ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY

AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN

HARD ROCK TERRAIN OF JETPUR TALUKA,
RAJKOT DISTRICT, GUJARAT

A Dissertation Submitted to
KSKV Kachchh UNIVERSITY
For the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GEOLOGY

Under Guidance of Submitted by :

Dr. K.M. Nayak Suraj Gogoi
Scientist-B Registration Id:
CGWB, Ahmedabad ED212OUD06100036

P.G. DEPARTMENT OF
GEOLOGY KSKV KACHCHH
UNIVERSITY, BHUJ-370001,
GUJARAT

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take an opportunity to thank Shri. G. Krishnamurthy, Regional

Director, CGWB, West Central Region, Ahmedabad, Gujarat for offering
opportunity of detailed study to carry out my Dissertation along with CGWB.

I am very much delighted to express my deep sense of gratitude and regards to

my respected Dr. M. G. Thakkar, Professor & Head in Geology, Dr.G.
Chauhan, Asst Professor in Geology, KSKVK University, Bhuj, Kachchh, for
recommendation to work in CGWB, Ahmedabad for my Dissertation. Their
valuable and meticulous guidance and support during the study which inspired me
immensely in timely completion of this work.

I am also grateful to, Shri Ramesh Jena, Scientist C, Shri.Ankit

Vishwakarma, Scientist C, Shri Himesh Pandya, Scientist C, CGWB, Ahmedabad
for their efforts for facilitating the technical guidance to carry out the
dissertation work in CGWB, Ahmedabad.

I am also grateful to, Shri N. Veerababu, Scientist B (Geophysics), CGWB,

Ahmedabad for his help in carrying out the geophysical survey and inter
pretation to carry out the dissertation work in CGWB, Ahmedabad.

I am deeply thankful to Dr.H.B. Meena, Asst Chemist, OIC Regional Chemical

Lab and all other scientists of chemical team for guidance and timely analysis of
the water samples of the Jam Kandorna taluka.

Also I like to extend my gratitude to Shri Nileshkumar K Dhokia Draftsman,

for suggested map preparation.

I would like to extend my gratitude to my Guide Dr.K.M.Nayak, Scientist-B,

OIC Exploration, under whom, I actually carryout the dissertation. Over all
guidance, suggestion and the filed work carry out under his guidance and the help
and co-operation for the preparation of Dissertation is greatly recognizable.

The help and co-operation of all Scientists and staffs of CGWB, WCR,
Ahmedabad is greatly recognizable.

Last but not the least, I express my deep sense of gratitude to my family
members for their inexpressible help and encouragement.

Suraj Gogoi

Regd.No. E2120UD06100036

i
 ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION IN HARD ROCK TERRAIN OF JETPUR TALUKA, RAJKOT
DISTRICT, GUJARAT

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….1

1.1 INTRODUCTION: ..................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY: ..................................................................................................... 2

1.3 CLIMATE: ................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.4 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SET UP ............................................................................................................. 5

1.4.1: Drainage Pattern and River Subsidiary: ................................................................................................5
1.4.2 Soil Type: ......................................................................................................................................................9

1.5 METHOD OF STUDIES: ......................................................................................................................... 9

1.5.1 Geological Data Collection:.........................................................................................................................9
1.5.2 Hydrological Data collection .....................................................................................................................9
1.5.3 Water Sample Collection .........................................................................................................................10
1.5.4: Analytical work in Laboratory ...............................................................................................................10

2 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………14

2.1 GEOLOGICAL SET UP OF THE AREA: .............................................................................................. 14

2.1.1 SURFACE GEOLOGY .................................................................................................................................14
2.1.2 SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY ........................................................................................................................16

2.2 Hydrogeology of the Area .................................................................................................................... 18

2.3 Behaviour of water level .............................................................................................................................19

3 HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22

3.1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 22

3.2 EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL PARAMETER: .................................................................................... 22

3.2.1 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) ...........................................................................................................22
3.2.2 Specific Electrical Conductance (EC) ..................................................................................................23
3.2.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) .................................................................................................................23

3.3 Evaluation of Chemical Parameters: ................................................................................................... 24

ii
 3.3.1 Total Alkalinity: .........................................................................................................................................25
3.3.2 Total Hardness: .........................................................................................................................................25
3.3.3 Common Cations: .......................................................................................................................................26
3.3.4 Common Anions (SO4 --, Cl- , HCO3 - , CO3 --, F--,NO3__) .............................................................28
Nitrate concentration of the samples ...........................................................................................................30

3.4 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDWATER ............................................... 33

3.4.1 Based on T.D.S. Value ...............................................................................................................................33
3.4.2 Based on Hardness ...................................................................................................................................35
3.4.3 Based on Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) ...........................................................................................37
3.4.4 Based on Sodium Percentage (%Na) .....................................................................................................37
3.4.5 Permeability Index (P.I.).........................................................................................................................38
3.4.6 Potential Soil Salinity (P.S.) .............................................................................................................................38
3.4.7 Residual Sodium Carbonate (R.S.C.)......................................................................................................39
3.4.8 Hydro-geochemical Facies ......................................................................................................................40

3.5 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CHEMICAL DATA ............................................................... 41

3.5.1 Gibbs’ diagram ............................................................................................................................................41
3.5.2 Diagram for classification of irrigation water (by Richards 1954) ..............................................43
3.5.3 Classification of groundwater by Wilcox (1955) ...............................................................................44
3.5.4 Piper’s Tri linear Diagram .......................................................................................................................45

3.6 QUALITY CRITERIA FOR GROUNDWATER USE .......................................................................... 46

3.6.1 Domestic Purpose ......................................................................................................................................46
3.6.2 Irrigation Use............................................................................................................................................46
3.6.3 Industrial Purpose ....................................................................................................................................47

3.7 Factor’s controlling groundwater quality ............................................................................................ 47

4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………49

REFERENCE ...................................................................................................................................................... 51

iii
LIST OF TABLES

Table No Description Page No

1.1 Year wise rainfall data of Jetpur Taluka 4
1.2 Monthly wise rainfall data of Jetpur Taluka 5
1.3 Detailed location of the samples 11
1.4 Physical and Chemical parameters 13
2.1 Interpreted results of VES carried out at Jetpur 18
3.1 pH of the collected samples 23
3.2 Physical parameter of collected water samples 24
3.3 Chemical parameter of collected water sample 26
3.4 Concentration of major cations in collected water sample 26
3.5 Concentration of major anions in water sample 28
3.6 TDS Classification of the samples 33
3.7 Hardness classification 33
3.8 SAR classification 35
3.9 Class of water based on Na% 37
3.10 PSS of the collected samples 38
3.11 RSC Classification 39
3.12 The Quality of Groundwater in terms of Ion ratio 39
3.13 Hydro-Geochemical Facies 40
3.14 Indian Standard Institution (1983) 46
3.15 Chemical quality of water for Incrustation & Corrosion 47

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No Description Page No

1.1 Location map of Jetpur Taluka 3
1.2 Drainage map of Jetpur Taluka 6
1.3 Soil Texture map of Jetpur Taluka 7
1.4 Geomorphologic of Jetpur Taluka 8
1.5 Location of the samples on the Index map 12
2.1 Geology map of Jetpur Taluka 15
2.2 Geo-Physical investigation of Jetpur Taluka 17
2.3 Water Level depth map of Jetpur Taluka 20
2.4 Water Table contour map of Jetpur Taluka 21
3.1 Fluoride Concentration map of Jetpur Taluka 31
3.2 Nitrate Concentration map of Jetpur Taluka 32
3.3 TDS Map of Jetpur Taluka 34

iv
 3.4 Hardness map of Jetpur Taluka 36
3.5(a) Gibbs Diagram for Cations 42
3.5(b) Gibbs Diagram for Anions 42
3.6 US Salinity Diagram of Jetpur Taluka 43
3.7 Wilcox Diagram of Jetpur Taluka 44
3.8 Pipers Tri linear Diagram of Jetpur Taluka 45

v
CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Groundwater is water that is located beneath the Earth's surface in soil and
rocks. It is a vital natural resource that is essential for sustaining ecosystems,
supporting human livelihoods, and driving economic growth. Here are some of the
ways in which groundwater is important:

Drinking water:

Groundwater is a major source of drinking water for many communities around

the world, particularly in rural areas where other sources of water may be
scarce or contaminated. Groundwater is often cleaner and more reliable than
surface water sources such as rivers and lakes.Groundwater provides about 85%
of rural drinking water and 50% of urban drinking water in India. (Source:
Central Ground Water Board)

Irrigation:

Groundwater is used extensively for irrigation in agriculture, which is essential

for producing food and supporting livelihoods. In many regions, groundwater is
the only reliable source of water for irrigation.Groundwater supports over 60%
of irrigated agriculture in India, which accounts for about 18% of the country's
GDP. (Source: NITI Aayog)

Industrial use:

Groundwater is also used in many industrial processes, such as cooling and

manufacturing. It is often preferred over surface water sources because it is
cleaner and more consistent in quality.According to the Central Ground Water
Board's assessment, industries consume about 7% of the total groundwater
extracted in India. Industries are the major users of groundwater, leading to
depletion and contamination of aquifers. The industrial sectors that are most
dependent on groundwater include textiles, chemicals, paper and pulp, and food
processing.

1
Climate resilience:

Groundwater can help communities and ecosystems adapt to climate change by

providing a reliable source of water in times of drought or other extreme
weather events. Groundwater can also help to recharge surface water sources
during periods of low rainfall.

Groundwater is a vital natural resource that supports hum human well-being and
the natural world. It is essential for drinking water, irrigation, ecosystem
support, industrial use, and climate resilience. However, sustainable management
is needed to ensure its continued availability and benefits for future
generations. Groundwater management requires a holistic approach that
balances the needs of people, the environment, and the economy.

Doing a dissertation in groundwater can offer numerous benefits. Firstly, it

provides an opportunity to gain deep knowledge and understanding of
groundwater, its behaviour, and its importance. Secondly, it allows for practical
and hands-on experience in research, data collection, and analysis. Thirdly, it
provides a platform to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field
of groundwater, which can have significant implications for water management.
Fourthly, it can lead to potential career opportunities in the field of
hydrogeology, water resource management, or environmental consulting. Finally,
it can also develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills,
which are highly valued in various fields.

Jetpur a Taluka, Rajkot District of Gujarat with total area of 678 km². It is
comprise of total of 46 villages and 2 towns under its administration. According
to census 2011 this Taluka has a population of 2, 47,140peoples and has a
population density of 364.8 inhabitants per square kilometre. There are about
50,619 houses in the sub-district.

1.2 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY:

Jetpur Taluka is located 69 KM towards South from District headquarter
Rajkot and 306 km from State capital Gandhinagar. The nearest Railway station
is Navagadh and nearest Airport is Keshod Airport. The village is easily
accessible by both road andbus through NH151 [Jetpur-Junagadh Highway]
passes through the middle of the village. The main bus stand the village is the
GSRTC - Jetpur ST Bus Stop from where all other part of the Rajkot is well
connected.

2
Figure 1.1: Location map of Jetpur Taluka

3
It is 69 km away from district headquarters, Rajkot via NH27 and 306km from
state capital Gandhinagar via NH27 and NH47.

Jetpur lies under the GPS co-ordinates of 21°57'57.23‖N and 21°36'21.68‖N

Longitudes and 70°29'35.71’’E and 70°50.05.02E’’ Latitudes. It is bounded by
Dhoraji and Jetpur Taluka in West; Amreli district in the East; Gondal Taluka in
the North; and Junagadh District in the South

1.3 CLIMATE:
The climate of Jetpur is tropical, with a rainy season from mid-June to
September, due to the monsoon, and a dry season from October to mid-June. Since
the dry season is long, the landscape is barren, moreover, during some years the
monsoon lasts less than normal, causing drought.

From April to mid-June, before the monsoon, it is very hot. In the hottest periods,
the temperature can reach 39.4 °C [103°F]. According to data from the India
Meteorological Department, the average annual rainfall in Jetpur is around 775 mm
(30.5 inches). The monsoon season, which typically runs from June to September,
accounts for the majority of the rainfall in Jetpur.

Table 1.1: Year wise rainfall in Jetpur during 2011 - 2022

YEAR RAINFALL [mm]
2011 659
2012 778
2013 815
2014 696
2015 737
2016 766
2017 658
2018 811
2019 840
2020 916
2021 974
2022 969
Average 767.6

4
Table 1.2 : Month wise rainfall in Jetpur during 2022
MONTH RAINFALL [mm]
January 2
February 2
March 1
April 2
May 16
June 141
July 330
August 297
September 150
October 24
November 3
December 1
Total 969

1.4 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SET UP

Jetpur is a small town located in the Rajkot district of Gujarat, India. The town is
situated in a region that is characterized by a varied topography consisting of hills,
plateaus, plains and valleys.

The geomorphology of Jetpur is characterized by undulating topography, diverse

geological formations, black and red soils, and dry deciduous forests and scrubland.
The region has been shaped by tectonic activity and seasonal monsoons over
millions of years, resulting in a unique landscape and ecosystem.

1.4.1: Drainage Pattern and River Subsidiary:

The drainage pattern of Jetpur Taluka is primarily controlled by the geography of
the area, which is characterized by undulating topography with flat lands and
shallow valleys. The drainage pattern of Jetpur Taluka is dendritic, which means
that the rivers and streams follow a branching pattern that resembles the veins of
a leaf, which is common in areas with relatively uniform geology and slope.

The major rivers that flow through Jetpur Taluka are the Bhadar River. The
Bhadar River is the most significant river in the Taluka, and it originates in the

5
Figure 1.2: Drainage System of Jetpur Taluka, Rajkot

6
Figure 1.3 Soil Texture of Jetpur Taluka

7
Figure 1.4: Geomorphologic Map of Jetpur Taluka

8
Kathiawar hills and flows through the Bhavnagar district before joining the
Arabian Sea.It is characterized by its dark colour, high clay content, and high
water-holding capacity and high fertility.

1.4.2 Soil Type:

The soil in Jetpur is primarily composed of black and red soils, which are commonly
found in the Deccan plateau region of India. Black soil, also known as regur soil or
black cotton soil, is a type of soil that is formed from weathered volcanic rocks
such as basalt.. Black soil, also known as regur soil or black cotton soil, is a type of
soil that is formed from weathered volcanic rocks such as basalt.

Clayey l is the most dominating soil along with fine soil, loamy, clayey skeletal and
mixed hypothermic soil.

1.5 METHOD OF STUDIES:

Study method requires first the selection of suitable area where no
prior detailed work has been done. Jetpur Taluka suits the criteria for the study
of hydro-geochemistry and quality of groundwater. For this it require geological
and hydrological data collection and their study, water sample collection and their
analysis in the laboratory and representing them according to their quality.

Hence, according to the requirement, study method begins in the following ways.

1.5.1 Geological Data Collection:

The first step of the study of geological method is to collect to the toposheet
of the proposed area of study: - Jetpur of Rajkot district, Gujarat which lies in
Toposheet No.41K/09 of Survey of India.

The geology of Jetpur Taluka is described in detail in the Chapter-2

1.5.2 Hydrological Data collection

For the hydro-geochemical evaluation of Jetpur Taluka, pre-monsoon period
was chosen in the month of February. Generally monsoon arrives in Jetpur during
the first week to second week of June. So, all proposed water sample were
collected before the arrival of the monsoon. Water samples were collected from
various dug wells of the village, so that; they can represent the whole village.

9
1.5.3 Water Sample Collection
Water sample collected from various dug well from the village in one litre
plastic bottle. The bottles were first rinses thoroughly before taking water
samples and then filled closed tightly and numbered.

A detailed location of collected water samples is given as follows:-Table: 1.1

1.5.4: Analytical work in Laboratory

To know the quality of water, collected water samples from various locations of the
Jetpur Taluka are evaluated by different physical and chemical tests.

The laboratory test is mainly conducted for the determination of chemical

properties like total alkalinity ,Electric conductivity, TDS(Total Dissolved Solids)
,pH, total hardness for major cations like Calcium (Ca2+ ), Magnesium (Mg 2+
),
Sodium (Na+ ), Potassium (k+ ) and major anions like chloride (Cl - ), Carbonate (CO 3

- 3-
), bicarbonate (HCO ) and sulphate (SO4) etc.

The criteria used for the analysis of the physical and chemical parameter with the
help of different instrument and titration method are tabulated in table 1.2.

1.5.5: Data Representation

The result obtained from the physio-chemical analysis of the water samples are
represented in various table and these values are interpreted in graphs like Piper’s
Tri linear diagram, Wilcox’s diagram, salinity diagram, Gibbs‟ diagram etc. From
these diagrams the quality of water is categorized according to their suitability
for various purposes such as drinking, domestic, industrial and irrigational uses.

For drinking purposes, the quality of groundwater has been compared with
Indian drinking quality standard (ISI 1983) and for small scale industrial use, a
general criteria of corrosion and incrustation properties is adopted for evaluation/
comparison.

10
Table 1.3: Location details of ground water samples in Jetpur Taluka area

Sampl District Taluka Village Latitude Longitude Altitude Water Water

e No ( in m a Level( Table
MSL) m) (in m a
MSL )
8 Rajkot Jetpur Jetpur- 21°47'48.4''N 70°38'27.4668''E 94.8 14.5 80.30
Dhoraji road

9 Rajkot Jetpur Virpur 21°51'51.8796'' 70°42'22.8132'' E 127.4 15 112.7

N
10 Rajkot Jetpur Vadasada 21°46'54.0156'' 70°45'1.8684'' E 98.2 5.25 93.70
N
11 Rajkot Jetpur Vavdi 21°43'38.3484'' 70°45'16.3584'' E 113.5 23.30 90.56
N
12 Rajkot Jetpur Chaprajpur 21°43'57.1728'' 70°38'27.4164'' E 92.1 8.55 83.55
N
13 Rajkot Jetpur Kharasiya 21°44'45.7188'' 70°37'43.2912'' E 84.3 15 69.80
N
14 Rajkot Jetpur Jetpur City 21° 40' 9.138'' N 70° 32'36.7296'' E 79.2 4 61.00

15 Junaga Junaga Choki 21°40'8.6052''N 70°32'36.8232'' E 79.3 10.9 68.95

dh dh
16 Rajkot Jetpur Pedhala 21°45'5.3706''N 70°.34'40.0182'' E 97 8.2 84.80

17 Rajkot Jetpur Umrali 21°54'29.4588'' 70°.36'3.7584'' E 99.4 12.7 87.20

N
25 Rajkot Jetpur Jetpur 21°47'25.98''N 70°.37'31.35'' E 77.4 8.53 69.62

11
Figure 1.5; Location of the samples on the Index map

12
Table 1.4: Methods of analytical work in Chemical Laboratory
Parameter Instrument/ Method Standard Solution and
Reagent
PHYSICAL
pH pH meter KCl, Buffer Solution
EC Water analyzer kit KCl solution
TDS Water analyzer kit KCl solution
CHEMICAL
Total Hardness Volumetric titration EBT, EDTA, Ammonium
NO3, Buffer solution
Total Alkalinity Conversion method
Calcium (Ca2+) Volumetric titration NaOH Buffer , P&R
indicator
Chloride (Cl- ) Volumetric titration Potassium Chromate and
N/50 AgNO3
Bi Carbonate(HCO3) Volumetric titration Ammonia buffer , Mixed
indicator
Sodium (Na+ ) Flame photometer Standard Na solution
Potassium (K+ ) Flame photometer Standard K solution
Magnesium (Mg2+) Conversion method
Fluoride UV Visible Spectrophoto ECR dye mixed and kept
Meter overnight
Sulphate (SO4) UV Visible Spectrophoto Standard Sulphate
Meter solution
Silica UV Visible Standard Silica solution
Spectrophotometer

13
CHAPTER – II
GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY
2.1 GEOLOGICAL SET UP OF THE AREA:

2.1.1 SURFACE GEOLOGY

Jetpur is a town located in the Rajkot district of the Indian state of Gujarat.
The geology of Jetpur and its surrounding region is characterized by the
presence of major rock formations such as the Deccan Traps.

Deccan trap occupies the major part and covers most of the Saurashtra
peninsula except along its fringes where Tertiary and Quaternary sediments and
portion in North West where Mesozoic rock are exposed.

The general geological succession of the rock formations occurring in the

Jetpur Taluka is as given below.

Age Formation Lithology

Quaternary Surface Soil/ Alluvium Windblown sand and weathered
Black cotton soil
Lower Eocene to Deccan Trap Plutonic Basalt stratified lava flows
Upper Cretaceous comprising amygdoloidal basalt,
fine grained porphyritic basalt and
basaltic/doleritic dykes.

14
Figure 2.1 Geologic map of Jetpur Taluka, Rajkot

15
2.1.2 SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY
From the literature survey, the total thickness of Deccan Trap rocks,
revealed through DSS of ONGC (Chowdhary LR, 2004; Kaila KL,1988) in
Saurashtra ranges from 300 m to more than 900 m. The CGWB deep
exploration has encountered more than 25 flows in explored depth of 500 m
(Gupte PR, 2004). Most of the individual flows are 3 to 9 m thick, but some have
thickness more than 25 m also.

During field visits to the Jetpur Taluka area, it was found that the well depth
was about 30 m deep and water level ranging from 5m to 25m and weathered
zone is ranged from 2.6m to 14.5m. Mostly the shape of the well is circular and
rectangular of the area. Most of the dug well depth ranged from 14.5m to 30m.
There are also bore wells to constructed in the area chiefly constructed for
irrigation purpose and its depth is located between 243.8m to 365.7m

Geophysical Survey [VES]

In Jetpur Block of Rajkot district geophysical surveys consisting of

Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) were carried out to know the subsurface
conditions to recommend sites for ground water exploration also to provide
additional information for aquifer mapping and management studies. In Jetpur
Block of Rajkot district, VES were carried out in 6 locations within 2 Villages
Bavapipaliya&Mesava by employing the Schlumberger electrode configuration.
The obtained VES data was interpreted by using the computer interpretational
techniques. The interpreted results obtained were presented in Table 2.1. The
location map of VES survey carried out at Jetpur Block in Rajkot district has
been presented in Fig 2.2.

16
Figure2.2 Geophysical Investigation of Jetpur Taluka

17
Table 2.1: Interpreted results of VES carried out atJetpur Block of Rajkot

district
S.No SITE_NAME Latitude Longitude Resistivity Depth from Depth To Thickness Infered Lithology
9 0 4 4 T.S
1 Bavapipaliya 1 21.62964 70.62967 475 4 15 11 W.B
881 M.B
55 0 2 2 T.S
130 2 4 2
W.B
2 Bavapipaliya 2 21.64163 70.62118 32 4 9 5
119 9 92 83 F.B
638 M.B
182 0 2 2 T.S
98 2 24 22 W.B
3 Bavapipaliya 3 21.8776 70.59979
39 24 32 8 F.B
113
13 0 4 4 T.S
894 4 10 6 W.B
4 Mesava 1 21.87669 70.59679
51 10 42 32 F.B
v.high M.B
11 0 2 2 T.S
5 Mesava 2 21.87925 70.60064 62 2 4 2
W.B
49
24 0 8 8 T.S
178 8 16 8 W.B
6 Mesava 3 22.45771 70.566.371
47 16 71 55 F.B
250 M.B
T.S-Top Soil W.B-Weathered Basalt F.B-Fractured Basalt M.B-Massive Basalt

2.2 Hydrogeology of the Area

The Deccan trap occupies a major part of the JetpurTaluka and forms the most
important aquifer system. It generally forms a poor aquifer due to compactness
and poor primary porosity. However, the upper weathered parts, which at places
are up to 20 m thick, form good aquifer in the district. At deeper levels, the
secondary porosity developed as a result of tectonic activities, in the form of
joints, and fractures, shear zones, form repository of groundwater at many
places. The dykes, particularly in the southern part of the district, play an
important role in occurrence and movement of groundwater. At places, the
dykes are highly weathered and themselves from potential aquifers.

At other places where the dykes are more compact, they act as subsurface
barrier for the groundwater flow and well constructed upstream of these dykes

18
have yield good yields. The groundwater in Deccan trap occurs under phreatic to
confined conditions.

The groundwater is generally tapped through dug wells in Jetpur Taluka

varying in depth from 20 to 30m where as bore well depth vary from 60 to 112
m. At places, dug-cumbored wells are also constructing bores below the bottom
of dug wells. The yield of dug wells and dug-cum-bored wells generally range
from 20 to 100 m3/day.

2.3 Behaviour of water level

There is a variation in water level in the Jetpur Taluka area with the water
table varying from 61 m below ground level (bgl) to 112 m bgl. The dug wells are
mostly circular in cross section and they tap water from the shallow aquifer.
The tube wells also tap water from the aquifers is from moderate to deep in
terms of depth.

The depth of the water level varies from 3.0 m below ground level (bgl) to 12.30
m bgl. The dug wells are mostly circular in cross section and they tap water
from the shallow aquifer. The tube wells also tap water from shallow to
moderate depth aquifers and depth vary from 80 to 100m bgl.The eastern part
of the Taluka shows deeper water level of 20 to 40 m bglwhere as more than
50% of the area lying under the range of 10 to 20 m bgl of water level as shown
in the map Figure 2.3.

The depth of water table varies from 115 m to 58 m MSL. The water table
Contour map shows that in Jetpur Taluka, groundwater flows from North East
to South-West direction as shown in the figure 2.4.

19
Figure2.3: Water Level depth map of Jetpur Taluka

20
Figure 2.4: Water Table contour map of Jetpur Taluka

21
CHAPTER III
HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY
3.1: INTRODUCTION
Although groundwater is generally clean, colourless and odourless with little or
no suspended matter and at relatively constant temperature in comparison to
surface water, it is not realised in practice because of anthropometric or other
causes. This necessitates constant evaluation of the ground water quality.

The ground water quality can be represented in terms of physical and

chemical characteristics. The physical characteristics include temperature,
hydrogen ion concentration, conductance etc. The chemical characteristics
include different cations and anions total alkalinity, total hardness etc.
Different physical and chemical characteristics of ground water of the study
area are described below.

3.2 EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL PARAMETER:

The temperature of groundwater depends on atmospheric temperature,
exothermic and endothermic reaction in rocks, infiltration of surface water,
insolation, thermal conductivity of rocks, rate of movement of groundwater and
human interference on the groundwater regime. The association of groundwater
with hot springs, geysers and their depth of occurrence also determine the
temperature. The temperature is expressed in degree centigrade and measured
of immediately after collecting the samples with the help of digital water
analyzer kit. The temperature probe has an accuracy of 0.01°C.

The temperature of the groundwater samples varies from 29.5°C to

31.2°C.

3.2.1 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

For Neutral water, the dissociated molar concentration of H+ (hydrogen) and
OH- (Hydroxyl) ions are equal and the pH value is 7. On decreasing of its value
(less than 7) the water is acidic and on increasing of its value (more than 7), the
water is alkaline. Thus, the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen
ions in moles per litre is the pH value of the solution. Most of the natural water
have pH value varying from 6.5 to 8.0 (Hem, 1985) and acidic water with pH

22
value less than 5.5 is rare. The presence of free mineral acids makes the water
acidic. Similarly, high bicarbonate content is responsible for high value of pH.
When the soils have Leaching of CaCO3, NaCO3 and bicarbonate, the pH value
becomes more than 8.5.

The pH values of the collected samples lies from 7.00 to 7.81, where only 1
sample lies in neutral phase and rest 10 are alkaline.

Table:3.1 pH of the collected samples:

Class Of Water pH value No OF Sample

Strongly Acidic <5 Nil
Acidic 5-7 Nil
Neutral 7 1
Alkaline 7-9 10
Strongly Alkaline >9 Nil

3.2.2 Specific Electrical Conductance (EC)

There is no limit of electrical conductance to determine the suitability of
water for drinking purposes, but the suitability of water for irrigation is
determined by it. The specific electrical conductance of water is the ability to
conduct electricity. It is the conductance of a cubic centimetre of water at a
standard temp of 25°C. An increase of 1°C in temperature leads to increase of
conductance by about 2 percent. Although pure water is a poor conductor of
electricity, presence of dissociated ions makes the water conductive.

Specific conductance is measured by micro Siemens/cm (S/cm). The

specific conductance of water samples collected varies from 1105 to 4357
S/cm at various places of Jetpur area.

3.2.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

The dissolved salt concentration present in water account for the total
dissolved solids. The salt may be cation or anion. The TDS value is used for the
classification of groundwater in terms of salinity, which is given in the later
chapter of Hydro-geochemical classification of groundwater of column 3.

The TDS value may be affected by the movement of water through rocks
containing soluble mineral matter, concentration by evaporation, contamination
due to influx of sea water and industrial and municipal waste water disposal. The

23
TDS values are related to specific electrical conductance and can be
determined by multiplying factor 0.64 (Garg, 1982). The TDS value of the
collected water sample is varies from 740 mg/l to 2919 mg/l as given in table no
3.2

Table 3.2: Physical parameter of collected water samples of Jetpur Taluka

Sample No pH Specific Total Dissolved

conductance (in solids (in mg/L)
µs/cm)
8 7.14 3650 2446
9 7.33 1385 928
10 7.51 1986 1331
11 7.81 1817 1217
12 7.40 1424 954
13 7.47 1105 740
14 7.45 1360 911
15 7.73 3470 2325
16 7.11 3036 2034
17 7.31 1764 1182
25 7.0 4357 2919

3.3 Evaluation of Chemical Parameters:

The chemical composition of groundwater is variable because of the
compositional differences of the rocky home. Natural water contains some
organic matter and micro-organism dissolved gases as well as colloids. Natural
water contains the entire 107 element in various proportion, which can be
determined by geochemical studies.

The chemical quality of the water of the study area depends upon a number
of chemical parameter such as –

(a) Total Alkalinity

(b) Total hardness

(c) Cations like Ca++, Mg++, K+, and Na+

(d) Anions like CO3 --, HCO3 - , SO4 --, Cl, F—and NO3-- etc.

24
These parameters are measured by application of standard water analytical
methods suggested by APHA (1989), Goel and Trivedi (1984), Vogel (1964) etc.

The nature of variation and the behaviour of the chemical constituents

are described below:

3.3.1 Total Alkalinity:

The measure of the capacity of the water to neutralize strong acids is its
„total alkalinity‟. The alkalinity is mainly due to presence of carbonate,
bicarbonate and hydrogen ions in Free states. The presence of „Na‟ increases
the alkalinity upto 250 mg/l, which is generally less than 10 mg/l in normal
groundwater. It is measured by standard titration procedure to neutralize
strong acids.

The collected water samples of Jetpur Taluka show the total alkalinity
values ranging from 110 to 410 mg/l. This high value indicates the presence of
„Na‟ in the water (Table 3.3)

3.3.2 Total Hardness:

Hardness is responsible for creating unsuitability of water for household
cleansing purpose due to adverse action with soap and also increasing the boiling
point of water.

The presence of minerals like Ca, Mg, Fe, Sr and free acids conform of CO3
2- , HCO3 - , SO4 2- , Cl- & NO3 - etc. causes the total hardness of water.
According to their variation in groundwater, they classified into hard water and
soft water.

Total hardness „HT‟ is customarily expressed as the equivalent of CaCO3.

Thus,

TH = Cax + Mg x

Where TH, Ca, Mg are measured in mg/l

The above equation is reduces to TH=2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg.

Total hardness in the study area varies from 740 mg/l to 2919 mg/l. The
hardness of water is due to high concentration of Magnesium and Calcium

25
content present in the water. The values of the collected samples are
represented on the following table.

Table 3.3: Classification of groundwater based 0n total hardness

Hardness as CaCO3 (in Quality of water class Number of sample
mg/l)
0 – 75 Soft Nil
75 – 150 Moderately hard Nil
150 – 300 Hard Nil
Over 300 Very Hard 11
Some of the chemical parameters are given below as table3.4 which is important
for assessment and determination of the quality of groundwater.

Table: 3.4: Chemical parameter of collected water sample (in mg/l)

Sample No Total Alkalinity (mg/l) Total Hardness (mg/l)
8 240 1541
9 240 550
10 410 641
11 250 701
12 240 560
13 310 420
14 320 450
15 110 1091
16 220 1271
17 160 671
25 290 465

3.3.3 Common Cations:

As water is an excellent solvent, number of cations and anions get into it in
dissolved state. Each and every characteristic of water is influenced by the
presence of cations like Ca2+, Mg2+ , K + , Na+ ; which determine the chemical
quality of water. These are described in detail as follows:

[a] Calcium (Ca2+)

Presence of calcium in groundwater is due to the action of water with

pyroxenes, amphiboles and feldspars of igneous and metamorphic rocks and
gypsum, dolomite, anhydrite and sedimentary rock like limestone.

26
 More over the domestic waste and agricultural disposal waste are also good
contributors of calcium in groundwater as the study area is a mix of rural and
urban area. The concentration of calcium in natural water varies from 10-
100mg/l. The calcium content of collected water samples from the study area
of Jetpur Taluka varies from 84 mg/l to 465 mg/l with an average of 226.18
mg/l as shown in Table-3.5.

[b] Magnesium (Mg2+)

Magnesium also occurs in all kinds of water along with calcium but its
concentration is relatively low in comparison to calcium. The presence of
magnesium ion is ground in mostly due to leaching of Ferro-magnesium bearing
minerals. The „Mg‟ concentration of the collected water samples varies from 7
mg/l to 510 mg/l with an average of 108.60 mg/l as shown in Table-3.5.

[c] Sodium (Na+)

Sodium is another most important constituent of groundwater in the

studied area. Most of the sodium salts are readily soluble is water but take no
active part in chemical reaction like that of the alkaline earths. The presence
of plagioclase feldspar and clay mineral; their weathering is responsible for
increasing the sodium content in water particularly the soils in shallow aquifers.

The sodium content increases with chloride and both concentrations

increase with total dissolved solid content. The higher content of sodium
according to National Academy of Science (1977) is responsible for abnormal
metabolism and heart attack and also responsible for lower infiltration of water
in the irrigated area.

Sodium content varies in composition from 52 mg/l to 337 mg/l with an

average of 143.36 mg/l within the collected water samples as shown in Table-
3.5.

[d] Potassium (K+)

Potassium is more soluble than sodium and last to crystalline during evaporation
(Karanth-1989). Also during weathering, potassium either adsorbed or fixed to
the clay minerals of the soil and a large amount of potassium is assimilated by
plants. Because of the above reasons groundwater contains less potassium in

27
comparison to sodium. The common source of potassium in groundwater is mainly
silicate minerals like orthoclase, microcline, and clay minerals.

The concentration of potassium in collected water samples varies from 0.4 to

1.84 mg/l with an average of 0.81 mg/l as shown in Table-3.5.The above cited
values have no major adverse effect on health, but higher concentration may be
detrimental.

Table-3.5: Concentration of major cations in collected water samples (in

mg/litre).
Sample No Sodium (Na+ ) Calcium Magnesium Potassium (K+
(Ca++) (Mg++)
8 132 401 131 0.62
9 52 132 54 0.38
10 192 96 97 1.27
11 104 160 73 0.72
12 93 140 51 0.4
13 83 88 49 0.46
14 118 84 58 0.42
15 258 425 7 1.84
16 114 305 124 0.93
17 94 192 46 1.31
25 337 465 510.62 0.57

3.3.4 Common Anions (SO4 --, Cl- , HCO3 - , CO3 --, F--,NO3-)
Cations in combination with anions like F, NO3, SO4 --, Cl- , HCO3 - & CO3 --
etc. play an important role in influencing the chemical quality of groundwater.
For example, Na combines with chloride to form NaCl, an important constituent
of groundwater. The importance of anions in groundwater and their value in the
collected water sample of the Jetpur Taluka are given below:

(a) Sulphate (SO4 --)

Sulphate enters into groundwater by process of oxidation, precipitation,

solution, concentration etc. as the water moves in rocks containing sulphide
minerals pyrite such as shale, gypsiferous beds, anhydrite, sulphides of heavy
metals in igneous and metamorphic rocks etc. Sulphate can also be introduced
into the groundwater through the application of sulphate fertilizers.

28
 Due to high solubility of sulphate of the common cation like calcium,
magnesium and sodium, sulphate can be present in groundwater in higher
concentration. According to WHO, water containing up to 200 mg/l is desirable
but the maximum permissible limit is up to 400 mg/l. The collected water
samples containing sulphate concentrations varying from 51 mg/l to 501 mg/l
with an average is190.27 mg/l as shown in Table-3.6.

(b)Chloride (CI-)

Although chloride content in rain water is usually less than 10 ppm, in coastal
areas and desert areas it may be high. Hence, the percolating rainwater in
coastal and desert areas is an important source of chloride for the ground
water.

Chloride is always found in association with sodium and to some extends

responsible for total dissolved solids of the groundwater. Halite and evaporite
deposit in alluvium and domestic sewage discharged into the ground is the
source of chloride content in groundwater

According to WHO (1971), up to 600 mg/l and according to ISI (1983) up to

1000 mg/l is the maximum permissible limit of chloride in groundwater. The
collected water sample of study area contains chloride varying from 121 mg/l to
1042mg/l with an average is 461.45 mg/l as shown in Table-3.6.

(c)Bicarbonate and Carbonate (HCO3 -& CO3- )

Dissolved carbon dioxide in rain water when enters into the soil dissolves
more carbon dioxide and is the primary source of carbonate and bicarbonate in
groundwater. Decay of organic matter also increases the carbon dioxide
content of groundwater. CO2 in combination with H2O produces carbonic acid,
which help in leaching of limestone, dolomite and other rocks increasing the
amount of bicarbonate in groundwater.

All the carbonate and bicarbonate usually present in the form of Ca, Mg, and
Na in natural water. Grandeur (1985) reported that CO2 is produced within
aquifer when its concentration exceeds 300 ppm. Carbonate content in the
water samples of the area is negligible but bicarbonate content ranges from
134 mg/l to 390 mg/l with an average of 309.27 mg/l as shown in Table-3.6.

29
(d) Fluoride

In basaltic area, fluoride occurs in pockets of high contents in d=groundwater and is

within permissible limit for domestic use and irrigation. The concentration f fluoride in
groundwater is limited due to low stability of fluoride minerals and their less
concentration in rocks .the Fluoride value of the samples collected varies from 0.41 to
0.71 mg/l.

(e) Nitrate

Nitrogen is a major constituent of atmosphere and is a minor constituent in rocks. The

average nitrate content in rainwater is around 0.2 ppm (Reffenberg, 1926) .The nitrate
value of the collected samples varies from 40 to 106 mg/l

Nitrate concentration of the samples

Figure 3.4: Nitrate concentration of the samples

30
Figure 3.1:Fluoride concentration map of Jetpur Taluka

31
Figure 3.4: Nitrate Concentration map of Jetpur Taluka

32
Table No.3.6: Concentration of major anions in water sample (in mg/l)

Sample No SO4 CI HCO3 CO3 NO3 Fl

8 501 773 293 0 50 0.71
9 75 191 292 0 65 0.86
10 118 312 500 0 97 0.63
11 108 362 305 0 86 0.71
12 90 269 293 0 33 0.58
13 51 121 378 0 54 0.70
14 82 163 390 0 57 0.69
15 446 780 134 0 50 0.46
16 146 723 268 0 99 0.64
17 115 340 195 0 106 0.70
25 361 1042 354 0 40 0.41

3.4 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDWATER

The collected water samples of Jetpur Taluka are subjected to qualitative
analysis are classified on the basis of their quality into following heads.

3.4.1 Based on T.D.S. Value

The U.S. Geological Survey [Winslow &Kister, 1956, Swenson & Baldwin 1965,
Wesselman&Arnow, 1971] has classified the water based on T.D.S. value as
given below to describe the salinity of the water.

Table: 3.7: TDS Classification of the samples

Salinity Type TDS No of Sample
Non Saline <1000 4
Slightly Saline 1000 – 3000 7
Moderately Saline 3000 – 10000 Nil
Highly Saline 10000 – 35000 Nil
Brine >35000 Nil
The TDS values of the collected samples are varies from 740 mg/l to 2919 mg/l
and 4 of them can be classified as ―Non-Saline‖ and 7 of them ―Slightly-Saline‖.

The salinity index of the Jetpur Taluka is shown in the figure 3.1 map below

33
Figure 3.1: TDS map of Jetpur Taluka

34
3.4.2 Based on Hardness
Hardness results due to presence of divalent metallic cations like calcium
and magnesium. These are most abundant in water and react with soap to give
rise to a precipitate and with some anions present in water to form scale, which
increases the boiling temperature of water.

Due to their adverse action with soap hard water are unsuitable for
household cleansing purpose. To measure this degree of hardness of water,
Twort et.al (1974) classify the water according to their equivalency of calcium
carbonate as shown below.

The total hardness of the study area varies from 740mg/l to 2191mg/l. The
classes of the water quality with the number of sample representing the study
area are as given below.

Table 3.8: Classification of groundwater based 0n total hardness

Hardness as CaCO3 (in Quality of water class Number of sample

mg/l)
0 – 75 Soft Nil
75 – 150 Moderately hard Nil
150 – 300 Hard Nil
Over 300 Very Hard 11

The water of the Jetpur Taluka is very hard as it value exceeds over 300, the
hardness of water of the Taluka is shown below in the figure in representation
of a map in figure 3.1.

35
Figure 3.1: Total Hardness map of Jetpur Taluka

36
3.4.3 Based on Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
The Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) is recommended as the measure of
suitability/ unsuitability of water for irrigation by the salinity laboratory of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture because of its direct relation to the adsorption
of sodium by soil. The SAR can be calculated by using the following formula.

SAR =
√

Here the concentration of the constituents is expressed in miliequivalent per

litre. The SAR value of the collected water sample is given in the Table-3.4.4 on
the basis of SAR value, the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purpose is
determined as per the following table.

Table: 3.9 SAR values suitable for ground water

Water class for SAR value Number of samples
irrigation
Excellent Upto – 10 11
Good 10 – 18 Nil
Medium 18 – 26 Nil
Bad >26 Nil

The SAR value of the collected water samples varies from 0.96 to 3and can be
said to be „excellent‟ class of water.

3.4.4 Based on Sodium Percentage (%Na)

Sodium concentration is important is classifying an irrigation water because
sodium reacts with soil and reduces its permeability. Soils containing a large
proportion of sodium with carbonate as the predominant anion are termed as
alkali soils and those with chloride or sulphate as the predominant anions are
saline soils.

Ordinarily both type of sodium-saturated soil support little or no plant

growth. Sodium percentage is usually expressed in terms of percent sodium
(also known as sodium percent and soluble sodium percentage) by Wilcox (1948).
It is calculated by using the following formula.

% Na = x100

37
Where all ionic concentrations is expressed in milli equivalent per litre.

The different water classes for irrigation on the basis of % Na values are given
in the following data.

Table: 3.10 Classification of groundwater based on Sodium

Water class for % Na No of Samples

irrigation
Excellent Upto – 20 Nil
Good 20 – 40 Nil
Permissible 40 – 60 1
Doubtful 60 – 80 1
Unsuitable >80 9

3.4.5 Permeability Index (P.I.)

The permeability index is calculated by using the following formula.

P.I = x 100
√

All concentration are taken in milli equivalent per litre. The above formula is
given by Doreen (1964).

The calculated permeability index of collected water samples varies from 25.46
to 58.61 as given in Table-3.4. Here 11 samples show their P.I. <75%, which fall
in the class I of Doreen chart indicating their suitability for irrigational purpose
for the soil of medium permeability.

3.4.6 Potential Soil Salinity (P.S.)

This is the ability or potential of soil to acquire salinity.

It is calculated by using the following formula.

P.S. =CI+ ½ SO4

Where all the values are determined in meq/ltr

38
Table3.11 Potential Salinity (P.S.) of Jetpur
P.S.S Water Class No of Samples
<5 Excellent to Good 1
5 – 10 Good to injurious 4
>10 Injurious to 6
unsatisfactory

The potential soil salinity value of collected water samples represented in table
3.4.8 varies from 3.93 to 33.6. With respect to potential soil salinity, all the
water samples can be classified as ―Excellent to Good‖.

3.4.7 Residual Sodium Carbonate (R.S.C.)

The relative abundance of sodium with respect to excess of carbonate and
bicarbonate over alkaline earth and boron affects the suitability of water for
irrigation purpose. This excess amount of sodium content is termed as Residual
Sodium Carbonate.

Residual Sodium Carbonate is determined by applying the formula as given by

Richards (1954).

R.S.C. = (CO32- +HCO3-) – (Ca2+ + Mg 2+)

Determined value of collected water samples are represented in table 3.4.

All values are in meq/ltr. The values vary from -22.40 to 0.10 with an average.

With respect to R.S.C. values, the groundwater can be classified as „Good‟

as per the following table.

Table No: 3.12: Residual Sodium Carbonate Table

R.S.C Water Class No of Samples

<1.25 Good 11
1.25 – 2.5 Medium 0
>2.5 Unsuitable 0

39
Table: 3.12: The Quality of Groundwater in terms of Ion ratio
Sample SAR %Na P.I Na/(Na+Ca) Cl/(Cl+H P.S.S R.S.C
No CO3)
8 1.46 23.81 4.74 6.03 26.34 27.01 -16.66
9 0.96 15.74 8.22 2.58 6.53 6.18 -2.76
10 3.30 17.00 23.13 10.07 9.87 10.03 0.10
11 1.70 39.54 11.28 5.07 12.24 11.33 -4.70
12 1.71 24.42 14.78 4.62 9.18 8.54 -3.91
13 1.77 26.58 19.42 4.45 3.95 3.93 0.03
14 2.41 30.24 24.61 6.34 5.32 5.46 -0.21
15 3.40 36.31 15.13 11.75 32.00 26.65 -22.40
16 1.39 34.07 5.25 5.26 25.04 21.92 -12.19
17 1.59 16.34 10.71 4.53 12.60 10.79 -7.99
25 3.96 14.20 14.20 15.30 34.47 33.16 -21.36

3.4.8 Hydro-geochemical Facies

Back (1960) and Seaber (1962) proposed the concept of ―Hydro-geochemical
Facies‖ of groundwater by arranging the major dissolved cations and anions in
decreasing order of their abundance. It actually indicates the origin and the
typical relation with the geochemistry of the rocks and soils of the area.

The Hydro-geochemical facies of the water samples of the study area given in
the following table.

Table: 3.14: Hydro-geochemical Facies Table

Sample No CationFacies Anion Facies
8 Ca>Mg>Na>K Cl<HCO3<SO4<CO3
9 Ca>Mg>Na>K Cl<SO4<HCO3< CO3
10 Ca>Mg>Na>K Cl<HCO3<SO4< CO3
11 Na>Mg>Ca>K Cl<HCO3<SO4< CO3
12 Ca>Mg>Na>K Cl<HCO3<SO4< CO3
13 Ca>Mg>Na>K Cl<HCO3<SO4< CO3
14 Ca>Mg>Na>K Cl<HCO3<SO4< CO3
15 Ca>Na>Mg>K Cl<HCO3<SO4< CO3
16 Ca>Mg>Na>K Cl<SO4<HCO3< CO3
17 Ca>Na>Mg>K Cl<HCO3<SO4< CO3
25 Ca>Na>Mg>K Cl<SO4<HCO3< CO3

40
It was found that, Ca2+ is dominant among cationfacies and HCO3- among anion
facies in the collected water samples of the study area.Hence, water can be
broadly grouped as Ca-HCO3 type.

3.5 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CHEMICAL DATA

The tabular statement of geochemical data obtained from the laboratory
analysis of collected water samples needs interpretation from the diagram or
graphical representation for display purposes for comparing analysis and for
emphasizing similarities and differences of all salient geochemical aspect which
determine the quality of water for various purposes.

3.5.1 Gibbs’ diagram

Gibbs (1970) proposed the concept to identify the controlling factors to
determine the chemistry of water, which can also be applied for groundwater.
The important factors controlling the chemical composition of water are.

(i) Precipitation dominance

(ii) Rock dominance
(iii) Evaporation-crystallization dominance.

Depending upon the above factor, Gibbs‟ proposed two diagram one for
cations and another for anions

(a) Gibbs diagram for cations:

In this diagram the T.D.S. value of the collected water samples of
the area are plotted against ratio of Na/(Na+Ca) as shown in figure
3.1.(a). Most of the plotted data in the figure falls under the ―Rock
Dominance‖.
(b) Gibbs’ diagram for anions:
In this diagram T.D.S. of collected water samples are plotted
against the ratio of CI/CI+HCO3 as shown in figure 3.1(b). Most of
the plotted data in the figure falls under the ―Rock Dominance‖.

41
Figure 3.1[a] Gibb’s Cation Diagram Figure 3.1[b] Gibb’s Anion Diagram

42
3.5.2 Diagram for classification of irrigation water (by Richards 1954)
The U.S. Regional Salinity Laboratory has recommended a diagram for
classification of irrigation water with reference to SAR (Sodium Adsorption
Ratio) and specific conductance of ground water representing indices of sodium
hazard and salinity hazard respectively.

Among the analyzed samples, from the figure 7 samples falls in C3S1 which is
moderately suitable for plant growth, plant with moderate salt tolerance can be grown
easily and 7 samples falls in C3S1 which highly unsuitable for irrigation and 4 samples
falls in C4S1 which has Very high Salinity-Low Sodium.

Figure 3.2: US Salinity Diagram By Richards for classification of groundwater

43
3.5.3 Classification of groundwater by Wilcox (1955)
Wilcox (1955) given a suitable diagram (Fig.3.5.3) for the classification of
ground water with reference to percent sodium (%Na) as an index for sodium
hazard and total concentration of cations and anions in meq/ltr or as
conductance.

From the figure,4 samples falls in ―Doubtful to Unsuitable‖ and 7 samples as

―Unsuitable‖.

Figure 3.3: Wilcox’s Diagram for Classification of Ground Water

44
3.5.4 Piper’s Tri linear Diagram
Piper (1953) introduced a tri linear diagram to understand problems about
the geochemical evolution of groundwater. The diagram represents the overall
characteristic of water where epm values of cations and anions are projected
into the diamond shaped field from two triangular fields respectively.From the
figure 7 and 4 samples have more than 50% calcium cations, and 3 anions
samples falls in mixed and 8 samples falls in HCO3 type and SO4 type
respectively.

Figure 3.4: Piper’s Tri linear Diagram for classification of Groundwater

45
3.6 QUALITY CRITERIA FOR GROUNDWATER USE
Groundwater of Jetpur Taluka is mostly free from any suspended impurities and
large scale pollution. Certain chemical quality standards have been taken into
account for evaluating the suitability of water for drinking, domestic, irrigation
and industrial uses. The analyzed chemical data of Jetpur Taluka area are to be
compared with those mandatory limits set for certain poisonous constituent is
shown as below.

3.6.1 Domestic Purpose

Water to be used in the home for drinking should be of good quality. For
assessing the groundwater quality of the study area, the Indian Standard
Institution (1983) has been compared

Table: 3.14 Indian Standard Institutions (1983)

Quality Highest No Of Maximum No of samples

Desirable Samples permissible
pH 6.5 – 8.5 11 6.5 – 9.2 Nil
T.D.S 500 Nil 1500 11
T.H 300 Nil 600 11
Ca 75 Nil 200 11
Mg 30 1 100 10
Cl 250 3 1000 8
SO4 150 4 400 7

3.6.2 Irrigation Use

Water quality is important for irrigation as required by plant for its growth
and development. As the sodium ion has a tendency to replace calcium and
magnesium because of its higher solubility in water may change the properties
of soil such as permeability. This may lead to the sodium hazard, which is
determined by SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) & %Na.

Similarly, the salinity of soil is also determined by total concentration of salt

(or TDS) in terms of specific electrical conductance.

46
 As given earlier the classification of irrigation water with respect to salinity
and sodium hazard in the diagram. (After Richard 1954) (Fig.3.5.2) it can be
concluded that, all of the collected water sample are of good quality showing no
sodium hazard (low SAR value) and are good for irrigation.

Also from Wilcox (1955) diagram, (Fig.3.5.3) based on percent of Na (%Na)

and EC, the ground water is of excellent to good quality. Hence, they can be
suitably utilized for the irrigation purpose. Only five samples shows good to
permissible quality due to some higher concentration of dissolved solids.

3.6.3 Industrial Purpose

The quality requirement by industries is highly variable depending on the
stage at which water required, that is during mining, floatation, leaching,
smelting or refinery operations etc. To prevent formation of scale of
incrustation and corrosion a general criteria is summarized below

Table: 3.15 CHEMICAL QUALITY OF WATER FOR INCRUSTATION &

CORROSION

Chemical Parameter Incrustation (No. of Corrosion (No. of

Samples) Sample)
pH(<7) _ Nil
TH(>300mg/L) Nil _
TDS(>1000mg/L) _ 7
Cl(<500mg/L) 6 _
HCO3(>400mg/L) 1 _
SO4(>100mg/L) 7 _

3.7 Factor’s controlling groundwater quality

Groundwater quality is influenced by various natural and anthropogenic factors,
which can affect the chemical and physical characteristics of the water. Some
of the key factors that control groundwater quality are:

1. Geology: The geological composition of the aquifer influences the

chemical composition of the groundwater. Rocks that are rich in minerals
such as iron, manganese, and sulphur can contribute to the contamination
of groundwater.

47
2. Hydrogeology: The movement of groundwater through the aquifer can
affect its quality. The residence time of water in the aquifer, the degree
of mixing with other water sources, and the presence of recharge and
discharge areas can all affect the quality of groundwater.

3. Climate: The climatic conditions in the area can also affect the quality of
groundwater. High temperatures, low rainfall, and high evaporation rates
can increase the salinity of groundwater.

4. Land use: Anthropogenic activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and

industrialization can also affect the quality of groundwater. The use of
fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, discharge of untreated sewage,
and industrial waste can all contribute to the contamination of
groundwater.

5. Natural processes: Natural processes such as weathering, leaching, and

erosion can affect the quality of groundwater. For example, the
weathering of rocks can release minerals and metals into the
groundwater, while erosion can increase the sediment load in the aquifer.

48
 CHAPTER: IV
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
 The salinity in Jetpur Taluka varies from non saline to slightly
saline. About 80% of the samples are slightly saline and range
from about 1000 to 3000 in Total Dissolved Solids [TDS].
 The total hardness of the water represents as very hard as
because 100% percent of the total samples collected ranges over
300 of magnesium and calcium.
 Nitrate content is varies from place to place about 75 percent of
the samples are safe for domestic and drinking purposes, as all
the samples collected ranges below the permissible limit of 45
mg/l.
 The ground water quality is very poor near Champrajpur, and is
unfit for drinking purpose and is polluted due to the increasing of
cloth dying industry.
 According to US salinity diagram by Richards, most the samples
of ground water has been classified as C3S1 type with high
electrical conductance and low salinity C4S1 type with low salinity
and high electrical conductance. The water is suitable for
irrigation and agricultural practices as it has low salinity factor.
 The water around the Jetpur Taluka is mostly deteoritated due
to increased industrialization in the area, as the area is known for
its well established Sari industries along with other industrial
activities.
 As the area is of hard rock aquifers and not of sedimentary type
the ground percolating downwards are further contaminating with
chemicals used in nearby industries. It has led to contamination
of groundwater to a range of about 7 kilometer radius around
areas of industrializations.

49
 The industrial practices around the area must be controlled by
the administration to diminish the groundwater contamination
problem.
 According to Wilcox diagram classification 85 percent of
analyzed samples are unsuitable for irrigation.
 Fluoride content of Jetpur Taluka is around the permissible limit
and is within the range of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/l.
 Creating awareness among the people regarding water
conservation, water quality and water pollution through
agricultural waste management such as fertilizers and chemicals
and judicious use of water for irrigation such as sprinkler
irrigation method to water the plants.
 Awareness among the people on groundwater aquifers based on its
quality and available quantity.
 Resorting to artificial recharge practices such as rooftop
rainwater harvesting to promote recharge of groundwater.
 Taking the artificial recharge seriously and up scaling it to the
regional scale with active community participation will further
help in development of groundwater scenario.

50
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