can detect mines which comprise it in the range of their boundary height
values, while the other mines cannot be detected with the same threshold value.
The HBS is performed for the five mining sites on the Cartosat DEM and
InSAR derived ALOS PALSAR DEM.

Threshold value
Coal Mining Area

1.

Block II Proj. Area

2.

Katras area west

Cartosat DEM

ALOS PALSAR DEM

0.25

0.2

0.27

0.3

3
.

Katers Area East

0.23

0.3

4
.

Bastacolla Area

0.25

0.25

5
.

Western Jharia Area

0.20

0.3

Table 8 HBS threshold value for Cartosat and ALOS PALSAR DEM

Chapter 5
Results and Discussion
5.1 LISS IV classified map
In the classified result of LISS IV data most of the classes are properly
classified as coal mines. Most of the opencast mining area are classified
properly but it can be noticed that the opencast mine boundaries are not
clearly detectable.

Figure 12 Classified map of Jharia Coal Field

5.2 Histogram Based Segmentation

The HBS results (binary images) of each five mining sites of the Cartosat
and InSAR derived ALOS PALSAR were mosaicked. The mosaicked
image then was converted to polygons. Mine boundaries detected using HBS
from Cartosat DEM and ALOS DEM is shown in figures below. It is
observed that the open cast mine boundary is clearly detected using HBS
from Cartosat DEM.

Figure 13 HBS performed on Cartosat DEM

Figure 14 HBS result on ALOS DEM

5.3 Watershed Transformation Segmentation

The resultant image after WTS performed on DEM is converted into polygons. The obtained
polygons are overlaid on the classified LISS IV data and those polygons are discarded which do
not overlay opencast mines. Figure below shows the WTS results performed on DEM of cartosat
and ALOS DEM. Mine boundaries detected from all the DEMs using WTS have shown
comparable results.

Figure 15 WTS performed on Cartosat DEM

Figure 16 WTS performed on ALOS DEM

5.4 Overlay of classified map with mine boundaries

The LISS IV classified data is masked using the Jharia coal basin area. All the results obtained
using HBS and WTS from all the DEMs are overlaid to the classified data to make a comparative
analysis.

The figure below shows the HBS and WTS boundaries from ALOS PALSAR INSAR DEM
overlaid over the LISS IV classified map.

Figure 17 ALOS WTS ON CLASSIFIED MAP

Figure 18 ALOS HBS MAP ON CLASSIFIED MAP

Figure 19 HBS and WTS detected mines on classified data

Cartosat DEM:The figure below shows the HBS and WTS boundaries from Cartosat DEM overlaid over the
LISS IV classified map.

Figure 20 Mines detected by HBS on Classified map

Figure 21 Mines detected by WTS on Classified map

Figure 22 HBS and WTS results on classified map

5.5 Validation on Google Earth

5.5.1 ALOS PALSAR DATA
Google earth is used for validation of mine boundaries detected by HBS
and WTS technique. Mine boundaries map are converted into kml files
and then opened it into google earth for validation of data.

Figure 23 Google earth image with ALOS data

5.5.2 Cartosat DATA

In this, cartosat data is opened in google earth for validation of mines
boundaries. it can be observed that both HBS and WTS shows same
results.

Figure 24 Google earth image with cartosat data

Chapter 6
Conclusion and Recommendation
6.1 Conclusion
Opencast mine boundaries are detected properly from Cartosat DEM using both
Histogram Based Segmentation and Watershed Transformation Segmentation
techniques.

Opencast mines boundaries are detected using Watershed

Transformation Segmentation has shown better results in comparison with
Histogram Based Segmentation technique from the DEMs obtained using ALOS
PALSAR and Cartosat DEM. With decr easing of spatial resolution performance of
HBS abruptly decreases while the performance of WTS remains good which
means that the WTS is more robust against spatial resolution dependence than the
HBS technique.

6.2 Recommendation
Spatial resolution of SAR data is an important factor to obtain accurate
boundaries. It is recommended to perform the HBS and WTS technique on DEM
derived from INSAR of less than 10 m spatial resolution (TerraSAR-X).
The boundaries extracted from the result of Watershed Transformation
Segmentation have strong dependence on the structuring element used to perform
the morphological operations. The WTS results can be improved by attempting
different shape and radius parameters for the structuring element. In this study the
parameters of the structuring element were the disk shape and the radius of 10.
Shapes such as diamond, line, octagon etc. can be used.

Chapter 7
References
1.) Rafael C. Gonzalez and Richard E. Woods, Digital Image Processing, Prentice-Hall, 2002,
pp. 617-620.
2.) Jackway PT. Gradient watersheds in morphological scale space,1999, IEEE Trans Image
Proc 5:913-21

3.) N. Lu, X. Z. Ke A Segmentation Method Based on Gray-Scale Morphological Filter and

Watershed Algorithm for Touching Objects Image, Fourth International Conference on Fuzzy
Systems and Knowledge Discovery (FSKD 2007).
4.) Stow, R. J., Wright P., (1997) Mining Subsidence Land Surveying by SAR Interferometry, 3rd
ERS

SYMPO-SIUM

Florence

97

Abstracts

and

Papers,

Available:

http://earth.esa.int/symposia/papers/ [2002, June 30].

5.) Perski, Z., Krawczyk, A., (2000) Application of Satellite Radar Interferometry on the Areas of
Underground Exploitation of Copper ore in LGOM Poland, 11th International Congress of the
International Society for Mine Surveying, Krakow, Poland, Vol.2, pp. 209-218.
6.) Tanvi Rajput, M.Sc. thesis(2011). Satellite- derived digital topography -based crater boundary
detection and attribute measurements by segmentation and moments measure techniques.

Appendix
1. Cartosat DEM Histogram Based Segmentation MATLAB Code
----------------------------------------------carto_dem_hbs---------------------------------------------------[c, c_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_u1');
graythresh(c)
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.25);
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_output\cartoimg_u1',
hs_c, c_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[c, c_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_u5');
graythresh(c)

hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.25);

figure, imshow(hs_c), title('th=0.25');
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_output\cartoimg_u5',
hs_c, c_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[c, c_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_u6');
graythresh(c)
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.25);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('t=0.25');
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.21);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('t=0.21');
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.23);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('t=0.23');
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_output\cartoimg_u6',
hs_c, c_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[c, c_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_u13');
graythresh(c)
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.25);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('th=0.25');
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_output\cartoimg_u13',
hs_c, c_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[c, c_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_u14');
graythresh(c)
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.25);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('th=0.25');
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.21);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('th=0.21');
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.18);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('th=0.18');
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.115);
hs_c = im2bw(c, 0.15);
figure, imshow(hs_c), title('th=0.15');
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\carto\hbs\carto_hbs_output\cartoimg_u14',
hs_c, c_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);

B. InSAR derived ALOS PALSAR DEM Histogram Based Segmentation MATLAB Code
---------------------------------------------------------alos_dem_hbs-----------------------------------------[an1, an1_r] = geotiffread('----------------------alos\hbs\alos_hbs_u1');
graythresh(an1)
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.3);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.3');
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.25);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.25');
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.2);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.2');
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_output\alosimg_u1', hs_an1,
an1_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[an1, an1_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_u5');
graythresh(an1)

hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.3);

figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.3');
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.25);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.25');
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.3);
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_output\alosimg_u5', hs_an1,
an1_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[an1, an1_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_u6');
graythresh(an1)
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.3);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.3');
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_output\alosimg_u6', hs_an1,
an1_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[an1, an1_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_u13');
graythresh(an1)
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.3);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.3');
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.27);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.27');
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.25);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.25');
geotiffwrite('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_output\alosimg_u13',
hs_an1, an1_r, 'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);
[an1, an1_r] = geotiffread('E:\pilot_project\!!march9\alos\hbs\alos_hbs_u14');
graythresh(an1)
hs_an1 = im2bw(an1, 0.3);
figure, imshow(hs_an1), title('th=0.3');
geotiffwrite('-----------------------alos\hbs\alos_hbs_output\alosimg_u14', hs_an1, an1_r,
'CoordRefSysCode', CoordRefSysCode);

C. Cartosat DEM Watershed Transformation Segmentation MATLAB Code

-------------------------------------------------carto_dem_wts--------------------------------[a, r] = geotiffread('-----------------------\carto\carto_dem');
hy = fspecial('sobel');
hx = hy';
iy = imfilter(double(a), hy, 'replicate');
ix = imfilter(double(a), hx, 'replicate');
gr_mag = sqrt(ix.^2 + iy.^2);
se = strel ('disk', 10);
ie = imerode(a, se);
obr = imreconstruct(ie, a);
obrd = imdilate(obr, se);
obrcbr = imreconstruct(imcomplement(obrd), imcomplement(obr));
obrcbr = imcomplement(obrcbr);

fgm = imregionalmin(obrcbr);
figure, imshow(fgm), title('carto file dem reg minima strel=10');
graythresh(obrcbr)
bw = im2bw(obrcbr, 0.3);
figure, imshow(bw), title('th = 0.3');
d = bwdist(bw);
dl = watershed(d);
figure, imshow(dl), title('watershed of eucl dist of carto file dem');
bgm = dl==0;
figure, imshow(bgm), title('watershed of eucl dist is 0');
se2 = strel(ones(1,1));
fgm2 = imclose(fgm, se2);
fgm3 = imerode(fgm2, se2);
fgm4 = bwareaopen(fgm3, 10);
gr_mag2 = imimposemin(gr_mag, bgm | fgm4);
l = watershed(gr_mag2);
figure, imshow(gr_mag2), title('grad mag, bg markers | fgm4 for carto file dem');
figure, imshow(l), title('watershed on gr_mag2');
a_out = imdilate(l==0, ones(1,1));
figure, imshow(a_out), title('watershed transform bounds on carto file dem');
CoordRefSysCode = 32645;
geotiffwrite('---------------------\carto\wts\carto_file_wts', a_out, r, 'CoordRefSysCode',
CoordRefSysCode);

D. InSAR derived ALOS PALSAR DEM Watershed Transformation Segmentation

MATLAB Code
-------------------------------------------------------------------alos_dem_wts------------------------------------------[a, r] = geotiffread('-------------------------------\alos\alos_dem');
a(isnan(a)) = 0;
hy = fspecial('sobel');
hx = hy';
iy = imfilter(double(a), hy, 'replicate');
ix = imfilter(double(a), hx, 'replicate');
gr_mag = sqrt(ix.^2 + iy.^2);
se = strel ('disk', 10);
ie = imerode(a, se);
obr = imreconstruct(ie, a);
obrd = imdilate(obr, se);
obrcbr = imreconstruct(imcomplement(obrd), imcomplement(obr));
obrcbr = imcomplement(obrcbr);

fgm = imregionalmin(obrcbr);
figure, imshow(fgm), title('alos file dem reg minima strel=10');
graythresh(obrcbr);
bw = im2bw(obrcbr, 0.27);
figure, imshow(bw), title('alos file dem th = 0.27');
d = bwdist(bw);
dl = watershed(d);
figure, imshow(dl), title('watershed of eucl dist of alos file dem');
bgm = dl==0;
figure, imshow(bgm), title('watershed of eucl dist is 0');
se2 = strel(ones(1,1));
fgm2 = imclose(fgm, se2);
fgm3 = imerode(fgm2, se2);
fgm4 = bwareaopen(fgm3, 10);
i = a;
gr_mag2 = imimposemin(gr_mag, bgm | fgm4);
l = watershed(gr_mag2);
figure, imshow(gr_mag2), title('grad mag, bg markers | fgm4');
figure, imshow(l), title('watershed on gr_mag2');
a_out = imdilate(l==0, ones(1,1));
figure, imshow(a_out), title('watershed transform bounds');
CoordRefSysCode = 32645;
geotiffwrite('---------------------------alos\wts\alos_file_wts', a_out, r, 'CoordRefSysCode',
CoordRefSysCode);