Reservoir Implications of Modern Karst Topography1
Edward G. Purdy2 and Dave Waltham3
ABSTRACT
Tropical karst landscapes exhibit a predominance
of positive relief features relative to the negative relief
features (i.e., sink holes, dolines, etc.) of temperate
karst areas and yet, paradoxically, have never been
observed in the subsurface on seismic sections. To
understand why this is the case, topographic profiles
were made over the positive karst relief features of
China, Java, and Jamaica and were used to construct
synthetic seismic sections. The results indicate that
in most instances the magnitude of the topographic
relief is sufficient to be seen on seismic sections. A
possibility of misinterpreting karst highs as reefs
seems clear, but more important in explaining the
paradox is the fact that the magnitude of modern
karst relief expression is largely attributable to uplift
over an extended period. The probability of preserva-
tion of these positive relief solution residuals is
dependent on the karstification process being abort-
ed by the deposition of overlying sediment, an event
not likely to occur in an uplift area.
Uplift of well-lithified carbonate minimally results
in an areally extensive runoff surface that controls
the development of positive karst landforms.
Uplift also commonly induces faulting and fractur-
ing that further control the distribution of karst
land forms. Hydrocarbon production from the
resulting karst is geared to matrix porosity: the
higher the matrix porosity, the greater the rate of
deliverability of matrix oil to produced fracture
and karst conduit oil.
©Copyright 1999. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
1 Manuscript received February 4, 1998; revised manuscript received
February 23, 1999; final acceptance February 28, 1999.
2PetroQuest International Inc., “Foxbourne,” Hamm Court, Weybridge,
Surrey, .KT13 8YA, United Kingdom; e-mail: EGPurdy@compuserve.com
3Department of Geology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham,
Surrey, TW20 0EX, United Kingdom.
We are indebted to Peter Smart of Bristol University for topographic maps
of the Guilin, China, and Gunung Sewu, Java, areas and also for the
geological map of the Guilin region. Tom Carson kindly provided a
topographic map of Sarawak. The three-dimensional topography and geology
block diagrams are the painstaking work of Shepherd Melnyk Consultants
Ltd. CartoGraphics Ltd. provided all other drafting. Conversations with Qing
Sun were helpful in discussing problems, and Mark Longman, G. B. Newton,
and an anonymous reviewer provided useful suggestions for improving
clarity, but the responsibility for all conclusions is solely ours.
1774
In contrast, the lowering of the base level of ero-
sion due to a fall in sea level is generally less than that
induced by uplift and, consequently, minimizes posi-
tive karst relief development relative to that of uplift.
Subaerial exposure induced by passive sea level fall
also minimizes the potential for the related occur-
rence of fracturing and faulting, which of itself miti-
gates against the general development of positive
karst relief. The subaerial consequences of passive
sea level fall are commonly preserved in the geologic
record and result in karst reservoirs dominated by
extensive moldic and vuggy porosity interconnected
by solution channels. These reservoirs lack the pro-
duction problems commonly attending fractured
karst reservoirs with little matrix porosity.
THE PROBLEM
High-rainfall tropical karst landscapes exhibit a
predominance of positive relief features (Figures 1,
2) relative to the negative relief features (i.e., sink
holes, dolines, etc.) of relatively low-rainfall tem-
perate karst areas, such as those of the United
States in Florida and Kentucky. Some of the tropical
features have positive relief expressions greater
than 300 m and, yet, paradoxically, good analogs
have never been observed in the subsurface on
seismic sections and only rarely obser ved in
outcrop. Longman and Brownlee (1980) tried to
explain this paradox by appealing to intertidal ero-
sion to remove these edifices as ancient sea levels
rose. Their argument is flawed in principle by the
occurrence of pre-Holocene limestone islands
throughout the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean areas. It
could, of course, be argued that intertidal erosion
is in the process of destroying that relief, but the
occurrence of antecedent carbonate relief beneath
the Holocene carbonates of Belize, for example
(Purdy, 1974), suffices to demonstrate that inter-
tidal erosion is not the answer to the problem.
Indeed, it would be strange if intertidal erosion
were capable of removing these edifices while leav-
ing demonstrably more erodable facies, such as
paleosols and eolian dunes, to be preserved in the
geologic record; consequently, there would seem
to be no obvious reason why the paleogeomorphic
AAPG Bulletin, V. 83, No. 11 (November 1999), P. 1774–1794.
 Purdy and Waltham 1775

Figure 1—Aerial view of tower karst in the Guilin area of China. Intervening rice paddies and the road through
them provide an indication of scale. The tower karst is expressed by meter-bedded Devonian and Carboniferous
carbonates in which the variable dips show little influence on resulting tower karst morphology. As suggested by
the rice paddies, the water table is basically at ground level.

expression of positive karst relief should not be
apparent in the subsurface.
THE APPROACH
Rather than provide debatable reinterpretations
of subsurface examples as positive karst relief rem-
nants, it seemed more appropriate to consider the
relief expression of modern tropical karst features
from the standpoint of how they would appear on
conventional seismic sections. This approach involved
selecting appropriate geographic areas for considera-
tion and then constructing synthetic seismic profiles
of that topography.
Geographic Areas
Expressions of positive karst relief range from
patterns (e.g., labyrinth karst, polygonal karst,
pinnacle karst, etc.) to the individual entities
known as tower karst and cone karst (Figures 1, 2).
The distinction between the two is not always easy,
but, generally speaking, tower karst has a steeper
slope than cone karst. The slope division between
the two commonly is stated as 60–90° for tower
karst and 30–45° for cone karst, but this is not
always the case, with the emphasis being placed on
the relative slope steepness of the one compared to
the other.
China and Java provide well-known examples of
tower karst and cone karst, respectively; conse-
quently, topographic profiles were constructed for
both of these areas. In addition, Jamaica was select-
ed as a third area for analysis in that the limestone
relief of that country has long been considered as
an exceptionally good expression of tropical karst
landforms. The dominant karst landform there is
cone karst separated by closed depressions called
cockpits, but tower karst also is present. The gener-
al location of all three areas is shown in Figure 3.
1776 Modern Karst Topography
Figure 2—Gunung Sewu (thousand hills) cone karst of central Java. Cone karst relief rarely exceeds 75 m, averages
50 m (Tjia, 1969), and is expressed largely by massive Miocene limestones that range in lithology from compact
micrites to coral bioherms (Waltham et al., 1983).
Synthetic Seismic Profiles
The location of topographic profiles and associ-
ated geology over the high-relief karst features of
these three areas is shown in Figures 4–6. In con-
structing the synthetic seismic profiles, burial depth
was assumed to approximate 8000 ft (2440 m) using
a Tertiary limestone velocity of 17,500 ft/s for all
but the Chinese example, in which a more appro-
priate Paleozoic carbonate velocity of 19,000 ft/s
was used. Burial beneath overlying Tertiary shale
with a velocity of 10,000 ft/s was assumed for all
examples. The stable beam modeling of Wang and
Waltham (1995) was used to generate the shot
records and allowed a rapid and efficient calcula-
tion similar to, or faster than, simple ray-tracing
methods while producing high-accuracy results
comparable to those of finite difference wave equa-
tions. The method works by combining ray-tracing
results with wave-equation–based diffractions in
such a way that the inaccuracies associated with
the zero-wave length assumption, inherent in most
ray-trace–based methods, are removed. The synthet-
ic survey assumed a marine geometry of 25 m sepa-
ration of 48 channels in a 1.6 km cable length. The
shot interval was assumed to be 50 m. This survey
geometry resulted in 24-fold common mid-point
(CMP) gathers separated by 12.5 m. Computer stor-
age limitations and the small CMP interval required to
avoid spatial aliasing problems during processing dic-
tated the relatively low number of channels. A 40 Hz
Ricker wavelet was used as a source function.
Seismic processing was effected with the Cogniseis
FOCUS program (an interactive version of DISCO) and
consisted of a spherical divergence correction
(exponential gain vs. time), interactive velocity
analysis at 1 km intervals, normal moveout correc-
tion, 24-fold stack, and Kirchoff time migration and
band-pass filtering (10-20-60-70 Hz trapezoidal).
Deconvolution was neither necessary nor possible
because of the zero-phase Ricker function used as a
source. Dip moveout correction also was unneces-
sary because of the relatively short cable length
used for modeling.
 100° 105° 110° 115° CAMBODIA VIETNAM
MYANMAR Phnom PHILIPPINES
Penh
Andaman Ho Chi Minh City Iloilo
Yangtse South China Cebu
THAILAND
10°

AN
Sea

W
Sea
Songkhla LA
PA MINDANAO
O F C H I N A Davao
C Kudat
B L I
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R M A L AY S I A BRUNEI SABAH
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E GUILIN
L Medan Kuala
P 25° Lumpur Sibu AK Sea
O AW
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SA

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P Singapore Manado

dR
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Pontianak B O R N E O
CANTON 0°
K A L I M A N TA N

Mek
Pearl R. Padang
Balikpapan

ong
NANNING SULAWESI
HONG KONG SUMATRA
VIETNAM
Majene
Banjarmasin
Telukbetung Java Sea Banda Sea
LAOS
HANOI GULF OF Ujingpandang
SOUTH CHINA
Areas of Tower Karst 20° I n d i a n Jakarta I N D O N E S I A
TONKIN
Flores Sea
SEA O c e a n
A HAINAN
B JAVA

GH
0 400km Gunung Sewu Area Kupang TIMOR
10°

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ON
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100° 110° 120°

78° W 77° W
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18° 30' N Montego JAMAICA
Bay

STEWART TOWN
TRELAWNEY
HANOVER
ST. JAMES
Long DRY ST MARY
Bay COCKPIT HARBOUR
WESTMORLAND COUNTRY MTS. S T. A N N
CAVE VALLEY

S T. E L I Z A B E T H

DON
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FIGU
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MANDEVILLE S T. C AT H E R I N E

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18° 00' N TA
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BLACK POR0US KINGSTON
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S.
Alligator Pond Long Bay Prospect Point
Bay

0 20 Miles

Portland Pt.
Purdy and Waltham

Figure 3—General
v
location maps for topographic and synthetic seismic profiles illustrated in Figures 4–7 and 9. (A) Tower karst area of China, mod-
ified from Silar (1965). The eastern part of the more than 500,000 km2 of unbroken karst terrain in southern China is dominated by spectacular
occurrences of tower karst. Partially submerged tower karst in Vietnam’s Vung Ha Long Bay is shown, but occurrences of tower karst south of the
Red River are not illustrated. Outline of the Song Hong Basin is from Roques et al. (1997). Black circle in the Gulf of Tonkin indicates approximate
position of the drilled subsurface occurrence of tower karst illustrated in Figure 10. (B) Gunung Sewu cone karst area in south central Java and
1777

Gunung Api pinnacle karst area in Sarawak. (C) Cockpit country of Jamaica, which is largely represented by cone karst, but with some tower karst.
 1778
Modern Karst Topography

Figure 4—Diagram of China Guilin tower karst area showing the location of topographic profiles with respect to karst topography and geology. Ori-
entation of the block was selected on the basis of highlighting karst topography. The thickness variations in fault and cross section lines are due to
perspective. The two cross section lines are oriented essentially at right angles across the Mesozoic north-south–trending synclinorium of Devonian
and Carboniferous tower karst. Drogue and Bidaux (1992) believed that tower karst boundaries in this area reflect N60° and N80° striking faults, but
here, as well as in Figure 7A and C, there is no apparent relationship of karst morphology to faulting. Geology from a 1981 1:100,000 scale Academia
Sinica geological map of Guilin (Geologic Map of Guilin, 1981). Topography from a 1:25,000 scale map that has a 50 m contour interval and is not
available to the general public.
Figure 5—Block diagram of central Java Gunung Sewu cone karst area showing the location of a topographic profile with respect to karst topography
and geology. Orientation of the block was selected on the basis of highlighting karst topography. The thickness variations in fault and cross section
lines are due to perspective. Escher (1931) estimated that 40,000 hills are present in an area approximating 1300 km2. The karst cones are developed
in Miocene limestone that dips 5° to the south. Note that there seems to be a rectilinear alignment of hills toward the east and south, suggesting some
form of structural control, although a regional pattern of faulting or jointing has not as yet been identified. The alignment to the south reflects
regional dip in the same direction, but the reason for the easterly alignment is unknown. The flat areas are floored with clay that may be as much as
10 m thick and, in places, have been artificially dammed to form lakes called telegas (Waltham et al., 1983). Farther north than is illustrated in this
Purdy and Waltham

figure, the cones become rounder and flatter as they grade into thin-bedded chalky limestones (Waltham et al., 1983). The water table lies approxi-
mately 250 m below the surface of the highest cone karst area (Waltham et al., 1983). Geology from a 1963 1:500,000 scale Geological Survey of
Indonesia map of Central Java (Geologic Map of Central Java, 1963). Topography from a 1:25,000 scale map that has a 25 m contour interval and is
not available to the general public.
1779
1780 Modern Karst Topography

Figure 6—Block diagram of the Jamaica cockpit karst area showing the location of a topographic profile with
respect to karst topography and geology. Orientation of the block was selected on the basis of highlighting karst
topography. The thickness variations in fault and cross section lines are due to perspective. The Yellow Limestone
Group consists of two limestone layers separated by tuff and siliciclastics and is overlain by the relatively pure
White Limestone Group. The best development of karst occurs within the White Limestone where it is hard and
highly fractured. There, the dominant positive relief occurs in the form of cone karst separated by depressions
called cockpits because of their presumed resemblance to cock fighting areas, although towers also are present
(Sweeting, 1958; Versey, 1972). Note the strong structural alignment of White Limestone karst topography. A short
distance north of the area illustrated in this figure, the White Limestone grades into porous well-bedded pelagic
chalks (Montpelier) in which there is a general absence of both fractures and cockpit karst (Sweeting, 1972; Versey,
1972). Geology is from a 1:250,000 scale Jamaica geology map (Geologic Map of Jamaica, 1984). Topography from
the 1:50,000 scale Jamacia map (Topographic Map of Jamaica, 1973); this map has a contour interval of 250 feet. The
mismatch between the position of faults and valleys may reflect inaccuracies inherent in combining information
from maps that differ greatly in scale.

RESULTS tested during the years 1975–1987 turned out to be

The topographic profiles and synthetic seismic
results are shown in Figures 7–9. The China exam-
ples have the best synthetic seismic relief expres-
sion and the Java example the least, but there is
nothing particularly diagnostic about that relief
expression with respect to its karst derivation.
The possibility of misidentification is suggested by
Greenlee and Lehmann (1993), who reported that
15.6% of 60 worldwide Exxon carbonate buildup plays
erosional remnants. Their results support the suspicion
that many of the reported cases of buildups are noth-
ing of the sort, but instead reflect karst topography.
The presumption of misidentification, however,
does not explain the generally greater relief of the
synthetic examples compared to those commonly
encountered on seismic records of ancient solution
surfaces. This difference seems best explained by
differences in development that have important
reservoir consequences.

MODERN KARST RELIEF DEVELOPMENT
Water Input
Positive karst relief features are erosional rem-
nants produced by the dynamic action of lime-
stone solution in surrounding depressions
(Williams, 1972). The distinction between the
high-relief karst features of tropical areas com-
pared to those of temperate regions is related
largely to contrasting annual rainfall rates (precipi-
tation minus evaporation) with CO2 pressure and
temperature being significantly less important, in
that order (White, 1984, 1988). Not all high-relief
karst landforms, however, occur in tropical cli-
mates. Brook and Ford (1978) provided a notable
exception in the form of the subarctic Nahanni
karst of the Mackenzie Mountains of Canada, and
Williams (1972) noted that although the positive
karst relief in Papua New Guinea occurs within the
tropics, the climate is not always tropical because
of altitude. The important point in both these
cases is that water input is high, presumably melt-
water in the case of the Canadian example and
rainfall in the case of Papua New Guinea. Positive
karst relief, however, is not solely a function of
water input.
Uplift
In the case of the China tower karst, uplift of the
Himalayas provided the regional mechanism for a
net downward shift in the base level of erosion.
Average tower height in the Guilin area of China is
130 m (Drogue and Bidaux, 1992), and there
Williams et al. (1986) documented the “growth” of
a tower by a lowering of its base at a rate not
exceeding 23 mm/1000 yr. At least three levels of
abandoned caves are at higher elevations, and caves
also have been encountered by drilling at 80 m
below river level, testifying to the episodic nature
of the raising and lowering of the base level of ero-
sion (Sweeting, 1990). The towers thus are seen to
be older at the top than at the bottom (Ford and
Williams, 1989). Vertebrate fossil evidence from
high-level abandoned tower caves elsewhere in
China have been dated as Pliocene–middle Pleisto-
cene age (Kowalski, 1965). This, of course, is the age
of occupation of the caves and not necessarily their
age of origin. Indeed, Sweeting (1995) cited Chinese
workers as having evidence that the Guilin karst relief
is pre–Late Cretaceous or even as old as Triassic in age,
subsequently buried by Upper Cretaceous and
Tertiary sediment and then exhumed by erosion
during the Quaternary.
Further evidence of paleorelief is provided by
the Gulf of Tonkin seismic section illustrated in
Purdy and Waltham 1781
Figure 10. Here, middle Miocene sediment overlies
an upper Paleozoic tower karst surface that has
been confirmed by drilling. The buried karst relief
is similar in scale to the China tower karst synthetic
profiles illustrated in Figure 7B and D, suggesting
that the nearby onshore examples in southeastern
China and northern Vietnam are largely expres-
sions of exhumed paleokarst relief. Consistent with
this interpretation is the general regional decrease
in the elevation of tower karst surfaces from west
ˆ
to east (Silar, 1965), culminating in the partially
submerged examples of the scenic and beautiful
Vung Ha Long Bay of northern Vietnam. Viewed in
this context the still more easterly located buried
tower karst (Figure 3A) is simply a continuation of
the general theme of easterly decreasing
Himalayan uplift, uplift in this case having been
insufficient to exhume the paleokarst topography.
Whatever the precise time of origin, uplift has pro-
vided the regional mechanism for subaerial expo-
sure and continued tower karst development, and
paleo-uplift accounts for the succession of aban-
doned tower karst caves found at higher elevations
than the approximate ground level at which they
formed.
In Jamaica, extensive uplift accompanied by fold-
ing and block faulting affected the island in the
middle Miocene, and the main phase of karstifica-
tion of the upper Eocene–lower Miocene White
Limestone is inferred by both Sweeting (1958) and
Versey (1972) to have begun as a consequence of
that tectonic event. Further faulting and folding
took place subsequently and caused local elevation
of coastal deposits that include Quaternary coral
reefs. Aub in Sweeting (1972) illustrates the slope
of the cones as frequently stepped and in some
instances cliffed, suggesting an episodic lowering
of base level. We thus have evidence of a long his-
tory of subaerial exposure that includes structural
lowering of the base level of erosion.
The information available about Java cone karst
is more sketchy. Java has been and continues to be
a tectonically active area, and obviously the
marine Miocene limestone, which is said to
include coral bioherms (Waltham et al., 1983), has
been uplifted to achieve its present onshore posi-
tion and to effect the structural slope of 5° to the
south. The karst hills are terraced, indicating, as
Lehmann (1936) noted, interruptions in the karst
process, although Waltham et al. (1983) described
these as purely local rather than regional effects. The
occurrence of a few high-level abandoned phreatic
caves and other evidence of past phases of develop-
ment also may signify uplift, although Waltham et al.
(1983) were unable to recognize any regional pat-
tern and thus consider it premature to correlate
these with surface changes. Even so, the totality of
the relief observed is clearly a consequence of
 A A’
A
1782

WNW ESE
D1/2 D2d D1/2 D3r C1y D2d D3r
metres 20° 30° metres
600 600
C1 d Lower Carboniferous limestone 500 500
400 400
intercalated with dolomite or

River
300 300
shale and sandstone 200 200
intercalated with dolomite 100 100
0 0

C 1y Lower Carboniferous shale

and limestone intercalated B
with sandstone and siltstone 1.0 1.0

D3r Upper Devonian limestone

intercalated with dolomite TERTIARY SHALE
1.5 1.5

D2 d Middle Devonian limestone

Modern Karst Topography

TWT (seconds)
and dolomite
PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE
2.0 2.0
D1/2 Middle Devonian sandstone
interbedded with mudstone

C
B B’
SSW NNE
C1y C1d C1d C1y D2d D3r
metres
metres
600
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
0

1.0 1.0
D
TERTIARY SHALE

1.5 1.5

TWT (seconds)
PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE
2.0 2.0
HORIZONTAL SCALE
0 1 2 3 4 5 KM.
 Purdy and Waltham 1783

Figure 7—Topographic and synthetic seismic sections across tower karst in the Guilin area of China. Vertical exaggeration approximates 1.2×.

overlying Tertiary shales. No velocity compensation was made for the small area of siliciclastics occurring at the western end of topographic
Location of profiles is shown in Figure 4. (A and C) Topographic profiles in which the relative proportion of indicated lithologies within desig-

cross section (A). The synthetic lines are shorter than the corresponding topographic profiles due to the use of common midpoint gathers. The
nated stratigraphic intervals is arbitrary. The dip angles of strata are shown where they are known. Note that in contrast to the interpretation of
Drogue and Bidaux (1992), neither faulting nor dip seems to control the occurrence of tower karst. (B and D) Migrated synthetic seismic sections
of topographic profiles of Figure 7A and C, respectively. A velocity of 19,000 ft/s was used for the Paleozoic carbonates and 10,000 ft/s for the

synthetic profiles are also asymmetrically shortened in the direction of “shooting.” Note that high-relief steep dips in the topographic profiles
are recorded as blank areas in the synthetic seismic profiles. All reflections are those produced by modeling, and no interpretation lines have
been added. Compare B and D with the subsurface expression of karst relief illustrated in Figure 10 and with the Proterozoic relief illustrated by
Thomas et al. (1990) on an Australian Gulf of Carpentaria seismic line. Thomas et al. (1990) interpreted this relief as an expression of either
Cambrian–middle Proterozoic carbonates or Proterozoic metasediments beneath a base of Mesozoic unconformity and favored the latter inter-
pretation. Apparently unknown to these workers was the occurrence of tower karst relief in Precambrian quartz sandstone in the adjacent
onshore area of Arnhem Land (Jennings, 1979; Young, 1986). Whatever the lithology, that seismic relief seems likely to be an expression of
uplift over a time period that minimally includes
the Pleistocene.
Similarly, the spectacular karst development of
Miocene limestones in Papua New Guinea was con-
sequent on Pliocene uplift of several thousand
meters (Williams, 1972), and karst relief develop-
ment in the Canadian subarctic Nahanni area may
be at least as old as middle Pleistocene since the
area escaped Wisconsinan glaciation and may have
escaped glaciation during the Illinoian period, as
well (Brook and Ford, 1978). In either Nahanni
case, interglacial regional isostatic rebound would
have ensured the occurrence of uplift and net low-
ering of the base level of erosion
These examples are by no means exhaustive, but
they suffice to demonstrate an association of posi-
tive karst relief with uplift, suggesting that the mag-
nitude of the relief observed is composite in the
sense that it has resulted from several downward
shifts in the base level of erosion with time. This is not
to exclude a rise in base level, as for example occa-
sioned by interglacial sea level rises, but the magni-
tude of the relief observed is the result of a net down-
ward shift in base level that is at least as old as
Pleistocene in inception and probably older in
most cases. Interestingly, the general proximity of
most temperate and tropical karst regions to moun-
tain areas (Balázs, 1962) also suggests the impor-
tance of uplift in contributing to karst relief.
Uplift also induces faulting and fracturing, and it
is interesting to note that these fractures and, to a
lesser extent faults, seem to be all important in
producing preferential solution pathways for the
development of karst landforms. This is the case of
the Chinese tower karst in which the development
of towers appears largely related to the occurrence
of major fractures, although it is not always clear
from Drogue and Bidaux’s (1992) description and
figures whether fractures or faults are the more
important. In any event, the tower karst carbonates
of China were fractured by two Mesozoic tectonic
phases and one Tertiary phase (Drogue and Bidaux,
1992). Not surprisingly, extensional movements
provide the main fault access for carbonate solu-
tion (Drogue et al., 1988).
In Jamaican karst, the cockpits and conical hills
also follow the trend of joint and fault patterns
joint-controlled tower karst.

(Figure 6) (Sweeting, 1958). Joints also exert a

major inf luence on the development of Papua
New Guinea karst (Williams, 1972) and the sub-
arctic Nahanni karst (Brook and Ford, 1978).
Bedding planes become important only where
they are steeply dipping and then serve the same
function as joints in providing access to relatively
large volumes of undersaturated water. The Java
karst is the exception that probes the rule, for the
general existence of fractures or faults has not
been reported. Their existence on a local scale,
 A
1784

A A’
SW NE
metres metres
5° Dip to South
500 500
400 400
TOWN TOWN 300
300
200 200
100 100
0 0

B
1.0 1.0
Modern Karst Topography

TERTIARY SHALE
1.5 1.5
TWT (seconds)

TERTIARY LIMESTONE
2.0 2.0

HORIZONTAL SCALE
0 1 2 3 4 5 KM.

Figure 8—Topographic and synthetic seismic sections across the central Java Gunung Sewu cone karst area. Location of topographic profile shown in
Figure 5. Vertical exaggeration approximates 1.2×. (A) Topographic profile in which cone karst relief is expressed by Miocene limestones. Note that
the karst relief decreases in the 5° direction of runoff. (B) Migrated synthetic seismic profile in which a velocity of 17,500 ft/s was used for the Ter-
tiary limestone and a velocity of 10,000 ft/s for the overlying Tertiary shale. Seismic relief, although small, is still greater than that commonly seen on
conventional seismic sections of carbonate unconformities.

however, has been reported by Waltham et al.
(1983), who noted that although cave passages in
the area show little relationship to geologic
structure, there is the occasional development of
passages or segments on faults or obvious joints;
nonetheless, the rectilinear alignment of karst
cones apparent in Figure 5 demonstrates some
general str uctural control. Minimally the 5°
structural slope to the south has been important
in determining runoff direction and a correspond-
ing alignment of karst relief in the same direction
(Figure 5). Runoff direction also has been report-
ed by Williams (1972) as the most consistent influ-
ence on alignment of karst features in Papua New
Guinea.
Lithology
Without exception, the limestones comprising
modern tower karst, in particular, but also cone
karst, are variously described as being hard and
massively bedded to the point of commonly being
referred to as crystalline limestone. In China, only
massive carbonates can sustain the tower karst
slopes of 60–90°. Tower karst slopes are steepest in
meter-bedded, sparry allochemical limestone, and
in one of these formations (Rongxian) the average
matrix porosity is only 0.68% (Sweeting, 1995).
Micritic limestones are more thinly bedded and
give rise to less steep, asymmetrical slopes with
gentler dip than scarp slopes (Sweeting, 1995). The
sparry limestones are four times as cavernous as
their micritic karst counterparts, even though the
micritic limestones occupy an area almost three
times larger (Sweeting, 1995).
In Jamaica, the coarsely crystalline White Lime-
stone karst of the cockpit country has virtually no
porosity and permeability other than that con-
tributed by fractures and fissures (Sweeting, 1958;
Versey, 1972). Northward, the White Limestone
grades into a porous, well-bedded pelagic chalk
(Montpelier chalks) in which there is a general
absence of both fractures and cockpit karst. In Java,
the cone karst limestone exhibits a considerable
range of lithology, including reef limestones, but
the cones are not simple exhumed bioherms as has
been suggested for some of them (Sartono, 1964;
Waltham et al., 1983). In many outcrops the cone
limestones are said to have an almost structureless
appearance and toward the north grade into thin-
bedded chalky limestone where concomitantly
the cones are reduced in height, tending to disap-
pear northward beyond the facies transition area
(Waltham et al., 1983).
Similarly, the positive karst relief in Palawan is
developed on relatively pure massive limestone
lacking smaller visible-solution porosity, but having
Purdy and Waltham 1785
large-scale secondary porosity developed along frac-
tures and joints (Longman and Brownlee, 1980). In
the Darai Hills area of Papua New Guinea, karst
landform development is partly related to lithology,
with the denser limestone giving rise to cockpit
karst and the chalky porous limestones being char-
acterized by generally flat terrain interspersed with
an intricate network of solution-enlarged joints
(Williams, 1972).
Collectively, these examples suffice to demon-
strate the importance of facies-related induration
in contributing to karst landform relief because
brittleness increases susceptibility to faulting and,
more important, fracturing because of its greater
areal extent. What remains puzzling, however, is
the how and when of lithification. Uplift is the
obvious mechanism to produce fracturing, but this
presupposes a high degree of lithification prior to
uplift, and whether this induration took place in the
subaerial or subsurface environment is unknown.
Unfortunately the disparity in timing between lithi-
fication and fracturing is something karst geomor-
phologists have generally neglected; nonetheless,
it seems clear that uplift of a well-indurated car-
bonate provides the mechanism for fracturing,
faulting, and subaerial exposure leading to the
development of positive karst relief in a high-rain-
fall climate. The form of that relief would depend
on the direction of runoff, the network of frac-
tures, and, to a lesser extent, the occurrence of
faults. Resulting karst residuals would take the
form of tower karst where surface runoff prevailed
over vertical drainage, as is the case where massive
limestone is undercut by streams or swamp water
or flood-plain waters generally (Williams, 1988). In
these instances the water table is essentially at
ground level (Figure 1), and the undercutting in
combination with subvertical joint or fault enlarge-
ment would leave isolated tower karst limestone
remnants in their wake. Solution enlargement of
closely spaced joints would produce the pinnacle
karst of Sarawak (Figure 11) and Palawan, without
the necessity of having a near-surface water table.
Cone karst would appear as solution residuals
where the vadose zone was thick, ensuring the
prevalence of vertical drainage to a relatively deep
water table (Williams, 1988). When the intervening
dissolving depressions reached the level of the
water table, dominant vertical drainage would be
replaced by lateral drainage undercutting the lime-
stone residuals and transforming cones into towers
(Williams, 1988). Alternatively, towers may become
cones in instances where uplift significantly lowers
the water table from its previous near-surface posi-
tion and lateral drainage is replaced by vertical
drainage (Williams, 1988); otherwise, there is no
genetic relationship between the two. The impor-
tant point, however, is that the magnitude of the
1786 Modern Karst Topography

AA
WSW
metres Ech Ewl
700 PARISH OF
ST. JAMES PARISH OF TRELAWNY
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

HORIZONTAL SCALE
0 1 2 3 4 5 KM.
B
0.0

0.5
MIGRATION
DIFFRACTIONS
TWT (seconds)

1.0
TERTIARY SHALE

1.5

2.0
TERTIARY LIMESTONE

2.5

A’
ENE
C

Hampshire Lane
metres
Owb Qa Owb Qa 700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

D
0.0

MIGRATION
DIFFRACTIONS
0.5

1.0
TERTIARY SHALE

1.5

2.0
TERTIARY LIMESTONE

2.5
 Purdy and Waltham 1787

Figure 9—Topographic and synthetic seismic sections across the cockpit country of Jamaica. Each section is shown in
two adjoining parts. Location of profile is shown in Figure 6. Vertical exaggeration approximates 2.5×. (A and C) Topo-
graphic profile in which the carbonates shown lie entirely within the karst relief, forming the middle Eocene–lower
Miocene White Limestone Group. Ewl = Troy/Claremont-Somerset-Swanswick formations within the White Limestone
Group and Owbs overlying Walderston-Brown’s Town Formation within the same group. Relief expression seems to be
more rounded in the Owb limestones. Qa is Quaternary alluvium. Note that faulting is in some instances correlated
with relief expression. (B and D) Migrated synthetic seismic profile in which velocity assumptions are the same as
those in Figure 8B. In contrast to the other synthetic seismic profiles, migration noise has not been suppressed com-
pletely. Topographic relief is largely “smoothed over” by the synthetic seismic profile.

relief observed on these karst residuals is attrib-
utable to the net lowering of base level during the
Pliocene–Pleistocene.
RESERVOIR IMPLICATIONS
Uplift
In Jamaica, water f low beneath the cockpit
plateau is effected mainly by solution-enlarged
fractures and fault zones, and the limestone matrix
of microinterparticle or intercrystalline pores has
negligible water storage capacity except where it
consists of rubbly limestone (Versey, 1972). In con-
trast, the basinal chalk facies to the north is charac-
terized by considerable microporosity and a gener-
al absence of fractures and, consequently, has a
high water storage capacity (Versey, 1972). Here,
water f low is directed through the body of the
rock rather than concentrated in specific channels
(Versey, 1972). Similarly, the northern chalky
facies of the Java Gunung Sewu cone karst is large-
ly noncavernous (Waltham et al., 1983), suggesting
comparable high water storage capacity.
Analogous karst oil reservoirs with a water drive
would be characterized by extremely high initial
well productivity followed by rapid drawdown, dra-
matic increase in water cut, and water coning. To
maximize recovery, individual well productivity
would have to be curtailed to the point of allowing
matrix oil sufficient time to replace produced frac-
ture and karst conduit oil, assuming of course that
there was sufficient matrix porosity available for
significant oil storage. In these karst reservoirs, re-
covery efficiency would be geared to matrix poros-
ity: the higher the matrix porosity, the greater the
rate of deliverability of matrix oil to produced frac-
ture and karst conduit oil.
The Renqiu field in the Bohai basin of China is an
example of this reservoir type. Conventionally Renqiu
and related fields in the Bohai basin have been
referred to as buried hills; however, they are not
paleogeomorphic traps but rather eroded fault
blocks in which the preexisting karst reservoir
has been displaced by faults to create a structural
trap (Zhai and Zha, 1982). Karstification of the
Precambrian and lower Paleozoic carbonate reser-
voirs occurred several times, but most of the depo-
sitional and diagenetic porosity was obliterated
prior to Tertiary karstification and fracturing.
Porosity and permeability occur in the form of frac-
ture-oriented solution channels, vugs, and caves.
Most of the reservoired oil occurs in the matrix,
and to maximize recovery from the water-wet
reservoir, it has been necessary to inject water at a
rate at which there is a continuous capillary dis-
placement of oil in the matrix for water in the frac-
ture system (imbibition) (see Horn, 1990).
Published seismic records over the “buried
hills” structures show no evidence of positive karst
relief, although caverns with heights greater than
2.5 m have been encountered in drilling the
thick and massive Ordovician limestone reser-
voirs (Zhai and Zha, 1982). The absence of posi-
tive karst relief may reflect a drier climate or the
limited resolution of older land seismic lines.
Alternatively, the dolomite lithology of the main
Precambrian producing reservoir may be a con-
tributing factor because of its lower solubility rel-
ative to limestone and its relatively thin-bedded
nature. Both factors may account for the fact that
only small caverns occur within this reservoir unit
(Zhai and Zha, 1982). The brittleness of dolomite
relative to limestone accounts for its higher fracture
density and the coarser grained dolomites evidence
more dissolution than their finer grained counter-
parts (Horn, 1990).
The Spanish Amposta and Casablanca fields in
the Gulf of Valencia are further examples of the
same uplift, fractured karst relationship (Watson,
1982; Seemann et al., 1990).
Sea Level Fall
Lowering of base level also can be effected by a
nonuplift-related lowering of sea level; however,
the potential for relief development is seriously
reduced because the magnitude of sea level fall
pales by comparison to the lowering of base level
that can be accomplished by uplift. For example,
compare the 200–300 m of China tower karst
relief attributable to uplift (Figures 4, 7) with the
 1788

MIDDLE MIOCENE

? LOWER MIOCENE

1.0 sec.

UPPER PALEOZOIC
CARBONATES
Modern Karst Topography

2.0 sec.

0 1 2 KM.

Figure 10—Migrated seismic section across drilled tower karst in the Gulf of Tonkin. The marked horizon is the top of a tower karst surface devel-
oped on upper Paleozoic limestone and has been confirmed as such by drilling results on the large, centrally located structure. The smaller struc-
tures to the right are remarkably similar to those of the synthetic seismic profile illustrated in Figure 7D and represent isolated karst towers that the
Chinese refer to as fenglin (Sweeting, 1995). The drilled structure would seem to represent a cluster of at least two karst hills with a shallow depth of
depression (saddle between the two peaks) between them, called fengcong by the Chinese (Sweeting, 1995). The Gulf of Tonkin example is similar to
one of the synthetic seismic features illustrated in Figure 7B. Middle Miocene sediments overlie the crest of the drilled structure, but regional evi-
dence suggests that the onlapping section on the flank of the centrally located structure may be as old as early Miocene. There is certainly an
unmarked unconformity separating the two onlapping sequences. Immediately above the karst surface to the left of the small graben is a small-scale
indication of downlapping on that surface that may represent debris flows and mass movements similar to those discussed by Derbyshire (1983) for
south China. Conceivably the graben may represent a solution collapse feature. The conflicting sense of throw for Tertiary and karst layers on the
longest fault suggests strike-slip movement perhaps related to left-lateral movement on the well-known onshore Red River fault system. The similari-
ty in relief expression between this seismic example and the synthetic seismic examples illustrated in Figure 7B and D suggests that the onshore
karst relief is largely an expression of exhumed paleorelief, which does not preclude ongoing karst relief development in the Quaternary, but cer-
tainly minimizes it relative to the generation of the paleorelief.
 Purdy and Waltham 1789

Figure 11—Aerial view of Sarawak Gunung Api karst pinnacles. The airplane provides an indication of scale. The
photograph is modified from a Singapore Straits Times newspaper advertisement. The spirelike pinnacles are up
to 45 m high and 25 m wide at the base and are carbonate-solution residuals resulting from selective leaching of a
widely spaced, rectangular, vertical fracture pattern in the Eocene–Miocene Melinau limestone (Osmaston, 1980;
Osmaston and Sweeting, 1982). Similar fracture-related landforms occur on the Philippine island of Palawan
(assegais karst of Longman and Brownlee, 1980) and on Mt. Kaijende, Papua New Guinea (arête and pinnacle karst
of Williams, 1972), but the Gunung Api pinnacles are said to be the best known example (Ford and Williams, 1989).

approximately 100–130 m lowering of sea level
during the last glaciation. Even the relatively low
relief of the Jamaica cockpit country shown in
Figure 9 exceeds 200 m in places. The reduced
magnitude of this passive fall in sea level (i.e., not
directly associated with uplift) probably is a major
factor in contributing to the generally reduced
relief of subaerially exposed carbonate surfaces in
the geologic record compared to those of modern
karst features. For example, maximum relief on any
one of the ten late Paleozoic Horseshoe atoll sub-
aerial solution unconformities appears limited to
76 m (Schatzinger, 1983).
Passive sea level fall, as opposed to uplift, also
reduces the potential for the occurrence of relat-
ed fracturing and faulting and therefore tends to
militate against the general development of posi-
tive karst relief. In this regard, it is instructive to
compare the onshore Sarawak Gunung Api car-
bonate with that of the subsurface offshore cen-
tral Leuconia buildup illustrated by Epting (1989).
In both cases (Figures 12, 13) middle and upper
Miocene carbonates have been subaerially ex-
posed. The onshore Melinau limestone is fractured,
poorly stratified, and recrystallized to the point of
obliterating fossil remains (Liechti et al., 1960),
whereas the offshore example is unfractured and
characterized by extensive dissolution of skeletal
aragonite in grain-dominated fabrics and the occur-
rence of chalky microintercrystalline porosity in
mud-supported carbonates. No karst morphology
is apparent on either the offshore seismic records
or the onshore topographic profile, although
Figure 11 clearly demonstrates its onshore
occurrence as does the existence of the well-
known Gunung Api Mulu cave, said to have the
largest cave room or chamber known (Ford and
Williams, 1989). The absence of karst morpholo-
gy on the topographic profile probably reflects
the necessity of contour generalization on the
topographic map where the change in elevation
approximates 1500 m in a distance of 5 km and is
even steeper within parts of that profile. Be that
as it may, the difference in history between the
1790 Modern Karst Topography

Figure 12—Block diagram of Sarawak Gunung Api topography and geology showing the location of the topographic
profile illustrated in Figure 13A. Orientation of the block was selected on the basis of highlighting karst topogra-
phy. The thickness variations in the fault and cross section lines are due to perspective. The Melinau limestone
forms the northwest flank of an anticlinorium uplifted in the late Miocene (Doust, 1981) and tilted during the Qua-
ternary (Wilford and Wall, 1965). The younger part of the limestone sequence is said to be overlain conformably by
Pliocene sediments, suggesting that the limestone was probably not exposed until the late Pliocene or early Pleis-
tocene (Wilford and Wall, 1965). Abandoned caves and terraces formed as base level dropped, although it is not
clear from Wilford and Wall’s (1965) description whether these specifically occur in the Melinau limestone or on
the same age limestones elsewhere in Sarawak. The indicated faults are probable rather than proven. Geology from
the 1:500,000 scale Geologic Map of Sarawak (1982), Geological Survey of Malaysia. Topography from a 1:50,000
scale Mulu 4/114/16 sheet (Topographic Map of Mulu, 1963) that has a contour interval of 100 ft.

two carbonates is that the onshore carbonate was
uplifted in the late Miocene or Pliocene (Doust,
1981; Ramli and Ho Kiam Fui, 1982), although prob-
ably not exposed until the late Pliocene or early
Pleistocene (Wilford and Wall, 1965), whereas the
offshore carbonate, although subaerially exposed
during the Miocene, was never uplifted but rather
was progressively downlapped toward the
north–northwest by siliciclastics from the middle to
late Miocene (Epting, 1989). This difference in his-
tory basically is the difference between subaerial
exposure induced by a passive drop in sea level vs.
that produced by uplift. As a consequence, the
extensive moldic and vuggy porosity of the offshore
central Leuconia carbonates provides good gas
reservoirs devoid of the production problems that
commonly attend fractured reservoirs with little
matrix porosity.
Duration of Subaerial Exposure
In either the uplift or passive sea level fall case,
the reservoir consequences of the time duration
of subaerial exposure would seem to be impor-
tant. Both Esteban (1991) and Kerans et al. (1997)
tried to address this problem by relating karst dia-
genetic attributes to the time-rock gap between
overlying sediment and underlying solution
unconformities. This can be misleading because
unfortunately there is seldom any way of knowing
to what extent intervening age sediment may have
A A A’
NW SE
metres metres
Melinau lst. Melinau lst.
2000 2000
35° 70°
1800 1800

1600 1600

1400 1400

1200 1200

Sungal Melinau River

1000 1000

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0

B
1.0 1.0

TWT (seconds)
TERTIARY SHALE
1.5 1.5

TERTIARY LIMESTONE
2.0 2.0

0 1 KM.

C 28680 28720 28760

1.0 1.0

TOP CARBONATE
Time in seconds

TRUNCATION

STRINGERS STRINGERS

2.0 2.0

PULL UP

Figure 13—Comparison of Sarawak Gunung Api topographic and synthetic seismic profiles with the seismic expres-
sion of an offshore Sarawak central Leuconia buildup. Vertical exaggeration approximates 1.25×. (A) Topographic pro-
file (location shown in Figure 12) showing the northwest tilt of Melinau limestone bedding. The dips indicated are gen-
eralized from the 60–80° dips at the base to the 20–50° dips at the top of the stratigraphic succession (Wilford, 1961).
The general absence of karst morphology probably reflects an artifact caused by the necessity of generalizing where
the limestone elevation changes some 1500 m in a distance of 5 km, and the rate of elevation change is even greater
within parts of that profile. Be that as it may, Figure 11 demonstrates that karst morphology does indeed exist. (B)
Migrated synthetic seismic profile based on the topographic profile illustrated in Figure 13A, assuming the unconformi-
ty surface on the limestone had been covered with Tertiary shale. Velocity assumptions are the same as those in Figure
8B. (C) Seismic profile of offshore Sarawak central Luconia pinnacle-type buildup (modified from Epting, 1989).
Although described as a buildup by Epting (1989), there is clear evidence of erosional truncation on either side of the
illustrated relief and little evidence of constructional geometries within the buildup; nonetheless, there is no evidence
of karst relief despite the fact that the carbonate section has been subaerially exposed several times in its history (Ramli
and Ho Kiam Fui, 1982; Epting, 1989). The two limestones are similar in age, although the Eocene–Miocene stratigraph-
ic range of the Melinau limestone is greater than the early–late Miocene age of the offshore carbonates. The similarity
in seismic expression between the synthetic seismic section in (B) and that of (C) is not matched by corresponding
reservoir lithologies. The Melinau limestone is fractured, poorly stratified, and recrystallized to the point of obliterating
fossil remains (Liechti et al., 1960), whereas the offshore example (C) is unfractured and characterized by extensive dis-
solution of skeletal aragonite in grain-dominated fabrics and the occurrence of chalky textured microintercrystalline
porosity in mud-supported fabrics. The difference in reservoir character lies in the uplift history of the onshore exam-
ple (B) and the passive sea level fall history of the offshore example (C).
1792 Modern Karst Topography
been removed either prior or subsequent to the
development of the solution unconformity. In addi-
tion, the time duration of exposure indicated by
some of these calculations (extremes of 50–200 m.y.)
is questionable in the context of the commonplace
dynamic changes in earth history unless supported
by independent evidence.
CONCLUSIONS
Synthetic seismic profiles of modern tropical
karst relief indicate in most cases that relief should
be apparent on conventional seismic sections. The
magnitude of that relief is a response to regional
uplift and consequent lowering of the base level of
erosion in a high-precipitation climate. The posi-
tive relief consists of solution residuals that are
being consumed by dynamic solution processes
operating in the surrounding areas. The ultimate
fate of these positive karst features under condi-
tions of continued subaerial exposure is their com-
plete removal. Their chance of preservation in the
geologic record is correspondingly reduced unless
the karstification process is aborted by the deposi-
tion of overlying sediment, an event not likely to
occur in areas of regional uplift. Even so, such situ-
ations do occur in the geologic record, with dis-
tinct reservoir consequences.
Uplifted grain-dominated carbonates seem to be
particularly well lithified and, therefore, prone to
develop fault and fracture avenues of solution that
leave tower and cone karst as intervening residuals.
Whether this lithification process occurs in the sub-
surface or a prior subaerial environment is unknown,
but the net effect is to minimize matrix porosity in
the grain-dominated lithologies. Carbonates with
this history essentially behave as fractured reser-
voirs. In the case of nonfractured karst residuals,
the slope of the uplifted carbonate surface con-
trols runoff direction and resulting karst morpholo-
gy. In this case, solution conduits and caves provide
large-scale permeability avenues. In both cases,
however, recovery efficiency is geared to matrix
porosity: the higher the matrix porosity, the greater
the rate of deliverability of matrix oil to produced
fracture and karst conduit oil. Recovery efficiency
is generally higher in these reservoirs than in their
uplifted counterparts.
In contrast, a passive (not necessarily eustatic)
drop in sea level tends to militate against the gen-
eral development of positive karst relief in terms
of the relatively reduced magnitude of base-level
lowering. The slopes of the subaerially exposed
surfaces generally are the lesser ones of deposi-
tion rather than uplift and, therefore, the probabil-
ity of developing runoff directions with more than
a few degrees of slope and consequent karst relief
is correspondingly reduced. Additionally, these sub-
aerially exposed surfaces have reduced potential
for the occurrence of coeval fracturing and fault-
ing. Extensive moldic and vuggy porosity domi-
nates, and permeability is provided largely by inter-
connected solution channels.
The paradox between the widespread occurrence
of modern positive-karst relief in high-precipitation
climates and its apparent absence on seismic sections
is thus explained as a consequence of (1) possible
misidentification of that relief as reefs and (2) the rel-
ative rarity of karst-relief preservation in uplifted
areas. Of the two, the latter seems by far the more
important. The karst relief distinction between the
consequences of uplift vs. passive sea level fall and
their corresponding reservoir attributes is an expres-
sion of a continuum rather than a simple either/or
relationship. Among other things, the relationship
depends on the degree of uplift, the absolute fall in
passive sea level, lithology, climate, and the duration
of subaerial exposure. What we have emphasized
here are end-member relationships.
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1794 Modern Karst Topography
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Edward G. Purdy
Ed Purdy graduated in agriculture
from Rutgers University and re-
ceived his Ph.D. in geology from
Columbia University, New York. He
taught at Rice University, Houston,
Texas, for 6 years before joining Esso
Exploration for 21 years as a region-
al geologist evaluating international
exploration opportunities. For the
past 13 years he has worked for his
own company as an international
exploration and production consultant. His research inter-
ests continue to be in frontier exploration in general and
on carbonates in particular.
Dave Waltham
Dave Waltham graduated in
physics from the University of
Leicester and obtained his Ph.D.
from London University in seismic
processing. After working in the seis-
mic industry for several years, he
moved to Royal Holloway, University
of London, where he is now a senior
lecturer with research interests in
forward modeling of geophysical,
geodynamic, structural, and sedi-
mentological processes.