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Mantle driven cretaceous flare-ups in Cordilleran arcs

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Mantle driven cretaceous flare-ups in Cordilleran arcs

Ana María Martínez Ardila a,b,⁎, Scott R. Paterson a, Vali Memeti b, Miguel A. Parada c, Pablo G. Molina c
a
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, 3651 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States
b
Department of Geological Sciences, California State University, Fullerton, 800 N State College Blvd, CA 92831, United States
c
Departamento de Geología, Centro de Excelencia en Geotermia de los Andes (CEGA), Universidad de Chile, Plaza Ercilla 803, Santiago, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Continental arcs display episodic magmatism characterized by flare-ups and lulls. Models published to explain
Received 9 July 2018 these patterns invoke (1) upper plate crustal processes driven by internal feedback; (2) episodic mantle melting
Accepted 7 December 2018 processes, or (3) external lower plate tectonic events.
Available online 15 December 2018
This study addresses the role of mantle magmas during flare-ups in Mesozoic Cretaceous continental arcs using
geochronological and geochemical data for three Cretaceous arc segments: the western Peninsular Ranges Bath-
Keywords:
Mantle
olith (wPRB), the Peruvian Coastal Batholith (PCB), and the Chilean Coastal Batholith (CCB).
Crust In all three arc segments, bedrock zircon age patterns defining a flare-up from ~125 to 90 Ma characterized by
Flare-up gabbro to granite units with Sri b 0.705, ƐNd from 0 to +7.5, 208Pb/204Pb from 38.2 to 38.7, and 206Pb/204Pb
Arcs from 18.3 to 18.7. These values project well towards a depleted mantle source. Areal measurements show that
Isotopes gabbro forms ~18% (wPRB), ~24% (PCB), and ~10% (CCB) of exposed plutonic material. AFC modeling indicates
Assimilation that these magmas have experienced fractional crystallization with only minor crustal assimilation (b20–30%),
implying that the great majority of these magmas are mantle-derived. Thus the cause of these flare-ups must
be episodic mantle processes: crustal melting was not required for triggering the flare-up, and only played a sec-
ondary role in modifying melt compositions. It remains unclear if the episodic mantle processes reflect internal
feedback(s) or external tectonically driven processes.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Studies of continental magmatic arcs in the North and South
American Cordilleras have recognized patterns of episodic magmatism.
Episodicity is characterized by periods of high magma addition rates
(MARs) called flare-ups that are separated by periods of low MARs,
called lulls (Ducea, 2001; DeCelles et al., 2009; de Silva et al., 2015;
Paterson and Ducea, 2015; Kirsch et al., 2016). Episodic patterns are
documented either by (1) the relative abundance of igneous bedrock
and their ages (Condie et al., 2011; Ducea et al., 2015; Paterson and
Ducea, 2015; Kirsch et al., 2016), (2) the relative abundances of different
detrital zircon ages in sediments derived from the arc, or (3) volume es-
timates of plutonic and volcanic rocks produced during a flare-up versus
a lull (Paterson and Ducea, 2015; Kirsch et al., 2016).
Why magmatism in arcs is episodic remains an unresolved and
exciting question. Episodicity may reflect a combination of internal
feedback processes in the upper plate, mantle, or crust within the arc
(Ducea, 2001; DeCelles et al., 2009; Chin et al., 2015; DeCelles et al.,
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail: amartinez-ardila@fullerton.edu (A.M. Martínez Ardila).
2015; Cao et al., 2016), and/or external forcing by tectonic events out-
side the arc (Hughes and Mahood, 2008; Zellmer, 2008; de Silva et al.,
2015). Large, linked geochemical and geochronological data sets are
needed to expand our knowledge about the non-steady-state magmatic
activity of continental arcs, to test the validity of the proposed models,
and to better evaluate the role that mantle-crust interactions play.
Mantle melting drives magmatism at mid-oceanic ridges, hot spots
and ocean island arcs, but its role in driving magmatism in continental
margin arcs has remained contentious. In this paper, we first briefly in-
troduce proposed models that attempt to explain continental arc flare-
ups and then explore in more detail the role that mantle magma input
plays. We examine the geochemical and geochronological evolution of
mafic versus felsic plutonic rocks formed during the Late Cretaceous,
the volumetrically largest Mesozoic Cordilleran flare-up in the western
Peninsular Ranges Batholith (wPRB) in California, the Peruvian Coastal
Batholith (PCB) and the Central Chilean Coastal Batholith (CCCB).
Chemical data suggest that mantle-derived magmas drive flare-ups in
these arc segments with moderate to little amounts of crustal materials
involved, implying that mantle processes drove these flare-ups. A com-
parison to other subduction-related arc segments suggests that mantle
processes may commonly be the dominant driver of flare-ups and that

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2018.12.007
0024-4937/© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
20 A.M. Martínez Ardila et al. / Lithos 326–327 (2019) 19–27
crustal cyclic (?) processes largely play a second-order effect in the de-
gree to which the mantle signature is modified.
2. Review of flare-up models
Several models have been published in the last decade to explain
cyclic and episodic patterns of magmatism and deformation in arcs.
Models invoke either internal feedback driven by intra-arc cyclic pro-
cesses fairly independent of plate motions, or external controls caused
by events outside the arc and driven by plate tectonic processes
(Haschke et al., 2006; DeCelles et al., 2009; Chapman et al., 2013;
Ducea et al., 2015; Paterson and Ducea, 2015; Kirsch et al., 2016).
A popular crustal “internal feedback” model originally described by
Ducea (2001), Ducea and Barton (2007) and DeCelles et al. (2009,
2015) involves periodic episodes of high flux arc magmatism fueled
by underthrusting foreland lithosphere. In this model, underthrusting
drives increased melting and arc magmatism and, along with associated
tectonism, produces thick crust, mountains, and dense melt residues
that during crustal thickening change to eclogite (Ducea, 2001;
Sobolev et al., 2006). When the eclogite residues reach a critical mass,
they founder into the mantle causing isostatic adjustment of the topo-
graphic surface and rapid regional elevation gain in response to removal
of the dense root (Garzione et al., 2006; Pelletier et al., 2010). Increased
topography drives renewed rapid foreland underthrusting that re-
charges the magmatic system, and the cycle is rejuvenated.
External control models involve events outside the crustal arc col-
umn, such as plate reconfigurations and changes in mantle flow and
magma production (e.g., Hughes and Mahood, 2008; Zellmer, 2008;
de Silva et al., 2015). Specifically, if arc systems are controlled by param-
eters of the down-going plate, such as convergence rate, age, and sub-
duction angle, then flare-ups and lulls would likely be widely
distributed along the arc and occur as events that coincide with periods
of global plate reorganization (Kirsch et al., 2016).
Mantle melt input has also been cited as playing an important role in
driving flare-ups in which the mass transfer and heat input of mantle-
derived magmas promotes fusion of crustal rocks (Gaetani and Grove,
1998; Ulmer, 2001). Evidence supporting this idea comes from studies
of hybrid intermediate and felsic plutonic rocks in the Famatinian arc
(Otamendi et al., 2012) and mafic and felsic magmatism with isotopi-
cally primitive values and their respective contemporaneity (Condie,
1998; Pietranik et al., 2008; Sun et al., 2010; Condie et al., 2011;
Kimbrough et al., 2015; Schwartz et al., 2017).
Other potential processes, such as episodic volatile fluxing into the
mantle wedge and episodic melting and ascent scenarios within the
mantle wedge may drive episodic mantle melting (Sekine and Wyllie,
1982; Scott and Stevenson, 1984; Nicolas, 1986; Billen and Arredondo,
2018). Research conducted at subduction zones by Peacock (2001) and
Obara (2002) suggested that episodic volatile flux causes intermediate-
depth earthquakes, and instances of episodic volatile fluxing into the
mantle can be indicated by slab seismicity (Manning, 2004). Episodic
melt extraction events suggested by Nicolas (1986) trace successive
stages of melt extraction from mantle diapirs and explain how diapiric
rise and melting can generate the discontinuous and episodic processes
of melt extraction. The periodicity of such events depends on the spread-
ing rate. Scott (1984) studied the process of melt migration in the Earth's
mantle by applying a numerical experiment and suggested that episodic
melt ascent processes would lead to episodic eruptions. Most recent
studies of mantle flow and subduction zone dynamics conclude that ep-
isodic motion of the slab and subduction rates are a consequence of epi-
sodic mantle flow which depends on the viscosity of the asthenosphere.
Changes in mantle viscosity might thus result in the variation of subduc-
tion rates that could contribute to the episodic patterns observed in arc
magmatism (Jadamec and Billen, 2010; Billen and Arredondo, 2018).
Also, studies of the timing and magnitudes of magmatism in oceanic
arcs show that magmatism is mantle-derived, sometimes episodic, and
that flare-ups are driven by mantle processes. The evidence from
oceanic arcs strongly supports the idea that flare-ups can be driven by
mantle processes without crustal involvement (Ishizuka et al., 2011;
Reagan et al., 2013; Jicha and Jagoutz, 2015).
3. Geological setting
The Cretaceous wPRB, PCB, and CCCB, arc segments of the North and
South American Cordillera provide examples of continental margin arc
flare-ups. In the following sections, the tectonic and magmatic history
of the selected Cordilleran arc sections is briefly summarized. Isotopes
and age compilations of the three arc segments presented in this
paper (Figs. 1 and 2) are focused on the Late Cretaceous with particular
emphasis on documenting the mantle signature and reservoirs.
3.1. Western Peninsular Ranges Batholith (35–33° N)
The northern part of the Cretaceous Peninsular Ranges Batholith be-
tween about 33° and 35°N is divided into western and eastern zones
with distinct ages and chemistry (Baird et al., 1979; Kistler et al., 2014;
Kimbrough et al., 2015). The numerous western PRB plutons (and some
volcanic rocks) emplaced in an oceanic arc setting have ages of ca.
134–108 Ma. The many central PRB plutons have ages of ca. 111–93 Ma
and record the west to east progression of subduction transitioning
from an oceanic to a continental arc setting. The few large eastern PRB
plutons were emplaced in a continental arc setting at ca. 98–91 Ma
(Hildebrand and Whalen, 2014b; Morton et al., 2014). The western
zone (wPRB) is characterized by gabbro (~14%) and a wide range of
more siliceous compositions with primitive island-arc geochemical af-
finities (Silver and Chappell, 1988; Todd et al., 2003; Kimbrough et al.,
2015). In the eastern zone, gabbros are rarely exposed (~1%) and are
dominated by a tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) suite that
composes ~50% of the exposed rocks (Kimbrough and Grove, 2006).
3.2. Peruvian Coastal Batholith (6–18° S)
Between 6° S and 18° S, the Cretaceous marks the intrusion of the
Peruvian Coastal batholith (PCB), a linear belt of calc-alkaline granitoids
emplaced from 130 to 60 Ma (Pitcher et al., 1985; Mukasa, 1986;
Hildebrand and Whalen, 2014a). The PCB consists of plutons with bi-
modal magma compositions, exhibits a west to east change in chemical
and isotopic signatures and increase in the thickness of the continental
crust (Atherton and Petford, 1996), potentially due to subduction
shallowing (Coira et al., 1982). Five segments are recognized, but only
two mapped in any detail: the 400 km long Lima segment and the
1000 km long Arequipa segment (Pitcher et al., 1985). The southern
Arequipa segment is influenced by the rise of magmas through thicker
Precambrian and Paleozoic basement with evidence of higher crustal
contamination. The northern Arequipa segment is characterized by a
larger proportion of gabbro at the present erosion level (~30%) and by
a diversity of more siliceous rocks including quartz diorite, tonalite,
granite, and monzogranite all with primitive geochemical affinities.
The gabbro plutons occur over the entire width of the batholith, but
most of them along the western flank (Regan, 1985).
3.3. Chilean Coastal Batholith (18°– 35°S)
In the Chilean Andes, the Cretaceous batholith is located in the west-
ern belt and divided into two tectono-magmatic domains: central
Chilean Coastal Batholith (18°–35°S) and Patagonian Batholith (42°–
55°S). The central Chilean Coastal Batholith (CCCB) is characterized by
Mesozoic plutonic belts with eastward decreasing ages and isotopic en-
richments that culminate with primitive Late Cretaceous plutons dom-
inated by mafic compositions (~60%) hosted in Early Cretaceous
volcanic-sedimentary successions (Parada et al., 1988). Emplacement
started in the Early Mesozoic at the end of an extensional tectonic re-
gime (Parada et al., 1988, 1999; Hervé et al., 2007; Parada et al., 2007;
 A.M. Martínez Ardila et al. / Lithos 326–327 (2019) 19–27 21

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the Cretaceous arc system along the western margin of North and South America and the locations of samples and distribution of U—Pb ages of intrusive
rocks. Inset maps of the selected arc sections and distribution of U—Pb ages and isotope data. Abbreviations are as follows: WPRB = Western Peninsular Ranges Batholith, PCB = Peruvian
Coastal Batholith, CCCB = Central Chilean Coastal Batholith. See the supplementary material for data sources.
22 A.M. Martínez Ardila et al. / Lithos 326–327 (2019) 19–27
Fig. 2. Age histograms and magmatic flare-ups for different domains of Cretaceous arcs in North and South America. Mafic magmatism is indicated only for the selected flare-ups. Total
number of samples with U—Pb zircon ages (n). See the supplementary material for data sources.
Parada et al., 2005). Gabbro, diorite, granodiorite, granite, and
monzogranite are the dominant lithologies. Very low initial 87Sr/S6Sr ra-
tios and positive ƐNd for these CCCB plutons and associated volcanic
rocks (mostly ca. 0.7035 and between +4.0 and + 5.0) confirm deriva-
tion of the magmas from the upper mantle with little to no continental
crustal involvement (Parada et al., 1988). Isotopic variations recorded in
Cretaceous igneous rocks are thought to be a consequence of continuous
lithospheric delamination and associated asthenosphere upwelling and
melting that started in the Early Jurassic (Parada et al., 1999; Parada et
al., 2005).
4. Methods and results
The role of the mantle for triggering flare-ups was examined using
geochronological and geochemical datasets from all three arc segments:
wPRB, PCB, and CCB. The compiled geochemical and geochronological
data (see the supplementary data) are mainly derived from published
data and supplemented by the Central Andes geochemical and geochro-
nology database (http://andes.gzg.geo.uni-goettingen.de). Data for the
PCB are also supplemented with new data from the lead author and
from Ben Clausen at Loma Linda University.
4.1. New U—Pb zircon geochronology
U—Pb single zircon ages were obtained for the PCB from nine plu-
tonic samples at the Arizona Laserchron Center, University of Arizona.
Measured spots (20 μm size) included cores and rims in all samples.
All U-Th/Pb isotopic measurements were performed by Element2
single-collector laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) following the procedure outlined by
Gehrels et al. (2008) and Johnston et al. (2009). The spectrometer is
coupled to an Excimer laser system operating at a wavelength of
193 nm. This method does not involve chemical abrasion pretreatment
on the zircons. Final ages reported and discussed throughout this paper
are concordia ages calculated using the Isoplot Excel® macro of Ludwig
(2003). Ages given in the text and figures are quoted at a 2σ confidence
level. All geochronological data are included in supplementary material,
and errors are reported at ±2σ (see the supplementary data).
4.2. New whole rock element and isotope geochemistry
We present whole-rock geochemical data of major and trace ele-
ments, and Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope ratios from 31 samples of the PCB
(see the supplementary data). The samples used for geochemical analy-
sis had no visible inclusions. Whole rock samples were analyzed for
major element chemistry at the SGS laboratories in Canada using a
Thermo Jarrell Ash Enviro II simultaneous and sequential ICP with a de-
tection limit from 0.001 to 0.01% for major elements, from 0.002 to
0.05 ppm for REE, and from 0.01 to 20 ppm for other trace elements.
Two instrumentation techniques were used by SGS Laboratories to ob-
tain the chemical data: ICM90A using sodium peroxide fusion analyzed
via ICP-MS for trace elements, and ICP95A using lithium metaborate fu-
sion analyzed via ICP atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) for major and
some trace elements.
The isotopic ratios of 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd and the trace
element concentrations of Rb, Sr, Sm, and Nd were measured by
thermal ionization mass spectrometry in the Geochronology and
Thermochronology Lab of the University of Arizona and were
 A.M. Martínez Ardila et al. / Lithos 326–327 (2019) 19–27 23

performed on a VG Sector TIMS instrument using the techniques
described by Ducea (1998) and Otamendi et al. (2009). The common
isotopes of lead were analyzed on separate batches of dissolved sam-
ples. Lead was extracted using an anion exchange procedure modified
after Chen and Wasserburg (1981).
4.3. Databases for cretaceous Arcs
We synthesized U—Pb zircon age data from 333 plutonic and volca-
nic samples with an age spectrum of 150–60 Ma including analyses de-
termined by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), laser
ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS),
sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP), and secondary
ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) analyses. Areal measurements (km2)
were made of outcrop exposures for mafic and felsic rocks within the
study areas and calculated using ArcMap 10.6 by compiling geological
map data and attributing polygons to all plutonic bodies. The purpose
of this analysis was to determine the area percentage represented by
mafic and felsic compositions formed during the Cretaceous magmatic
flare-up in each arc segment. In this case, calculations of the area rather
than the volume of the plutons in the three arc segments is more appro-
priate, as the compositional variation beneath the exposed surface of
the intrusive units is unknown. The presented compositional features
and areas calculated for mafic and felsic intrusions agree with previ-
ously published research (Pitcher et al., 1985; Parada et al., 2002;
Kimbrough et al., 2015). We rule out tilting because there is little evi-
dence in the arcs examined and we estimate the respective volume of
magma added during each pulse by using the present-day exposures.
However, this simplification may introduce a significant bias because
tilting could increase or decrease apparent sizes (Petford et al., 2000;
Karlstrom et al., 2017; Takasuka et al., 2018).
The selected whole rock geochemical dataset includes data from 222
samples of the Late Cretaceous flare-up accompanied by U—Pb zircon
data. SiO2, MgO, and Mg# are used as proxies to evaluate the degree of
differentiation and to provide a filter for the least differentiated
mantle-derived rocks. Samples with SiO2 values b45 wt% were classified
as ultramafic, 45–55 wt% classified as mafic (gabbro), and N 55 wt% clas-
sified as felsic rocks. Using MgO and Mg# the group of mafic rocks is de-
fined by Mg# N52, MgO N 3.5 wt%, and SiO2 b 55 wt%. These categories
are consistent with the observed compositional groups defined by the
SiO2 proxy. Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes were used to evaluate the role of man-
tle versus crust for triggering flare-ups, and to identify mantle reservoirs
(e.g., DePaolo, 1981; Zindler and Hart, 1986; Chapman et al., 2017).
4.4. Flare-up and Bedrock Ages
Fig. 2 shows the age histograms from compiled geochronological
dataset for ages between 150 and 60 Ma for the wPRB, PCB, and CCCB.
Bedrock zircon age patterns from the wPRB area define a flare-up
from ~125 to 90 Ma and with a peak at ~108 Ma. Zircon age patterns
from the PCB area define a flare-up from ~110 to 87 Ma. Smaller peaks
are observed in the bedrock age histogram plot, two older maxima at
130 Ma and 115 Ma, and one younger maxima at 68 Ma. Age patterns
for the CCCB define a flare-up from ~105 to 90 Ma. Three older peaks
are seen at 138 Ma, 128 Ma, and 117 Ma, and two younger maxima at
85 and 66 Ma. The timing of the Late Cretaceous flare-up thus can be de-
fined from ~125 to 90 Ma collectively for the three arc segments.
The histogram plot includes zircon U—Pb crystallization ages from
mafic and felsic compositions and shows that at the beginning, during,
and at the end of the flare-up mafic and felsic magmatism is coeval for
the three arc segments.
4.5. Radiogenic Isotopes
In Sri versus εNd, and Pb isotope plots, both mafic and felsic compo-
sitions of the wPRB, PCB, and CCCB lie along the mantle array trending
towards a depleted mantle (DM) signature, and show minor systematic
changes in Sri (Fig. 3). The mafic compositions with restricted Sri values
ranging from 0.703 to 0.705, ƐNd values between 0 and + 6, 208Pb/204Pb
from 38 to 39.2, and 206Pb/204Pb from 18.2 to 19. The felsic compositions
have Sri values ranging from 0.703 to 0.706, ƐNd values between −2
and + 7, 208Pb/204Pb from 38 to 39.6, and 206Pb/204Pb from 18 to 19.4.
These values are attributed to a depleted mantle source with no to an in-
creasing amount of crust involved.
4.6. Assimilation and Fractional Crystallization (AFC)
Isotope AFC modeling after DePaolo (1981) was used to estimate the
potential crustal contribution to the isotopic signatures for mafic and
felsic rocks. The first step is the selection of the input parameters that
involve the end members and the bulk partition coefficient (D). The
primary concern for this modeling was the characterization of the
chemistry of the end members, the parental mantle melt composition
(C0) and the assimilant (Ca).
In general, the most primitive sample in the dataset is selected as the
C0, while the average composition of the crustal basement units is
regarded as the Ca (Keskin 2012). In this study, for all three arc

Fig. 3. Magma sources and compiled isotopic data from mafic and felsic rocks for three Cretaceous arc segments: wPRB, PCB, and CCCB. (a) Isotope ratios of Nd and Sr. (b) 206Pb/204Pb
versus 208Pb/204Pb. Color fields represent data for felsic rocks (wPRB = yellow, PCB = red, CCCB = blue). For comparison, the field end members are included, and these are depleted
mantle (DM), high μ (HIMU), enriched mantle with low initial 87Sr/86Sr (EM1), and enriched mantle with high initial 87Sr/86Sr (EM2). Other end member fields are from Ducea
(2001), and these are C—old lower crust; M—mantle; S—sedimentary. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
24 A.M. Martínez Ardila et al. / Lithos 326–327 (2019) 19–27
segments, depleted mantle (DM) values (Stracke et al., 2003) are
interpreted to approximate C0 representing the most primitive mantle
source for the modeling. To characterize Ca, two different values were
considered to estimate a likely maximum amount of crust assimilated:
(1) the felsic sample with the most isotopically evolved Sri value from
our dataset and (2) the respective Sri value for the crustal basement in
each area. Whereas one AFC model (Fig. 4) assumes that the most isoto-
pically evolved felsic sample is the crustal contaminant assimilated dur-
ing fractional crystallization (model 1), another model assumed that
the basement crustal values are the most likely contaminants
(model 2). For model 2, the appropriate Sri (~0.708) crustal basement
value for the wPRB is from Early Jurassic to Triassic metavolcanic
and metasedimentary rocks (Kistler et al., 2014), for the PCB the Sri
(~0.710) value is from our own Precambrian and Paleozoic samples,
and the Sri (~0.708) value for the CCCB is from Paleozoic rocks
(Parada et al., 1999; Gonzalez et al., 2017). The Sr bulk partition coeffi-
cient (D) used in the modeling is from Rollinson (1993) and the
GERM Kd database for basalts (https://earthref.org/GERM/).
The modeled curves correspond to different r-values;r being the
ratio of mass assimilation rate to fractional crystallization rate. The
input parameters control the positions and shapes of the modeled
curves, and the model is modified if any parameter is changed. In this
way, we can run the two models using different parameters for Ca and
observe the results (Figs. 4 and 5).
After running models, we consider that the most representative
results from AFC modeling that fit the isotopic data are from model
Fig. 4. AFC modeling for Sri vs. Sr plot. The initial magma composition uses a Sri and Sr values suggested for DM (Gale et al., 2003; Faure, 2009). Color fields represent the distribution of the
felsic samples, and the star symbol indicates their respective averages. The maximum amounts of crust assimilated to form the gabbros are: (a) an average of 30% for the wPRB; (b) an
average of 25% for PCB, and (c) an average of 30% for CCCB.
2 which indicate that most of the mafic and felsic compositions
have experienced fractional crystallization (r = 0) combined
with variable degrees of assimilation (with r N 0). However these
likely maximum amounts of needed crustal assimilation are low:
wPRB rocks incorporated about 30% crustal materials (Fig. 5a),
the PCB rocks about 25% in average (Fig. 5b), and the CCCB rocks
about ca. 30% in average (Fig. 5c).
For the gabbro compositions used in the AFC modeling, we are con-
cerned about the chemical changes as a result of partial melting of DM
and mafic crust, crustal assimilation, and fractional crystallization. For
this reason, we calculated the final SiO2 wt% compositions assuming
values for an initial melt ranging from 45 to 54 wt% and for a crustal
assimilant ranging from 55 to 68 wt% of SiO2 and a maximum of crustal
assimilation of 25%. The data suggest that most of the resulting compo-
sitions (~85%) can be classified as gabbros with final compositions hav-
ing b55 wt% of SiO2.
Because each data point on the AFC plots has an associated age, these
data can be used to broadly estimate the relative amounts of mantle and
crustal magmas through time (Fig. 2). We have matched ages to mapped
units to roughly predict the area of units of different ages, compositions,
and isotopic values. If the AFC results are accepted, then these results in-
dicate that mantle magmas dominated at the initiation of the flare-up
and the amounts of mantle magma continued to increase up to the
peak of the flare-up. And since we used conservative input values, we
would argue that these present maximum amounts of crustal magmas
implying that mantle magma input dominated throughout the flare-ups.
 A.M. Martínez Ardila et al. / Lithos 326–327 (2019) 19–27
5. Discussion “TESTING MANTLE DRIVEN FLARE-UPS”
A Late Cretaceous flare-up event was characterized using zircon bed-
rock ages for the wPRB from 125 to 90 Ma, in the PCB from 110 to 87 Ma,
and for the CCCB from 105 to 90 Ma. In the three arc segments, most
mafic and felsic rocks are contemporaneous, and the isotopic composi-
tions of the mafic rocks do not change much through time (Fig. 3). These
observations are supported by previous studies conducted in other con-
tinental magmatic arcs (Sun et al., 2010; Kimbrough et al., 2015; Kirsch
et al., 2016; Schwartz et al., 2017).
Almost all samples from the three arc segments have Sri b ~ 0.705
and higher values of Sri are rare, with relatively few data points N
0.706, and εNd values mostly from −2 to +7 (Fig. 3a). In the Sri versus
εNd plot, both mafic and felsic compositions lie along the mantle array
trending towards a depleted mantle (DM) signature and show minor
systematic changes in Sri. The Pb isotopes plot shows all samples in
the DM reservoir field and mafic and felsic compositions have the fol-
lowing ranges: 206Pb/204Pb ratios from 18 to 19.5 and 208Pb/204Pb ra-
tions from 38 to 39.5 (Fig. 3b). The Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope values
correspond to mantle-derived magmas source defining a trend from
the DM towards the older crust emphasizing the idea of a mantle source.
Since the associated felsic granitoids and volcanic rocks have overlap-
ping or slightly more crustal isotopic signatures (Figs. 3, 4) and are tem-
porally associated with gabbros maintaining primitive isotopic
signatures (see also Kimbrough et al., 2015), we conclude that these
felsic units are the result of similar mantle magmas that incorporated
some crustal rocks. Our interpretation of existing isotopic data is
complemented with AFC modeling which indicates that both mafic
and felsic compositions consist of ~85% to 70% mantle-derived magmas
and no more than ~25 to 30% recycled crust in all three arc segments.
If 70% to 100% of these Late Cretaceous arc rocks originated from a
DM reservoir and contain only 0% to 30% crust, it implies that crust is
not required for triggering nor playing a dominant role in an arc flare-
up. These conclusions, based on the Late Cretaceous flare-up events doc-
umented here, are remarkably different from the internal feedback
model for the evolution of the Mesozoic North American and South
American Cordilleras presented by Ducea (2001), Ducea and Barton
(2007) and DeCelles et al. (2009, 2015). In their model, upper plate ma-
terials play a significant role in triggering and driving flare-ups and the
Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope values correspond to crustal-derived magma
sources. Although our isotope data in this study are limited to three
arc segments, our conclusion is in agreement with research done in
other magmatic arcs like the Median Batholith in New Zealand
(Decker et al., 2017; Schwartz et al., 2017). In the Median Batholith, zir-
con chronology and isotope data strongly support an externally trig-
gered, mantle-generated process such as ridge subduction or a slab-
breakoff event, leading to the surge of mafic and intermediate
magmatism from 128 to 114 Ma with only limited contributions from
evolved lithospheric sources. Their data suggest that crustal signatures
might reflect intracrustal partial melting due to elevated geothermal
gradients resulting from increasing mantle melt influx to the base of
the crust and/or assimilation of mantle-derived and hybrid magmas
during ascent through the crustal column (Schwartz et al., 2017).
The wPRB and the PCB arc segments exhibit the typical spatial isoto-
pic trend for continental arcs, with magmatism closest to the trench
having an isotopic composition comparable to the depleted mantle
and felsic magmatism increasingly evolved landward (Chapman et al.,
2017). More efficient assimilation as result of hotter lower crust or a
more prolonged crustal assimilation during magma ascent, lead to
more evolved isotopic compositions towards the continent (Farmer
and DePaolo, 1983; Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988). In the CCCB, the iso-
topic compositions are less evolved landward and explained by the pro-
gressive crustal delamination and tectonic extension during that period
(Parada et al., 1999; Parada et al., 2005). However, the more evolved
magma signature is linked to crustal thickness, and thus the result
of crustal assimilation from evolved lithospheric sources needs
25
consideration. Under this scenario the internal feedback model pre-
sented by DeCelles et al. (2009) may play an important role in magmatic
contamination, but not for triggering the flare-ups.
Our data strongly suggest that during the Late Cretaceous flare-up
the mantle-derived magmas are dominant over the crustal-derived
magmas and therefore the episodic patterns of arc magmatism origi-
nated from episodic mantle processes (e.g., melting, ascent, and volatile
fluxing) as described above. Important evidence for episodic melting in
the mantle is presented in studies of subducting slab and mantle flow
dynamics suggesting that episodic folding of the slab is a consequence
of increasing viscosity in the asthenosphere. Billen and Arredondo
(2018) presented a 2D dynamic model of subduction to model the
time-evolution of slab deformation and thermal structure. They found
that rapid sinking of the slab and folding causes a reduction in astheno-
sphere viscosity, which allows the overriding plate to move in the oppo-
site direction of the asthenosphere. Increase in viscosity leads to
episodic folding of the slab and causes episodic motion of the trench
and plates in which velocities increase and then decrease during each
episodic folding event.
Convergence rate has been proposed to influence the extent of melt-
ing beneath arcs (Hughes and Mahood 2008; Zellmer 2008; Hebert et al.
2009; England and Katz 2010; Turner and Langmuir 2015, 2015). How-
ever, some studies have rejected such a relationship, providing evidence
that flare-up events in some parts of the Cordillera are seemingly out of
sync with peaks in convergence rates (e.g., Ducea 2001; DeCelles et al.,
2009, 2015; Cao et al., 2016).
Higher convergence rates have been shown to: (1) lead to more vig-
orous hydration of the mantle wedge causing increased melting (e.g.,
Cagnioncle et al., 2007; Plank et al., 2009), and/or (2) increase the flux
of hot mantle into the wedge corner, raising the temperature and caus-
ing increased melt formation beneath the arc (England and Wilkins
2004; England and Katz 2010; Turner and Langmuir 2015a, 2015b).
Convergence rates during the Cretaceous for the Farallon and Nasca
plates are between 100 and 200 mm/y and 60–100 mm/y respectively.
These relatively high convergence rates may be related to (1) the suc-
cessive emplacement of a sequence of large igneous provinces during
140 and 120 Ma and (2) a major plate reorganization event occurred
at ca. 100 Ma (Müller et al., 2016; Shephard et al., 2013; Matthews et
al., 2012). For our three arc segments, we consider a possible link be-
tween arc-external events and magmatic episodicity because the corre-
lation between plate convergence rate and episodicity observed for the
selected time scale about ca. 90–120 Ma.
In summary, MOR's and island arc magmatism are clear examples
where mantle melts are the source of sometimes episodic crustal
magma additions. Synchronous ages of fairly primitive gabbros and felsic
granitoids and isotopic ƐNd, Sri, and Pb data from Cretaceous Cordilleran
continental arc segments discussed herein support the idea that episodic
mantle processes, leading to the episodic development of mantle melts,
are playing the major role for triggering and driving continental arc
flare-ups. Upper plate cyclic crustal processes may play a secondary
role in modifying these mantle magmas. The potential for episodic man-
tle processes is well supported by published models of mantle flow near
subduction zones. An implication of this observation is the need to fur-
ther examine the potential links between oceanic plate motions and ep-
isodic mantle melting above subduction zones, which in turn lead to
episodicity in continental arc magmatism. A more extensive linked geo-
chemical and geochronological data compilation, complemented with
plate reconstructions and numerical simulations of mantle processes
are needed to test the mantle-trigger model for other arc segments.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of this study from
Loma Linda University and the Geoscience Research Institute (Projects
GRI2014-BC01 and GRI2015-AM10). We want to thank Orlando Poma,
Lance Pompe, Italo Payacan, and Fabian Figueroa for their valuable help
26 A.M. Martínez Ardila et al. / Lithos 326–327 (2019) 19–27
during fieldwork activities. We also would like to thank the editor Xian-
Hua Li and reviewers Emily J. Chin, Tetsuo Kawakami, and anonymous
reviewer for their useful comments that helped improve the quality of
the manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.lithos.2018.12.007.
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