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Foundation

1. Isolated Footing

Definition:
 Isolated footings (also known as Pad or Spread footings) are commonly used for shallow
foundations in order to carry and spread concentrated loads, caused for example by
columns or pillars. Isolated footings can consist either of reinforced or non-reinforced
material.

Advantages:
 Isolate footings are economical.
 The isolated footings are easy to construct.
 Even it can be constructed, unskilled workers.
 It requires less earth excavation.

Disadvantages:
 The soil needs stability all around the base of the structure.
 To cope with the high load, it can be exceptionally large.
 Separate foundations make this design weak against the differential settlement that may
affect the building.

Design Considerations:
 Isolated footings should only be used when it is absolutely certain, that no varying
settlements will occur under the entire building.
 Load-bearing capacity: The footing must be designed to support the load of the structure
and any potential vertical or lateral loads. The load-bearing capacity of the soil must be
considered, as well as the weight of the footing and the column it supports.
 Soil type: The type and characteristics of the soil on which the footing will be constructed
are important considerations. The soil's bearing capacity. settlement characteristics, and
potential for heaving or shrinkage must be considered when designing the footing.
 Footing size and shape: The size and shape of the footing should be designed to distribute
the load evenly over the soil and prevent excessive settlement or differential settlement.
The shape of the footing should be chosen based on the geometry of the column it
supports.
 Depth: The depth of the footing must be sufficient to reach stable soil that can support the
load. The depth can be affected by the type of soil, the size and weight of the structure,
and any potential lateral loads.
 Reinforcement: Reinforcement may be required in the footing to provide additional
strength and prevent cracking or failure. The amount and type of reinforcement will
depend on the size and weight of the structure, as well as the characteristics of the soil.
 Water table: The depth of the water table can affect the design of the footing, particularly
in areas with high groundwater levels. In these cases, special provisions may be
necessary to prevent the footing from being undermined or washed away.
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 Accessibility: The location and accessibility of the footing must be considered during the
design phase. The footing should be designed to allow for easy construction, inspection,
and maintenance.

Did you know (Facts):

 Spread foundations are commonly used within the building industry.

2. Mat Footing

Definition:
 Mat footings are used when the building load is so high, that spread, or strip footings
could not bear the weight, or their employment would be inefficient. Furthermore, mat
footings are helping to reduce the varying settlements caused by construction on non-
homogenous soils or uneven load distribution on the footing.

Advantages:
 It has good resistance for this the building cannot slide during the flood.
 The mat slab foundation can help transfer the load of the building to a verse area.
 To make an economical structure like when the cost of depth foundation is more than
from the shallow foundation then we constructed a mat slab foundation.
 In this mat slab foundation, we can reduce the materials cost because when we construct
the foundation at the same time the ground floor slab is poured for this reason the time
and materials both are safe.
 The mat slab is a shallow foundation for this the depth of the foundation is less so the
excavation for the foundation is less.
 The mat slab foundation can take more than load from the other type of foundation.
 In another advantage is that the mat slab foundation can construct in poor soil.

Disadvantages:
 The number of quantity materials like steel or concrete required more for the mat
foundation.
 The mat slab foundation is not suitable for domestic uses.
 In the case of concentrated loads, sometimes a special measurement is needed.
 For the mat slab, the area of the foundation is large so the cost of the structure will
increase.

Design Considerations:
 Mat foundation should be placed below the level which would not be influenced by the
seasonal change of weather to cause swelling and shrinking of the soil. Added to that,
frost also may endanger the foundation, if placed at a very shallow depth.
 Load-bearing capacity: The footing must be designed to support the load of the structure
and any potential vertical or lateral loads. The load-bearing capacity of the soil must be
considered, as well as the weight of the footing and the column it supports.
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 Soil type: The type and characteristics of the soil on which the footing will be constructed
are important considerations. The soil's bearing capacity. settlement characteristics, and
potential for heaving or shrinkage must be considered when designing the footing.
 Footing size and shape: The size and shape of the footing should be designed to distribute
the load evenly over the soil and prevent excessive settlement or differential settlement.
The shape of the footing should be chosen based on the geometry of the column it
supports.
 Depth: The depth of the footing must be sufficient to reach stable soil that can support the
load. The depth can be affected by the type of soil, the size and weight of the structure,
and any potential lateral loads.
 Reinforcement: Reinforcement may be required in the footing to provide additional
strength and prevent cracking or failure. The amount and type of reinforcement will
depend on the size and weight of the structure, as well as the characteristics of the soil.
 Water table: The depth of the water table can affect the design of the footing, particularly
in areas with high groundwater levels. In these cases, special provisions may be
necessary to prevent the footing from being undermined or washed away.
 Accessibility: The location and accessibility of the footing must be considered during the
design phase. The footing should be designed to allow for easy construction, inspection,
and maintenance.

Did you know (Facts):

 When mat foundation is constructed on sand, the minimum depth of foundation is around
2.5 m below the surrounding ground surface. if a smaller depth is considered, the edges
of the raft settle appreciably more than the interior due to lack of confinement of the
sand.
 Rafts constructed on saturated clay must be examined for both bearing capacity and
settlement because either may control the design.

3. Deep Footing (Piles)

Definition:
 Deep foundation is required to carry loads from a structure through weak compressible
soils or fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth, or for functional
reasons. Deep foundations are founded too deeply below the finished ground surface for
their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths
>3 m below finished ground level. This is the type of foundation in which load is
transferred to a lower level using vertical members known as piles.

Advantages:
 Because piles can be constructed off-site, they can be installed quickly on-site.
 The earth is displaced and compacted by the induced piles, increasing the pile’s bearing
capacity.
 For many years, the facility will be safe and robust thanks to the piles.
 Boost your overall productivity.
 Driving through stones and boulders quickly damages a pile.
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 Saltwater marine bits can cause damage to piles.

 A stack cannot be higher than the ground.
 It is tough to predict the exact duration needed ahead of time.
 When the piles are driven, vibrations are produced, which have an impact on the
surrounding area structures.

Disadvantages:
 Corrosion can occur in piles.
 Inspection is required daily.
 To repair the piles, skilled labor is required.

Design Considerations:
 The cost of construction is also a major factor considered when selecting piles as a
supporting system.
 Limitation of the vibrations and sound levels shall be checked. Excessive vibration could
cause damage to adjoining properties.
 Condition of the rock. RQD and CR values determined from borehole investigation are
highly influential on the pile capacities.
 Load-bearing capacity: The footing must be designed to support the load of the structure
and any potential vertical or lateral loads. The load-bearing capacity of the soil must be
considered, as well as the weight of the footing and the column it supports.
 Soil type: The type and characteristics of the soil on which the footing will be constructed
are important considerations. The soil's bearing capacity. settlement characteristics, and
potential for heaving or shrinkage must be considered when designing the footing.
 Footing size and shape: The size and shape of the footing should be designed to distribute
the load evenly over the soil and prevent excessive settlement or differential settlement.
The shape of the footing should be chosen based on the geometry of the column it
supports.
 Depth: The depth of the footing must be sufficient to reach stable soil that can support the
load. The depth can be affected by the type of soil, the size and weight of the structure,
and any potential lateral loads.
 Reinforcement: Reinforcement may be required in the footing to provide additional
strength and prevent cracking or failure. The amount and type of reinforcement will
depend on the size and weight of the structure, as well as the characteristics of the soil.
 Water table: The depth of the water table can affect the design of the footing, particularly
in areas with high groundwater levels. In these cases, special provisions may be
necessary to prevent the footing from being undermined or washed away.
 Accessibility: The location and accessibility of the footing must be considered during the
design phase. The footing should be designed to allow for easy construction, inspection,
and maintenance.

Did you know (Facts):

 A pile foundation is preferred when lateral stresses are exerted over weak soil.
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Slope

1. Sheet Piles

Definition:
 Sheet piles are sections of sheet materials with interlocking edges that are driven into the
ground to provide earth retention and excavation support.

Advantages:
 Recyclable and reusable.
 Available a wide range of lengths, size, and steel options.
 Can be used for temporary and permanent structures.
 Can be installed using silent and vibration-free methods.
 Quicker installation than contiguous or secant walls.
 Cofferdams can be constructed in almost any desired shape,
 Provide a close-fitting joint to form an effective water seal.
 Light in weight, making lifting and managing easy.
 The length and design of the pile are easily adjustable.
 Joints are designed to withstand the high pressure necessary for them to be placed in
place.
 A little maintenance is needed above and underwater.

Disadvantages:
 Sections can rarely be used as part of the permanent structure.
 Installation of sheet piles is difficult in soils with boulders or cobbles. In such cases, the
desired wall depths may not be reached.
 Excavation shapes are dictated by the sheet pile section and interlocking elements.
 Sheet pile driving may cause neighborhood disturbance.
 Settlements in adjacent properties may take place due to installation vibrations.

Design Considerations:
 method of fixing the interlocks.
 method of attaching the connectors to the primary elements of a combined wall, taking
into consideration
 quality of the welding.
 method of cutting steel elements.
 method to assist driving and the depth to which it may be applied.
 shape of rock shoe and other measures necessary to secure the toe of the sheet piles in the
bedrock.
 in soft clays, overlying bedrock, the method of preventing the clay from squeezing
through the gap between the pile toe and the bedrock.
 quality of the backfill or the method of placement thereof.
 prestressing of the struts or anchorages to reduce displacements in the ground behind the
sheet pile wall.
 time restraints during critical execution sequences.
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 methods and levels of de-watering.

 type, kind, and method of coating steel elements and preserving wooden parts.
 cathodic protection methods.
 compatibility of the interlock sealant and the coating material.
 specific requirements regarding the permeability of the sheet pile wall, including
performance criteria for materials, procedures, and testing.
 the method to secure the position of the toe of sheet piles when close excavation in rock
is conducted.
 consequences of extracting the sheet piles on adjacent buildings, installations, and
services, on settlements of the soil surface and on the creation of a link between soil
layers with different groundwater regimes.
 measurements needed to check settlements, displacements, and vibrations.

Did you know (Facts):

 Sheet piles are commonly used for retaining walls, land reclamation, underground
structures such as car parks and basements, in marine locations for riverbank protection,
seawalls, cofferdams, and so on.

2. Gravity Retaining Wall

Definition:
 Gravity retaining walls use the gravitational force of their own weight to resist the lateral
earth pressure from the soil behind them, which prevents toppling and sliding.

Advantages:
 You can secure your building by constructing a retaining wall.
 When your structure is placed in a sloping environment, retaining walls are intended to
resist and combat side gravity. In such a location, landslides and erosion can be avoided.
 Retaining walls is a practical solution for preventing sinkholes from damaging your
landscaping. They are used to provide level surfaces on slopes and stabilize sloping
landscapes.
 The landscape area can be protected with a retaining wall. As a result, maintenance can
be minimized over time.
 Retaining walls can contribute to the aesthetic value of your environment.

Disadvantages:
 Can only be used up to 3m.
 Due to severe pressure or drastic temperature changes, certain retaining walls develop
vertical fissures in the poured concrete.
 Some retaining walls, such as brick walls, cannot withstand severe soil pressure, resulting
in brick breakage or foundation failure.
 When wood is utilized as a retaining wall, termites may be attracted to your property.

Design Considerations:
 Soil Properties
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 Stability against overturning

 Stability against Sliding
 Stability against Tension
 Stability against Bearing Failure
 Effect of Surcharges
 The effect of excavation on the wall bearing capacity may also need to be considered.
 Selection of backfill.
 Earth Pressure
 Effect of water

Did you know (Facts):

 Commonly, gravity retaining wall is massive because it requires significant gravity load
to counter act soil pressure.
 It is economical for a height up to 3m.
 They are the simplest and earliest recorded type of retaining wall, and are usually built of
masonry, brick, concrete blocks, or mass cast-in-situ concrete.

3. Cantilever Retaining Wall

Definition:
 Cantilever walls are built using reinforced concrete, with an L-shaped, or inverted T-
shaped, foundation. This kind of retaining wall wall consists of a stem and a base slab (or
footing) which sits under the backfill.

Advantages:
 You can secure your building by constructing a retaining wall.
 When your structure is placed in a sloping environment, retaining walls are intended to
resist and combat side gravity. In such a location, landslides and erosion can be avoided.
 Retaining walls is a practical solution for preventing sinkholes from damaging your
landscaping. They are used to provide level surfaces on slopes and stabilize sloping
landscapes.
 The landscape area can be protected with a retaining wall. As a result, maintenance can
be minimized over time.
 Retaining walls can contribute to the aesthetic value of your environment.

Disadvantages:
 Due to severe pressure or drastic temperature changes, certain retaining walls develop
vertical fissures in the poured concrete.
 Some retaining walls, such as brick walls, cannot withstand severe soil pressure, resulting
in brick breakage or foundation failure.
 When wood is utilized as a retaining wall, termites may be attracted to your property.

Design Considerations:
 Soil Properties
 Stability against overturning
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 Stability against Sliding

 Stability against Tension
 Stability against Bearing Failure
 Effect of Surcharges
 The effect of excavation on the wall bearing capacity may also need to be considered.
 Selection of backfill.
 Earth Pressure
 Effect of water

Did you know (Facts):

 Cantilever retaining wall is the most common type of earth-retaining structure.

Reference links:

Foundation:
https://civiljungle.com/spread-footing/
https://www.finesoftware.eu/geotechnical-software/solutions/shallow-foundations/isolated-
footing-pad-foundation/#:~:text=Isolated%20footings%20(also%20known%20as,reinforced
%20or%20non%2Dreinforced%20material.
https://www.civilknowledges.com/isolated-footing/
https://archi-monarch.com/design-considerations-for-isolated-footing/
https://www.finesoftware.eu/geotechnical-software/solutions/shallow-foundations/mat-footing-
foundations/#:~:text=Mat%20footings%20are%20used%20when,their%20employment
%20would%20be%20inefficient.
https://civiljungle.com/mat-foundation/
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/types-of-deep-foundation/7252/
https://civiljungle.com/deep-foundation/
https://www.structuralguide.com/pile-foundations/

Slope
https://constrofacilitator.com/sheet-piles-advantages-types-and-methods/
https://www.deepexcavation.com/en/resources/retaining-systems/sheet-pile-walls
https://geotechnicaldesign.info/en12063-1999/g7.html
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/retaining-wall-types-use/24566/
https://allanblock.com/retaining-walls/gravity-wall-engineering.aspx
https://www.tensar.co.uk/resources/articles/types-of-retaining-wall
https://www.engineeringcivil.com/retaining-wall-function-types-advantages-disadvantages.html
https://www.soilmanagementindia.com/soil/retaining-walls/gravity-retaining-walls/design-
principles-for-gravity-retaining-walls-soil-engineering/14666
https://theconstructor.org/structures/retaining-wall-design-principles-2/1333/