BARC 303 – ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

BARC 303

Question No.-01

What are the types of foundations and specify the criteria for suitable
foundation systems. (Support your answers with suitable sketches).

Foundations are divided into two categories, - shallow and deep foundations. The terms
Shallow and Deep Foundation refer to the depth of the soil at which it is placed. Generally, if
the width of the foundation is greater than the depth, it is labeled as the Shallow Foundation. If
the width is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called as Deep Foundation.

SHALLOW FOUNDATION
As the shallow foundation depth is low and it is economical, it is the most popular type of foundation for
lightweight structure.

1. ISOLATED SPREAD FOOTING:

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for building
construction. This foundation is constructed for a single column and also called a pad foundation. They
straightforwardly transfer the loads from the column to the soil. It might be rectangular, square, or
roundabout. It can comprise both reinforced or non-reinforced material.

TYPES OF ISOLATED FOOTING ARE:

1) Flat, Pad or Plain footing.

2) Sloped footing.

3) Steeped footing

CRITERIA:

 The load of the structure is relatively low.

 Columns are not closely placed.

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 The bearing capacity of the soil is high at a shallow depth.

ADVANTAGES:
 Economic
 Shallow pad foundation requires less excavation.
 Size and shape can be varied depending on site condition.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Foundation size may become very large depending on the loads.
 Weak against uplift force and lateral forces.

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2. COMBINED FOOTING:
Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their
isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their structural
design differs. The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when loads from the structure
is carried by the columns.

TYPES OF COMBINED FOOTING ARE:

1) Rectangular combined footing
2) Trapezoidal combined footing

3) Continuous footing

CRITERIA:
 The columns are placed close to each other.
 When the column is close to the property line and the isolated footing would cross the
property line or become eccentric.
 Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to some lower value.

ADVANTAGE:
 Cost (affordable) construction is simple material is mostly concrete.

DISADVANTAGE:
 Settlement , limit capacity , irregular ground surface , foundation subjected to pull out

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3. WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING:

Wall footing is also known as continuous footing. This type is used to distribute loads of
structural or non- structural load-bearing walls to the ground in such a way that the load-
bearing limit of the soil isn't outperformed. It runs along the direction of the wall. The width of
the wall foundation is usually 2-3 times the width of the wall. The wall footing is a continuous
slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced concrete, etc. are used for the
construction of wall foundations.

CRITERIA:
 Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
 It is placed on dense sand and gravel.

ADVANTAGES:

 Ability to withstand great loads.

 Easy to build, no special training requirements for personnel.
 Very long service life.
 They have subtypes from which you can choose the one you need for particular purposes.

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 The price is much lower than that of cast-in-situ structures, although strip foundations are
not inferior to them in strength.
 You can insulate the floors much better if you use a strip foundation.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Not suitable for every soil type.
 You have to fill all the lot in one go, but preparing such an amount of concrete on your own
is quite problematic.
 There is quite a decent amount of work with pouring the concrete, so you can’t do without
help.

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4. CANTILEVER OR STRAP FOOTING:

Strap footings are similar to combined footings. Reasons for considering or choosing strap
footing are identical to the combined one. In strap footing, the foundation under the columns is
built individually and connected by a strap beam. Generally, when the edge of the footing
cannot be extended beyond the property line, the exterior footing is connected by a strap
beam with interior footing

CRITERIA:
 It is used when the distance between the columns is so great that a combined trapezoidal
footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments.
 Strap footing When the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is
called a strap footing.

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5. RAFT OR MATT FOUNDATION:

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of
the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls. The use of mat
foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the structure on columns
and walls are very high. Raft foundation is economical when one-half area of the structure is
covered with individual footings and wall footings are provided.These foundations should not
be used where the groundwater table is above the bearing surface of the soil. The use of
foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction.

CRITERIA:
 The soil is weak and the load has to be spread over a large area.
 The structure includes a basement.
 Columns are closely placed.
 Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
 Differential settlement is to be prevented.

ADVANTAGES:
 Mat foundation can be provided where the shallow foundation is necessary but soil
condition is poor.
 It resists differential settlement.
 Mat foundation requires less earth excavation.
 Mat foundation itself can be considered as a floor slab. So it reduces the cost of
constructing floor slab.
 Distribute loads over a larger area.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Prone to edge erosion.

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 Special measurements are needed when mat foundation is subjected to the concentrated
load.

DEEP FOUNDATION

1. PILE FOUNDATION:

Pile is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost, and when as per soil
condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the
reach of shallow foundations. The followings are the types of pile foundations.

CRITERIA:
 Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
 Pile foundations are economic when
 Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
 When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
 When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage.
 When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
 When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage.
 When the foundation is subjected to a heavily concentrated load.
 When the top soil layer is compressible in nature.

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 In the case of bridges, when the scouring is more in the river bed.

ADVANTAGES:
 Less noise or vibration problem , can be installed in conditions of low headroom.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Concrete cannot be inspected after installation , raking bored pile are difficult to construct.

2. PIER FOUNDATION:

Pier is an underground structure that transmits a more massive load, which cannot be carried
by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than piles. The pier foundation is generally
utilized in multi-story structures. Since the base region is determined by the plan strategy for
the regular establishment, the single pier load test is wiped out. Along these lines, it is
increasingly well known under tight conditions. Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural
member that transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil by end bearing. Unlike piles, it
can only transfer load by bearing and by not skin friction.

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CRITERIA:
 Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock layer at the top.
 The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the bearing pile.
 When a heavy load is to be transferred to the soil.

ADVANTAGES:
 It has a broad scope of assortment with regards to structure. There are different materials
we can here to build a stylish view, and it stays in our spending limit.

 It sets aside cash and time as it doesn't require broad removal of a ton of cement.
 Bearing limits can increment by under-reaming the base.

DISADVANTAGES:
 If one post or dock is harmed, it can prompt critical harm to the general establishment.
 It can be vitality wasteful if not protected appropriately.
 Floors must be intensely, vigorously protected, and shielded from critters.

3. CAISSON FOUNDATION:
Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction of the
dam, etc. It is generally used in structures that require foundation beneath a river or similar
water bodies. The reason for choosing the caisson is that it can be floated to the desired
location and then sunk into place. Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder

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depressed into the soil up to the desired level and then filled with concrete, which ultimately
converts to a foundation. It is mostly used as bridge piers. Caissons are sensitive to construction
procedures and lack construction expertise.

TYPES OF CAISSON FOUNDATION:

1) Box Caissons.
2) Floating Caissons.
3) Pneumatic Caissons.
4) Open Caissons.
5) Sheeted Caissons.
6) Excavated Caissons.

CRITERIA:
 The pile cap requirement is to be minimized.
 Noise and vibration needed to be reduced.
 It has to be placed beneath water bodies.
 Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is required.

ADVANTAGES:
 Caissons are economic.
 It is environment-friendly. There are slightly less sound pollution and reduced vibration.
 It is easily adaptable to varying underwater soil conditions.
 Caisson has high horizontal and lateral loading capacity.
 Minimum handling equipment is required for placement of reinforcement cage.
 It is sometimes used in types of soils where driving pile could not penetrate.
 Caissons can be reached to great depths.

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 There is a direct and effortless way to go to the bottom of caissons to remove any kind
of obstruction.
 Quality control of pneumatic caisson is good as it is built on dry conditions.

DISADVANTAGES:
 The construction procedure is extremely sensitive and troublesome.
 It is not good for polluted sites.
 It needs expert engineers to design the construction.
 There is lack of qualified workers.
 The workers may suffer from giddiness, breaking of eardrums, bursting of blood vessels
in the nose or ears and end up in paralytic death which is known as caisson disease.
 As the pouring of concrete is done underwater, it may not be satisfactory.
 The help of divers may be required.

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Question No.-02

What are flooring system? Support your report with details and
sketches.

SLAB:
A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used to create flat horizontal surfaces
such as floors, roof decks and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches thick and supported by
beams,columns, walls, or the ground.
Concrete slabs can be prefabricated off-site and lowered into place or may be poured in-situ
using formwork. If reinforcement is required, slabs can be pre-stressed or the concrete can be
poured over rebar positioned within the formwork.

TYPES OF SLABS:
1. FLAT SLAB:
• The flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete columns or caps.
• The thickness of the Flat slab is minimum 8″ or 0.2m.
• Flat slab doesn’t have beams so it is also called a beam-less slab. They are supported on
columns itself.
• Loads are directly transferred to columns.
• In this type of construction, a plain ceiling is obtained thus giving an attractive appearance
from an architectural point of view.
• The plain ceiling diffuses the light better and is considered less vulnerable in the case of fire
than the traditional beam slab construction.

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• The flat slab is easier to construct and requires less formwork. This is one of the types of
concrete slabs.

FLAT SLAB

2. ONE WAY SLAB:

• One way slab is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the load along one
direction.
• The ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or greater than 2, considered as One-
way slab. In this type, the slab will bend in one direction i.e in the direction along its shorter
span.
• However minimum reinforcement known as distribution steel is provided along the longer
span above the main reinforcement to distribute the load uniformly and to resist
temperature and shrinkage stresses.
• In general, the length of the slab is 4m. But in one way slab, one side length is 4m and
another side length is more than 4m. So it satisfies the above equation.
• Main reinforcement is provided in shorter span and distribution reinforcement is provided
in the longer span. Main bars are cranked to resist the formation of stresses.

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ONE WAY SLAB

3. TWO WAY SLAB:

• The construct of this type of slab is similar to that of one-way slab on beams, but it may
need more formworks since two-way slabs are supported on all sides.
• Slabs on beams are suitable for spans between 6 and 9m, and live loads of 3-6KN/m2 .
• The beams increase the stiffness of the slabs, producing relatively low deflection. Additional
formwork for the beams is needed.
• These types of slabs are used in constructing floors of multi-storeyed building.

TWO WAY SLAB

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4. HOLLOW CORE SLAB:

• It is a type of precast slab through which cores are run. Not only do these cores decline slab
self-weight and increase structural efficiency but also act as service ducts.
• It is suitable for cases where fast constructions are desired.
• There is no restriction on the span of the hollow core slab units, and their standard width is
120mm and depth ranges from 110mm to 400mm.
• The slab units are commonly installed between beams using cranes and the gaps between
units are filled with screeds.
• It has been observed that, hollow core slab can support 2.5 kN/m2 over a 16m span. It is
suitable for offices, retail or car park developments.

HOLLOW SLAB
5. HARDY SLAB:
• Hardy slabs are generally seen in Dubai and China. Hardy slab is constructed by hardy Bricks.
Hardy bricks are hollow bricks and made up of concrete Hollow blocks.
• These blocks are used to fill portions of the slab. Hardy slabs save the amount of concrete
and hence the own weight of the slab is reduced.
• This kind of slab has a more thickness 0.27m when compared with the conventional one.
The dimensions of Hardy brick is 40cm x 20cm x 20cm. Hardy slab is used where
temperatures are very high.

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 To resist the temperature from the top of the slab thickness is increased. The heat coming
from walls are resisted by using special bricks which has thermacol in it. Thermacol is the
best insulator of sunlight.

HARDY SLAB

6. WAFFLE SLAB:
• It is a type of reinforced concrete slab that contains square grids with deep sides. Waffle
slab construction process includes fixing forms, placement of pods on shuttering,
installation of reinforcement between pods, installation of steel mesh on top of pods, and
pouring of concrete.
• Grid slabs are suitable for spans of 9-15m and live loads of 4-7KN/m2. Formwork, including
the use of pans, is quite expensive.
• A waffle slab has a holes underneath, giving an appearance of waffles. It is usually used
where large spans are required (e.g auditorium, cinema halls) to avoid many columns
interfering with space.
• Hence thick slabs spanning between wide beams (to avoid the beams protruding below for
aesthetic reasons) are required.
• Types of Waffle slabs:
1. Triangular pod system
2. Square pod system

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WAFFLE SLAB

7. FLAT PLATES:
• Flat plates can be constructed as one-way or two-way slabs and it is directly supported by
columns or walls.
• It is easy to construct and requires simple formworks.
• Flat plates are most suitable for spans of 6 to 8m, and live loads between 3 and 5KN/m2.
Added to that, the range of spans for prestressed flat plates is between 8-12m, and it can
also be constructed as post-tensioned slabs.
• The advantages of adopting flat plates include low-cost formwork, exposed flat ceilings, and
faster construction.
• Flat plates have low shear capacity and relatively low stiffness, which may cause noticeable
deflection.

FLAT PLATES

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8. BUBBLE DECK SLAB:

• It is constructed by placing plastic bubbles which are prefabricated and the reinforcement is
then placed between and over plastic bubbles and finally, fresh concrete is poured.
• The plastic bubbles replace the ineffective concrete at the center of the slab.
• Bubble Deck slabs reduce weight, increase strength, larger spans can be provided, fewer
columns needed, no beams or ribs under the ceiling are required.
• Consequently, not only does it decline the total cost of construction but it is also
environmentally friendly since it reduces the amount of concrete.

BUBBLE DECK SLAB

9. COMPOSITE SLAB:
• Commonly, it is constructed from reinforced concrete cast on top of profiled steel
decking.
• The decking acts as formwork and working area during the construction phase, and it
also acts as external reinforcement during service life of the slab.
• For a steel decking of thickness between 50-60mm, the span of the slab can reach up to
3m.
• However, if the steel decking thickness is increased up to 80mm, slabs with span of 4.5m
can be constructed.

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COMPOSITE SLAB
10. PRECAST SLAB:
• Precast concrete slabs are cast and cured in manufacturing plants, and then delivered to the
construction site to be erected.
• The most outstanding advantage of the preparation of slabs in manufacturing plants is the
increase in efficiency and higher quality control which may not be achieved on site.
• The most commonly used precast slabs are the channel and double-T types. They can be
used for spans up to 15m. The double-T slabs vary in sizes and spans up to 15m have been
used.
• The tongue-and-groove panel could vary in size based on the design requirement. When
they are placed, the tongue of one panel is placed inside the groove of adjacent panel.
• With regard to the cost of precast slabs, it is reported that precast concrete slabs are
cheaper than cast in situ concrete slab by approximately 24%.

PRECAST SLAB

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11. SLAB ON GRADE:

• The slab which is cast on the surface of the earth is called a Ground slab.
• Generally, slab on grade is classified into three type:
• Slab on ground: It is the simplest type of slab on grade which is a composite of stiffening
beams constructed from concrete around perimeter of the slab, and has a slab thickness of
100mm. It is suitable for stable ground which is mostly composed of sand and rock and not
influenced by moisture, and soils that undergo slight movement due to moisture.
• Stiffened raft slab: It is similar to slab on ground apart from stiffening beams which are set
in channels through the middle of the slab. Consequently, it creates a kind of supporting
grid of concrete on the base of the slab. Soil with moderate, high amount, and severe
movement due to moisture.
• Waffle raft slab: It is constructed entirely above the ground by pouring concrete over a grid
of polystyrene blocks known as ‘void forms’. Waffle raft slabs are generally suitable for sites
with less reactive soil, use about 30% less concrete and 20% less steel than a stiffened raft
slab, and are generally cheaper and easier to install than other types. These types of slabs
are suitable only for very flat ground.

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12.PROJECTED SLAB:
• The slab which has one side fixed and the other side is free is called a Projected Slab or
Cantilever slab.
• These type of slabs are generally constructed in hotels, Universities, function halls, etc. to
use that area for dropping or picking up zone and for loading and unloading area. This is one
of the types of concrete slabs.
• The slab which is cast on the surface of the earth is called a Ground slab. This type of slab is
used on the Basement floor.

PROJECTED SLAB

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FLOORING SYSTEM:
Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing
such a floor covering. Floor covering is a term to generically describe any finish material applied
over a floor structure to provide a walking surface.

TYPES OF FLOORING SYSTEM:

1. Resilient Flooring

2. Wood flooring

3. Carpet & Rugs

4. Ceramic Tiles

5. Seamless chemical flooring

6. Marble flooring

7. Brick Flooring

8. Glass Flooring

9. Stone Flooring

10. Rubber flooring

 RESILENT FLOORING:
Resilient flooring, also called vinyl flooring is a flooring created from carefully selected natural
and synthetic materials. Today`s resilient flooring is a highly engineered combination of
polymer materials. Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating structural units, which
allow for increased strength and durability for the lifetime of the product. This product
construction has changed over the years, just as products in other industries have incorporated
new and better technology, resilient flooring has as well.

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RESILENT FLOORING
ADVANTAGES:
• Low maintenance.
• Color and pattern versatility.
• Affordable.
• Comfort.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Not eco-friendly.
• Outgassing.
• Difficult repairs.
• Low value and appearance.
CRITERIA:
• Durability: The flooring can be created with any combination of wear layer protectants
that can help minimize scratching, stains and scuffs that come with every day wear and
tear.
• Appearance: One of the prime benefits of working with resilient flooring is the unlimited
possibilities of style and design.
• Maintenance: Resilient flooring is extremely easy to maintain, Resilient tile and plank
with the infused additives in the wear surface allows for easy maintenance.

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• Cleanliness: Congoleum has incorporated ingredients such as Scotchgard Protector,

Aluminium Oxide and Silver into the wear layer to provide greater protection against
wear and keep the flooring looking its best.
• Smoothness: Resilient sheet flooring provides a smooth surface free from cracks and
crevices that allows for quick and easy cleanup of dirt, dust and mess.

 CERAMIC TILES:
Ceramic tiles is one of the key components used in the construction industry for building
interior and exterior floors, footpaths, swimming pools, walls, partitions, and roofs. Ceramic
tiles are highly durable. Ceramic tiles are stylish, durable, and versatile. They offer protection
from abrasion and stains and they require less maintenance. These tiles are used in the
construction of industrial concrete structures such as food processing factories and
warehouses.

CERAMIC TILES
ADVANTAGES:
• Water resistance.
• Durable.
• Easy maintenance.
• No allergy concern.
• Cost efficient.

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DISADVANTAGES:
• Difficult to clean.
• Heavy in weight.
• Ceramic is a cold material.
CRITERIA:
• Maintenance: Because it is so durable, tile doesn’t need much in the way of upkeep.
They’ll need to be cleaned, just like any other surface in your home that gets dirty. You’ll
want to apply a sealant on your tile about once every 4-5 years.
• Durability: Ceramic flooring is very tough, and the tiles are difficult to crack. If installed
properly, ceramic flooring can last 10-20 years and longer if maintained. However, if a
single tile does crack due to a heavy impact, it’s simple to replace.
• Initial Cost: When you factor the initial cost of purchasing the tile and installing them
with their longevity and lack of costly maintenance, it becomes clear that tiles are worth
installing. They’re one of the cheapest flooring surfaces available.

 RUBBER FLOORING:
Rubber flooring is a type of resilient flooring, and therein lies its most obvious advantages. Like
other resilient materials, namely vinyl and linoleum, rubber flooring provides a durable, easy-
to-clean surface that's suitable for hard-wearing environments, such as gyms, basements, rec
rooms, playrooms, laundry rooms, and utility areas.

RUBBER FLOORING

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ADVANTAGES:
• Durable.
• Soft and Quiet underfoot.
• Easy to install.
• Recyclable.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Can be expensive.
• Slippery when wet.
• Distinct odour.

CRITERIA:
• Appearance: Rubber flooring and rubber matting will appear quite similar to the eye to
PVC flooring and matting.
• Cost: you will get what you pay for in terms of quality and a far superior endurance and
resilience with rubber flooring. Rubber matting and flooring, although costing more
initially, will actually cost you less over its lifetime. Rubber floors and mats will last for
decades – up to 30 years – making it extremely cost effective.
• Durability and Resilance: Rubber matting and flooring is extremely durable and will last
a long time because of its high resilience. ts highly resilient properties mean that rubber
flooring and matting retains its appearance for a long time. Rubber is also safer to use
because it remains anti-slip and isn’t subject to wear and tear which would cause the
flooring to be unsafe.
• Versatility: The beauty of rubber flooring and matting is that it is extremely versatile and
is used for a huge range of applications in a variety of industries and sectors.
• Noise Comfort and Insulation: Another benefit and quality of rubber flooring is that
rubber absorbs sounds and noise. Rubber flooring gives even more noise absorption and
building insulation when it’s combined with acoustic and thermal insulation creating a

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thicker sound barrier layer. Rubber floors are also much more comfortable to walk and
stand on.

 BRICK FLOORING:
A brick floor is defined as a floor surface constructed out of many individual bricks laid like tiles,
either with or without mortar or grouting. Red brick is used for the flooring which is made from
clay. Red brick is the most popular and leading building material because it is cheap, hard,
durable and easy to handle and to work with. Brick flooring is derived from pavers, which are
thinner than the regular bricks used in walls and other structural elements. Brick Flooring is
commonly used in godowns; ware houses, residential houses, garden, roads and in areas where
good bricks are available. The bricks shall be laid on the edge; in diagonal herring bone bond or
other patterns. They may also be set in the principal direction of the hall.
Over the layer of lean cement concrete mix, flooring shall be laid over well compacted and
levelled ground.

BRICK FLOORING

ADVANTAGES:
• Durable and easy to clean.
• Non-allergenic.
• Fireproof.
• Non-slip surface.

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• Good aesthetic values.

• Maintenance free.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Hard surface
• Cold underfoot
• Susceptible to stains
• Requires sealing
• Brick rot.
• Cracks can occur.
CRITERIA:
• Cleanliness: The flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it should be
non-absorbent.
• Resistance: Should have effective resistance against absorption of oil, grease etc.
• Durability: The flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature changes,
disintegration with time and decay.
• Hardness: It should be sufficiently hard to resist indentation marks, imprints etc. likely
to be caused by shifting of furniture, equipment etc.
• Maintenance: Flooring material should require least maintenance, repairs can be done
easily.

 WOOD FLOORING:
Wood flooring is any product manufactured from timber that is designed for use as flooring,
either structural or aesthetic. Wood is a common choice as a flooring material and can come in
various styles, colors, cuts, and species. Bamboo flooring is often considered a form of wood
flooring, although it is made from a grass (bamboo) rather than a timber.

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WOOD FLOORING
ADVANTAGES:
• Easy maintenance and hygiene.
• Healthy air quality at home.
• Good acoustics.
• Organic.
• Easy installation.

DISADVANTAGES:
• Expensive.
• Prone to termite attack.
• Not resistance to water.
• Prone to have dents and scratches.
• Limited usage.
• Cupping.
• High-maintenance.
CRITERIA:
• Maintenance & Cleanliness: Hardwood floors are incredibly easy to keep clean. They can
be swept, steam-cleaned, or vacuumed to remove any dirt or debris that has
accumulated.

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• Appearance: Many homeowners believe that having hardwood floors even makes the
space look bigger. Wood floors not only add a touch of elegance to your home, but also
a bit of warmth.
• Sound Insulation: They reduce hollow sounds or vibrations that often occur. Hardwood
floors can also improve the acoustics within the room.
• Durability: One of the main reasons this type of flooring is so easy to maintain is partly
due to their durability. Being durable is one of the primary reasons why homeowners
choose to upgrade to solid wood floors.

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Question No.-03

Design a staircase for a room which measures 5m x 7m and height 3m.

You can select the type of staircase and support your answers with
proportionate sketches (Plan and Section).

DOUBLE L SHAPED STAIRCASE:

• Staircase is an important component of building providing access to different floors and

roof of the building.
• It consist of flight of steps and one or more intermediated landing slabs between two floor
levels.
• Double L shaped staircase have 2 landings as it consist of two quarter turns.
• Room dimensions: 7000mm x 5000mm x 3000mm.
• Tread dimensions: 270mm
• Riser dimensions: 150mm
• Width: 1000mm
• Total no of steps: 20 steps.
• Consist of 2 intermediated.

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WIRTE SHORT NOTES ON THE FOLLOWING:

SN No. – 01
Explain what are pitched roofs support your answers with
proportionate sketches

A pitched roof is a roof that slopes downwards, typically in two parts at an angle from a central
ridge, but sometimes in one part, from one edge to another.
To be more specific – a pitched roof requires a pitch of more than 10 degrees or a roof with two
slopes that meet at a central ridge.
Pitched roofs offer a more classical appearance. They remain the most common and efficient
solution in wet and cold weathers to ensure maximum protection.

PITCH ROOF
 GABLE ROOF:
Also known as pitched or peaked roof, gable roofs are some of the most popular roofs in the
US. They are easily recognized by their triangular shape.
ADVANTAGES:
Gable roofs will easily shed water and snow, provide more space for the attic or vaulted
ceilings and allow more ventilation. Their inherently simple design makes it easy to build them
and cheaper than more complex designs.

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DISADVANTAGES:
Gable roofs can be problematic in high wind and hurricane areas. If the frames are not properly
constructed with adequate supports, the roof can collapse. High winds can also cause materials
to peel away from gable roofs.
TYPES OF GABLE ROOFS:
 Side Gable.
 Crossed Gable.
 Front Gable.
 Dutch gable Roof.

 HIP ROOF:
A hip roof has slopes on all four sides. The sides are all equal length and come together at the
top to form a ridge.
ADVANTAGES:
Hip roofs are more stable than gable roofs. The inward slope of all four sides is what makes it
more sturdy and durable.

DISADVANTAGES:
Hip roofs are more expensive to build than a gable roof. It’s a more complex design that
requires more building materials.
TYPES OF HIP ROOFS:
 Simple Hip.
 Cross Hipped.
 Half Hipped.

 MANSARD ROOF:

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A mansard roof, also known as a French roof, is a four-sided roof with a double slope on each
side that meet forming a low-pitched roof. The lower slope is much steeper than the upper. The
sides can either be flat or curved, depending on the style.
ADVANTAGES:
Mansard roofs can help create a great deal of extra living space. Using the space as a full attic
or living quarters, called a garret, is very popular. The style lends itself to either open or closed
dormers for more aesthetic appeal.
DISADVANTAGES:
A low pitched portion of a mansard roof isn’t ideal for areas receiving heavy snowfall.

 GRAMBREL ROOF:
A Gambrel or a barn roof, is much like mansard in a sense that it has two different slopes. The
Gambrel only has two sides, while the mansard has four. The lower side of the Gambrel roof
has an almost vertical, steep slope, while the upper slope is much lower.
ADVANTAGES:
The Gambrel only uses two roof beams, along with gusset joints. The construction is quite
simple with fewer materials needed.
DISADVANTAGES:
Is not recommended for heavy wind areas or regions that receive significant snowfall. The open
design can cause the roof to collapse under extreme pressure.

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 SKILLION ROOF:
Skillion is also referred to as a shed roof or lean-to. It is a single, sloping roof, usually attached
to a taller wall. Skillion roofs are mostly used for home additions, sheds and porches.
ADVANTAGES:
Skillions are easy to assemble and use much fewer building materials than other roof types.
DISADVANTAGES:
If a roof pitch is too high it can result in ceilings being too low. Also, homes using only a skillion
roof can have problems in high wind areas.

 BUTTERFLY ROOF:
A butterfly is a V-shaped roof constructed of two tandem pieces which are angled up on the
outside. The midsection is angled downward where the two pieces meet into a valley. The
overall effect is of a butterfly’s wings in flight.

ADVANTAGES:
Gives the home more natural light. The valley in the midsection of the butterfly roof allows
rainwater to be collected, making it beneficial for high drought areas.
DISADVANTAGES:
The complexity of the design makes the butterfly roof more expensive.

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 BONNET ROOF:
Bonnet roofs, also known as kicked-eaves, are double sloped with the lower slope set at less of
an angle than the upper slope. The lower slope hangs over the side of the house.
ADVANTAGES:
Water easily runs off the slopes of the roof and the modified hip structure make it more
durable than a gable roof.
DISADVANTAGES:
Requires more building materials and it’s more difficult to construct. Expensive.

 SALTBOX ROOF:
A salt box roof is asymmetrical in design, with one side being more of slightly sloping flat roof
and the other more of a lean to, with gables at each end.
ADVANTAGES:
The slope makes it easy for water to run off. The asymmetrical design makes it more durable
than a simple gable roof.
DISADVANTAGES:
The design can be tricky, which makes the building costs higher.

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 SAWTOOTH ROOF:
A sawtooth roof is two or more parallel pitched roofs in which the sloped and vertical surfaces
alternate. As the name suggests, the roof resembles the side view of a saw blade.
ADVANTAGES:
Allows more natural light inside the home.
DISADVANTAGES:
Adding windows, valleys and varying slopes creates a higher chance for water leaks. It’s also a
high maintenance roof and expensive too.

 CURVED ROOFS:
It is very modern and provides a unique, creative roof design. The amount of curve can vary
from slightly curved up to an arch shape.
ADVANTAGES:
Aesthetically pleasing. Covers entire home. Durable.
DISADVANTAGES:
The cost of a curved roof will depend on the complexity of the design.

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 PYRAMID ROOF:
A pyramid roof is a type of hip roof. All four sides come to a point at the top of the roof. There
are no vertical sides or gables. Pyramid roofs are mostly used for smaller buildings, such as
bungalows and cabins.
ADVANTAGES:
A pyramid roof is extremely resistant to strong winds. The slope provides extra space for
ventilation, attics or high ceilings.

DISADVANTAGES:
The cost of pyramid roofs is higher due to the complexity of the design.

 DOME ROOF:
A dome roof is polygonal with an inverted bowl shape. Dome roofs are great for adding unique
and aesthetically pleasing features to any home. They are excellent choices for cupolas,
gazebos or crow’s nests.
ADVANTAGES:
Dome roofs are both beautiful in design as well as durable.
DISADVANTAGES:
The complexity of a dome roof makes them expensive to construct.

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 COMBINATION ROOF:
A combination roof incorporates a design using various roofs on the same structure for
aesthetic and practical reasons.
ADVANTAGES:
Using a variety of roofs adds architectural interest to a house. It’s also a great way to use the
best type of roof for each section of the home.
DISADVANTAGES:
The more complex the design, the more expensive it will be. Adding different pitches and roof
types will require more building materials and labor costs.

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COMPONENTS OF PITCH ROOF:

 Span: Span of roof is the clear distance between the two supports on which roof is
positioned by some other elements.
 Ridge: The apex of the angle which is developed at top by the inclined surfaces at the top of
slope.
 Rise: The vertical distance or height of top of ridge from wall plate is called as rise.
 Wall plates: Wall plates are provided at top of wall or supports. And these are generally
made of wood and are used to fix the common rafters.
 Pitch: Pitch is nothing but slope of roof with the horizontal plane and is calculated as the
ration of rise to span.
 Eaves: The bottom edge of sloped roof surface is called as eaves from which rain water is
drops down during raining.
 Hip: Hip is a place where two sloping surfaces meet, where exterior angle is more than
180o.
 Hipped end: At the end of a roof sloped triangular surface is formed which is called as
hipped end.
 Valley: It is also a place where two sloping surfaces intersects but the exterior angle is less
than 180.
 Verge: Verge is the edge of gable roof which runs between ridge and eaves.
 Ridge board: Ridge board is a wooden member which is provided long the ridge lie or apex
of the roof. Common rafters are supported by this ridge board. This is also called as ridge
beam or ridge piece.
 Common Rafters: Common rafters are wooden members fixed to the ridge board
perpendicularly. They run from ridge to the eaves. These are fixed to the purlins at
intermediate points. Batten or boarding’s are supported by this rafter. In general, the
spacing between rafters is 30 to 45 cm.
 Purlins

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 Purlins are wooden or steel members supported by truss or wall. If the span is large they
are used to support the common rafters.
 Hip rafters: These rafters are provided at the hip end. And they run diagonally from ridge to
the corners of the wall.
 Valley rafters: Valley rafters run diagonally from ridge to the eaves. They are provided in
sloping positions to bear support valley gutters. The ends of purlins and jack rafters will
receive by the valley rafters.
 Jack rafters: The rafters run from hip to the valley are called as jack rafters and usually they
are short in length.
 Eaves board: The ends of lower most roof covering materials are rests on eaves board. It is
made of wood and usually 25mm x 25mm thickness and width. It is placed at the feet of
common rafters.
 Barge board: To hold the verge formed by the common rafters a wooden board is used
which is called as barge board.
 Post plate: Post plate is similar to wall plate. Post plates are parallel to the face of the wall
and run continuous. Post plates provide support for the rafters.
 Battens: Battens are usually made of wood and they are nailed to the rafters to give
supports for the roof covering material.
 Template: Template is a masonry block made of concrete or stone which is placed under
the truss to provide larger load area of the wall.
 Boarding’s: Boarding’s are similar to battens and these are also used to give support for the
roof covering material by nailing them to the rafters.
 Truss: Truss is frame which consists of triangles and designed to support the roof tops.
 Cleats: To support the purlins, short sections of steel or wood are fixed to the rafters and
these sections are called as Cleats.

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SN No. - 02
Explain any 5 types of roofing Materials.

 ASPHALT SHINGLES:
An asphalt shingle is a type of wall or roof shingle that uses asphalt for waterproofing. It is one
of the most widely used roofing covers in North America because it has a relatively inexpensive
up-front cost and is fairly simple to install.

ASPHALT SHINGLES
https://www.google.com/search?q=asphalt+shingles&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=S9Ia4m
tB92HMEM%252CLUi5KbtF4CTOAM%252C_&vet=1
ADVANTAGES:
• Affordable: Probably the biggest reason why asphalt roofing shingles are so popular is
because they are the most affordable roofing option.
• Effective: While not as durable and long-lasting as other roofing materials (such as
metal, slate, clay tiles, and cedar shakes) asphalt shingles provide adequate protection.
• Variety of colors and styles: There are two types of asphalt shingles: organic and
fiberglass. Asphalt coats both types to make them water proof. A fiberglass shingle’s
interior is made with a thin mat of glass fiber. Organic shingles are made with a mat
fabricated from some kind of wood product, usually waste paper.

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• Easy Installation: they require less specialized training and can quickly be installed in
one to two days.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Asphalt roofing shingles perform poorly in extreme heat, which can cause shingles to
crack and color to fade.
• They aren’t fit for extreme temperature fluctuations. Expanding and contracting causes
cracking.
• They can become damaged if installed at below freezing temperatures.
• Asphalt shingles are not environmentally friendly.

 ROLLED ROOFING:
Rolled roofing material is the mainstay of low-slope residential roofs as well as out-buildings
like shops and sheds and other structures.
Rolled roofing consists of long rolls of mineral-impregnated asphalt-impregnated material
topped with mineral granules. Each roll is about 100 square feet of roofing, about 3 feet wide.
These large-format strips of thin roofing material offer a fast, convenient, and inexpensive way
to cover a sloped-roof building like a workshop where appearances aren't important. Rolled
roofing can be applied either with the torch-down method or with roofing nails.
Rolled roofing is relatively inexpensive. Rolled roofing lasts, on average, about 10 years before
it needs to be replaced.

ROLLED ROOFING
https://jdtconstructionllc.com/what-is-roll-roofing/

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ADVANTAGES:
• Rolled roofing is the least expensive roofing material.
• Unlike shingles, which apply one by one, you can roll out a square of mineral surface
rolled roof within minutes.
• Rolled roofing is easy to transport.
• Rolled roofing is very adaptable.
• Is extremely cheap.
• Works on low slope and sloped roofs.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Not the most attractive product.
• Roof repair is not an option.
• Rolled roofing is less durable.
• Rolled roofing has a short lifespan of between five and eight years.

 CLAY TILES:
Clay tile is made from earthen clays molded into rolled or interlocking shapes and fired for
hardness. It is often left unglazed, with the characteristic reddish-orange color. Clay tile is a very
good roofing material for hot climates or where salt air is present, which is why these roofs are
seen so often in southern coastal regions or desert regions.

CLAY TILES
http://www.inspiredexpos.com/clay-tile-roofs-have-offered-thousands-of-years-of-benefits/

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ADVANTAGES:
• Long-lasting: A tile roof can last over 100 years, especially when installed in the right
climate. Clay and concrete tile roofs have been known to withstand hail, high winds, and
even fire.
• Impervious to rot and insect damage: Unlike wood, tiles roofs will never decay.
• Environmentally friendly material.
• Energy efficient
• Low maintenance: It is very rare for tile roofs to require repairs or maintenance unless
they break due to heavy impact.
• Plenty of choices in color and styles.
DISADVANTAGES:
• High cost
• Difficult installation: Installing tile roofing requires professional roofing contractors with
extensive experience.
• Heavyweight: Your roof structure must be able to handle the weight of a tile roof.
• Tiles are brittle.
• Not suitable for all roof slopes.

 STONE-COATED STEEL ROOFING:

Stone-coated steel roofing is finished with a thick layer of stone that permanently adheres to
the surface and provides the decorative look.
Consequently, they’re an economical, effective choice for wet, windy regions or areas prone to
wildfires. Some stone-coated steel roofs are warranted for the lifetime of the house.

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STONE-COATED STEEL ROOFING

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/stone-coated-metal-roofing-tile-durastar-
19575263162.html

ADVANTAGES:
• LONGEVITY: Their life span ranges from 40–70 years. it's a great investment in the long-
term future of your home.
• DURABILITY: Steel can withstand gusting winds, heavy rain or hail, and many other
adverse weather conditions.
• LOW MAINTENANCE: They create a thick shield around your home, keeping it safer from
poor weather conditions and eliminating most of the repair costs associated with
traditional roofing.
• BEAUTY AND VERSATILITY: Stone-coated steel roofing comes in a wide variety of colors,
textures, and designs to complement almost any style of home.
• ENERGY EFFICIENCY: Metal roofing actually reflects heat from the sun, rather than
absorbing it like a dark asphalt material would.
DISADVANTAGES:
• INITIAL COST: Stone-coated steel roofing is on the high end of the cost range for roofing
materials
• NOISE FROM RAIN OR HAIL: Depending on how a steel roof is installed, more noise from
rain or hail is possible.

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 WOODEN SHINGLES:
Wood shingles are made by cutting wood into specific sized pieces. After the wood is cut, kiln
and pressure treatments are used to help remove moisture from the wood pieces. The pressure
treatments often make use of some elements like copper, chromium, and arsenic. This helps
increase the lifespan of the roof and reduce the chance of mold, insects, rotting, and fungus
growth.

WOODEN SHINGLES
https://www.google.com/search?q=wooden+shingles&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ah
UKEwi3x8WSuOnqAhWDX3wKHVoUCOMQ_AUoAXoECA0QAw&biw=1536&bih=754#imgrc=Kkv
PnkdVbajOKM&imgdii=ft8OYebr3E1LGM
ADVANTAGES:
• Wood shingles and shakes have a very unique look making them the number one choice
for many.
• Wood shingles and shakes have pretty good wind resistance.
• Wood is a pretty durable material when it comes to impact resistance.
• Installation and repairs are easy to do.
• Wood roof systems are UV resistance.
• Energy Savings: Wood roofs naturally add insulation to your home.
• Wood roofs are a lightweight roof system.
• Wood roofs have many different style options. You can specify the size length of the
shingles, the thickness, the cut shape, the color, the grain, and more.
• Wood shakes and wood shingles are versatile

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DISADVANTAGES:
• Wood shingles are not very fire resistant. They are more likely to catch fire than other
types of roofing materials.
• Wood roofs absorb water when it gets wet.

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