THEORY OF

STRUCTURES
ASSIGNMENT 1
SAKSHI SHARMA
B.ARCH 3RD YEAR B SECTION
 FOUNDATION OF BUILDING
• The low artificially built part of a structure which
transmits the load of the structure to the ground is
called foundation.
• A foundation (also called a ground sill) is a structure
that transfers loads to the earth.
• Foundation of a structure is always constructed below
the ground level so as to increase the lateral stability of
the structure. It includes the portion of the structure
below the ground level and is built, so as to provide a
firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the
structure on a large area of the soil lying underneath.
The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called
the Foundation Bed
 USES OF FOUNDATION
• Foundation are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is the foundation, more stable is the
structure.
• The proper design and construction of foundations provide a proper surface for the development of the substructure in a
proper level and over a firm bed.
• Specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the supporting material.
• A proper foundation distributes load on to the surface of the bed uniformly. This uniform transfer helps in avoiding
unequal settlement of the building. Differential settlement is an undesirable building effect.
• The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the structure over a large base area and then
to the soil underneath. This load transferred to the soil should be within the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
• Provide overall lateral stability for the structure.
• Foundation serve the function of providing a level surface for the construction of substructure.
• Load Distribution is carried out evenly.
• The load intensity is reduced to be within the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
• The soil movement effect is resisted and prevented.
• Scouring and the undermining issues are solved by the construction of foundation.
 FEASIBILITY CRITERIA
LOADS OF STRUCTURE
• Loading conditions coming from the structure is one of the factors that govern foundation selection. It is
influenced by type of building, type of construction material, environmental factors, earthquake susceptibility.
• Selection of material such as bricks, stone, steel, and concrete for construction affect the selection of foundation.
Settlement calculation of foundation is another factor that associated with loads of the structure and affects
foundation choice.
• In case of low-rise building, shallow foundation is preferred. However, for high-rise building, deep foundation is
required. Deep foundation is provided because ground at greater depth are highly compacted.

SOIL BEARING CAPACITY

• Soil bearing capacity is one of the most crucial criteria that affect the selection of the appropriate type of
foundation. Decision can be made to choose shallow or deep foundation based on the soil bearing pressure.
• An allowable bearing pressure of at least 100 kN/m^2 or higher is effective for shallow foundations up to 4
stories. However, higher structures can consider a raft foundation provided that the modulus of subgrade
reaction shall not be exceeded when calculated.
SOIL TYPES
• There are different types of soil like sandy soil, loose soil, clayey soil, and expansive soils. Form the surface to a
depth of 3m is termed as top soil, and subsoil begins after 3m depth. Characteristics specifically bearing capacity
of both topsoil and subsoil layers would to a great extent controls the foundation selection.
• For low bearing capacity soil, stronger and suitable foundation shall be selected compare to with case where the
soil has strength bearing capacity. The bearing capacity is the ability of soil to safely support structural loads
without suffering shear failure and intolerable settlement.

EASE OF CONSTRUCTION
• The choice of foundation should be made keeping in mind the ease with which it can be executed/constructed at
the site. The construction of different types of foundation requires labor of different skill set and different level of
skills.
WATER TABLE LEVEL
• Water table is another significant criterion that affect the foundation selection. Foundation should not be placed
on soil that undergo expansion and contraction due to water table fluctuation. So, it should be construction on
fully dry soil or on fully wet soil.
ADJOINING STRUCTURE/WATER BODIES/SLOPES
• Adjoining structures, water bodies, slopes are parameters that need to be considered for selection of foundation
types. When foundation of the neighboring structure is very close the foundation to be construction, it may
influence the choice and the safety of the adjoining structure.
NATURAL DISASTER AND EXTREME WEATHER
• If the area has a history of severe natural events or extreme weather, then these
parameters should be selected taken these parameters into considerations. The past record
or data of natural disasters and extreme weather should be employed as a base for
foundation selection.

ECONOMIC DESIGN
• When there are number of feasible foundation choices for the given project site,
economical factor may influence the selection of the foundation. Nonetheless, choosing an
economical foundation should not compromise the safety, workmanship, strength, and
durability of the foundation
 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
ISOLATED FOUNDATION
• Isolated foundations are structural components often used to distribute and deliver loads of
individual columns to the soil and without exhausting its bearing capacity, in addition to
avoiding undue settling and as well as ensuring sufficient protection against both slipping
and trying to overturn.
• These are often used in the presence of light column loads, where columns are never closely
spaced, even in the case of strong homogeneous soil.
• A 15 cm offset is usually given on all sides of the concrete bed. In the situation of brick
masonry columns, an offset of 5 cm is often given on all 4 sides in usual layers. Where the
base of concrete columns is a slab, steeped, or slopestyle.
Different types of isolated foundations are as follows

1. Pad Isolated Foundation

2. Sloped Isolated Foundation
3. Stepped Isolated Foundation
4. Combined Foundation
5. Shoe or Eccentric Foundation
 COMBINED FOOTING
• When two or more columns are located near to each other then a common footing is provided for all the columns is known as
combined footing.
• If the individual footing has to accommodate two or in exceptional cases more than two columns are known as combined
footing.
• If two or more columns are supported in a row and a common foundation is provided them then the footing is called
combined footing.
• To get uniform pressure distribution under the footing the combined footing is widely used. Generally, the combined footing is
made also of reinforcement concrete.
• If two or more columns lie in a straight line and are carried by on a single spread footing, then it is called a combined footing.
Isolated footings for each column are generally economical.
• The combined footing is provided to equally distribute the load to the super-structure to the sub-soil. The selection of the
ideal type of footing depends on the depth at which point the bearing strata lies, the soil condition, and the type of
superstructure.
There are four types of combined footing, that are-
• Rectangular combined footing
• Trapezoidal combined footing
• Strap combined footing
• Raft combined footing
 PILE FOUNDATION
A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed into the ground so that
structures can be supported on top of it. Pile foundations are used in the following situations:
• When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support the weight of the building, so the loads
of the building have to bypass this layer and be transferred to the layer of stronger soil or rock that is below the
weak layer.
• When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise structure.
• Pile foundations are capable of taking higher loads than spread footings. There are two types of pile foundations,
each of which works in its own way.
 RAFT FOUNDATION
Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations-

• Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil reinforced with steel,
supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the structure to the soil. Usually, mat
foundation is spread over the entire area of the structure it is supporting.
• Mat Foundations are used where the soil is week, and therefore building loads have to be spread
over a large area, or where columns are closely spaced, which means that if individual footings were
used, they would touch each other.
Followings are the different types of raft foundation used in construction:
1. Flat plate mat
2. Plate thickened under the column
3. Two-way beam and slab Raft
4. Plate raft with pedestals
5. Plied raft
6. Rigid Frame Mat or Cellular Raft Foundation
 FOUNDATIONS IN BLACK COTTON SOIL
• Black cotton soil swells during rainy season and cracks in summer due to shrinkage. These shrinkage
cracks are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 0.5 m to 2 m deep. Swelling creates upwards pressure on the
structure and shrinkage creates downward pull. It results into cracks in foundations wall and roof.
• Hence foundation in black cotton soil need special care.
• In case black cotton soil is only to a depth of 1.0 m and 2.0 m it is economical to remove entire black
cotton soil from the site and build the foundation on red soil. Apart from this black cotton soil should
be removed from the sides of the foundation and filled with sand and gravel.

In case the depth of black cotton soil is more, the following

type of foundation may be provided :

1. Strip or pad foundation

2. Pier foundation with arches and
3. Under reamed pile foundation
Places where black soil is found-
• The black soil is majorly found in the parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western parts of
• Madhya Pradesh, North-Western Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
up to Raj
• Mahal hills. The two popular plateaus that is the Deccan plateau and Malwa plateau also lie in the stretch of
black soil.

PROPERTIES OF BLACK SOIL

Listed below are the properties of black soil :
1. The soil is rich in minerals like iron, lime, calcium, potash, magnesium and aluminium.
2. The soil has a high water-retaining capacity.
3. The soil has a fine texture and clayey nature.
4. The soil is more fertile as compared to any other group of soil
 UNDER REAMED PILE FOUNDATION
Under-Reamed Piles Foundation is an answer in area where black cotton soil could cause structural instability. Many
times, during, soils undergo volumetric changes due to moisture variation underneath the ground surface. This expansion
and shrinkage can cause distress which is very dangerous and critical as far as bearing of the foundation is concerned. The
fact is that Under Reamed Piles are considered as most safe and economical foundation for such black cotton soils or
expansive soils.

USES OF UNDER-REAMED PILES

• To avoid the undesirable effect of seasonal moisture changes in expansive soils such as black cotton soils.
• To reach hard strata.
• To obtain adequate capacity for downward, upward, lateral loads and moments.
• To take the foundations below the scour level.
• They have also been found useful for factory buildings and machine foundations.
• Under-Reamed Piles are also used under situations, where the vibration and noise caused during construction of piles, are
to be avoided.
ADVANTAGES OF UNDER REAMED PILES
It decreases the vertical settlement and also differential settlement.
• It is used when soil tends to swell and shrink due to moisture variation or expansive
nature of the soil.
• Provision of under-reams or bulbs has the advantage of increasing the bearing and uplift
capacities.
• When the number of bulbs are increased from one to two, the load carrying capacity of
the Under-Reamed Pile is increased.
• The provision of bulbs is of special advantage in Under-Reamed Piles to resist uplift and
they can be used as anchors.
• The cost advantages of Under-Reamed Piles are due to the reduced pile shaft diameter,
resulting in less concrete needed to replace the excavated material.
DISADVANTAGES OF UNDER REAMED PILES

• At a depth, where nature of soil varies with a climatic condition, Under-Reamed Piles are not
suitable for waterlogged soil, as they take load by friction.
• These piles need strict quality control and regular supervision during the construction.
• Most of the times, Under Reamed Piles are driven manually with hand operated machine. Hence
maintaining plumb of pile is very essential, because if they are not in plumb whole load transfer
mechanism would change