TRUSS & GIRDER ROOFS

I. C. Vidya Sagar
FOAP, AKTU, Lko
North Light Truss &
Lattice Girder roofs
North Light Truss & Lattice Girder roofs- Introduction
• When floor spans exceed 15 m it is generally more economical to change from a
simple truss arrangement to one employing wide span lattice girders which
support trusses at right angles.
• The girders can be built up from angles or tubes, the latter welded, and the former
welded and bolted together.
• In order to light the space satisfactorily, roof lighting has to replace, or
supplement, side lighting; provision must also be made for ventilation from the
roof.
• One of the oldest and economical of methods of covering large areas is the North
light and lattice girder (or saw tooth roof) system shown in Figure, this is
sometimes objected to because the lighting is directed from one side only and so
there is a tendency for shadows to be created at the working plane.
North Light Truss & Lattice Girder roofs
• This roof consists of series of
trusses fixed to girders.
• Short vertical (or near vertical)
side of trusses is glazed so that
when roof is used in northern
hemisphere glazed portion faces
North for best light; when used in
southern hemisphere glazing
would face South for same reason.
• Arrangement is shown at D, where
lattice girders span 30 m; at right
angles to them and connected to
each vertical of girder, a North
light truss of 11 m span is fixed.
North Light Truss & Lattice Girder roofs
• Diagram of girder, showing centre lines of members is drawn at A, is divided into
3.75 m intervals, and trusses are connected to it at these centres.
• Pair of trusses is shown in diagram form at B, sizes of all members are as/str. details.
North Light Truss & Lattice Girder roofs
• Detail G at D is shown at C
and illustrates construction
at lower portion of glazing
and connection of truss to
bottom of girder.
• Asbestos cement or steel
gutter is slung from angle
rail and purlin and lead
flashings seal joints between
glazing & gutter and
between roof & gutter.
North Light Truss & Lattice Girder roofs
• Detail J at apex of North light truss is drawn
at E and shows top connection of two main
components. Patent glazing is attached to a
75X50X8 mm angle which is welded to a
larger angle round which flashing is dressed
and to which wing of one of ridge cappings is
attached.
• Glazing bars should be fixed through slotted
holes in angle (to permit movement) so that
when girder deflects, damage to glass is
avoided.
• Glazing bars are in two lengths, being
attached midway to another angle rail.
• Roof covering is of asbestos cement sheeting
which could be insulated with asbestos spray
on underside.
Trusses & Roof systems
 Trusses
• Structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender
members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. Truss is composed of
triangles because of structural stability of that shape/design. Triangle is simplest
geometric figure that will not change shape when lengths of sides are fixed.
• External forces & reactions to those forces are considered to act only at nodes & result
in forces in members which are either tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torsional
forces) are explicitly excluded.
• Planar truss is one where all members and nodes lie within a 2-dimensional plane, while
space truss has members and nodes extending into 3-dimensions.
• Planar truss lies in a single plane & are typically used in parallel to form roofs/bridges.
• Truss depth, (height between upper & lower chords) makes it efficient structural form.
• Solid girder/beam of equal strength have substantial weight & material cost compared to
truss. For given span length deeper truss will require less material in chords & greater
material in verticals/diagonals, optimum depth of truss will maximize efficiency.
Trusses types
• There are two basic types of truss:
• Pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most
often used for roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to their
web configuration. Chord size & web configuration are determined by span, load &
spacing.
• Parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom
chords. It is often used for floor construction.
• Combination of two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof construction.
Trusses & Roof systems
• Trusses are triangular frame works consisting of axially loaded members which are
more efficient in resisting external loads as cross section is nearly uniformly stressed.
• Extensively used to span large gaps, in roofs of single storey industrial buildings, long
span floors & roofs of multistory buildings to resist gravity loads.
• Also used in walls and horizontal planes of industrial buildings to resist lateral loads
and give lateral stability.
• Commonly used truss is single span, simply supported & statically determinate with
joints assumed to act as pins.
• Trusses can be pitched with sloping rafters & can have parallel top & bottom chords.
• Trusses with parallel chords are often referred to as lattice girders.
Roof covering

Purlins
Rafter

Main tie Internal bracing

members
Pitched roof trusses
• Common types of roof trusses are pitched roof trusses wherein top chord is provided
with slope in order to facilitate natural drainage of rainwater & clearance of dust/snow
accumulation.
• Pitched trusses have greater depth at mid-span, due to this even though overall
bending effect is larger at mid-span, chord & web member stresses are smaller closer
to mid-span and larger closer to supports.
• Typical span to maximum depth ratios of pitched roof trusses are in range of 4 to 8,
larger ratio being economical in longer spans.
• Pitched roof trusses may have different configurations.
• Economical span lengths of pitched roof trusses, excluding Mansard trusses, range
from 6 m to 12 m. Mansard trusses can be used in span ranges of 12 m to 30 m.
• Can be delivered to site as one complete unit, as several smaller units or as individual
elements. Choice will depend upon size of truss, ease of transport between fabrication
shop/site and availability of space on site.
Pitched roof trusses- Spans
• Most efficient form of <7 m 7 - 11 m
truss to be employed in
any situation is usually
controlled by span to be 11 - 17 m 17 - 25 m
covered.
• Figure shows variety of
pitched roof trusses 11 - 17 m 17 - 25 m
together with spans
over which they are
customarily used.
• For spans in excess of 25 - 31 m
these values, lattice
girders may be more
practical which are used
for spans greater than
25 - 31 m
approximately 7 m.
Pitched roof trusses- Design concept
• Typical roof trusses are plane frames consisting of sloping rafters which meet at apex
or ridge of frame.
• Lower ends of rafters are prevented from spreading by a horizontal main tie, whilst
internal bracing members triangulate the truss and carry primarily axial forces.
• Internal members also reduce segment lengths of chords which enables lighter weight
and therefore more efficient chords to be used.
Roof covering

Purlins
Rafter

Main tie Internal bracing

members
Configuration of trusses- Pitched roof trusses
• Pratt
• Howe
• Fink
• Fan
• Fink Fan
• Mansard
Pitched roof trusses: Pratt
• In Pratt trusses web members are arranged in such way that under gravity load longer
diagonal members are under tension & shorter vertical members experience
compression.
• This allows for efficient design, since short members are under compression.
• Wind uplift may cause reversal of stresses in these members and nullify this benefit.
Pitched roof trusses: Howe
• Converse of Pratt is the Howe truss.
• Commonly used in light roofing so that longer diagonals experience tension under
reversal of stresses due to wind load.
Pitched roof trusses: Fink
• Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high pitch roof, since web members in
such truss are sub-divided to obtain shorter members.
Pitched roof trusses: Fan, Fink-Fan
• Fan trusses are used
when rafter members
of roof trusses have to
be sub-divided into
odd number of panels.

• Combination of fink
& fan can also be
used to some
advantage in some
specific situations
requiring appropriate
number of panels.
Pitched roof trusses: Mansard
• Mansard trusses are variation of fink trusses, which have shorter leading diagonals
even in very long span trusses, unlike fink & fan type trusses.
• Mansard trusses can be used in span ranges of 12 m to 30 m.
Parallel chord trusses
• Parallel chord trusses are used to support North Light roof trusses in industrial
buildings as well as in intermediate span bridges.
• Used as pre-fabricated floor joists, beams and girders in multistory buildings including
support of roofs/floors with longer spans or heavier loads.
• Use webs of same lengths thus reduce fabrication costs for very long spans.
• Warren configuration is frequently used and Modified Warren is used with additional
verticals in order to reduce unsupported length of compression chord members.
• Saw tooth north light roofing systems use lattice girders (also known as N-girder or
Pratt Truss) to support north light trusses and transfer load to end columns.
Parallel chord trusses
• Economical span to depth ratio is in range of 12 to 24.
• Total span is subdivided into a number of panels such that individual panel lengths are
appropriate (6m to 9 m) for stringer beams, transferring carriage way load to nodes of
trusses and inclination of web members are around 45 degrees.
• In case of very deep and very shallow trusses it may become necessary to use K and
diamond patterns for web members to achieve appropriate inclination of web members.
Parallel chord trusses- Lattice girder
• In Lattice girder flanges are connected by lattice web. Design has been supplanted in
modern construction with welded/bolted plate girders, use more material but lower
fabrication costs. Used prior to development of larger rolled steel plates.
• Also refer to structural member commonly made using combination of structural
sections connected with diagonal lacing. Member is more correctly referred as laced
strut/tie, as it normally resists axial compression (strut) or axial tension (tie); lattice
girder, like any girder, primarily resists bending.
• Component sections may typically include metal beams, channel & angle sections, with
lacing elements either metal plate strips, or angle sections. Lacing elements are
typically attached using either hot rivets or threaded locator bolts. As with lattice
girders, laced struts and ties have generally been supplanted by hollow box sections,
which are more economic with modern technology.
Trapezoidal trusses
• In case of very long span length pitched roof, trusses having trapezoidal configuration,
with depth at ends are used.
• This configuration reduces axial forces in chord members adjacent to supports.
• Secondary bending effects in these members are also reduced.
• Sloping bottom chord can be economical in very long span trusses (spans > 30 m), as
they tend to reduce web member length & chord members tend to have nearly constant
forces over span length.
• Bottom chord slope equal to nearly half as much as rafter slope tends to give close to
optimum design.
Truss members- typical sections
• Made of either rolled steel sections or built-up sections depending upon span length,
intensity of loading, etc.
• Rolled steel angles, tee sections, hollow circular & rectangular structural tubes are
used in case of roof trusses in industrial buildings.
• In long span roof trusses & short span bridges heavier rolled steel sections, such as
channels, I sections are used.
• Members built-up using I sections, channels, angles and plates are used in case of long
span bridge trusses.

a) Light Section, b) Heavy Sections, c) Built-up Sections

Truss members- typical sections
• Sections used for members of typical roof truss may be single or double angles (single
angles fastened back to back), single or double channels or single T sections.
• For members with more than one component (double angles or channels), elements
may be connected directly to each other.
• Alternatively a gusset plate may be inserted between them which enables connection to
be made to other members so that eccentricities at connections are minimised.
• For single component members this is not possible and a lapped joint with its
consequent eccentricity is unavoidable.
• If members consist of angles, channels & T sections then axial loads should be
determined assuming that joints are pinned.
• Assumption is that members may be represented by lines meeting at point located at
nodes. If frame is welded centroidal axes of members lie on these lines. If frame is
bolted lines of bolt holes meet at nodes.
 Truss members- typical sections
• Accesses to surface, for inspection, cleaning & repainting during service, are important
considerations in choice of built-up member configuration.
• Surfaces exposed to environments, but not accessible for maintenance are vulnerable to
severe corrosion during life, thus reducing durability of structure.
• In highly corrosive environments fully closed welded box sections & circular hollow
sections are used to reduce maintenance cost and improve durability of structure.
1 3

2 2

Detail 2 Detail 1 Detail 1 Detail 2 Detail 3

Bolted roof truss and typical details Welded roof truss and typical details
 Truss connections
• Members of trusses can be joined by riveting, bolting or welding.
• Due to involved procedure & highly skilled labour requirement, riveting isn’t common.
• High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolting and welding have become more common.
• Shorter span trusses are usually fabricated in shops & can be completely welded &
transported to site as one unit.
• Longer span trusses can be prefabricated in segments by welding in shop & segments
can be assembled by bolting/welding at site which results in much better quality of
fabricated structure.
• Connections form high proportion of total truss cost, so it may not always be economical
to select member sections which are efficient but can’t be connected economically.
• In single plane trusses members are connected on same side of gusset plates.
• In double plane trusses members are connected on both sides of gusset plates.
Truss connections
• It may not always be possible to design connection in which centroidal axes of member
sections are coincident.
• Small eccentricities may be unavoidable and gusset plates should be strong enough to
resist or transmit forces arising in such cases without buckling.
• Bolts should also be designed to resist moments arising due to in-plane eccentricities.
• If out-of-plane instability is foreseen, use splice plates for continuity of out-of-plane
stiffness.
Truss connections
• If rafter & tie members are T sections, angle diagonals can be directly connected to
web of T by welding or bolting.
• Connections between members of truss cannot be made directly due to inadequate
space to accommodate joint length & gusset plates are used for such connections.
• Size, shape & thickness of gusset plate depend upon size of member being joined,
number & size of bolt or length of weld required, & force to be transmitted.
• Thickness of gusset is in range of 8 to 12 mm in case of roof trusses and it can be as
high as 22 mm in case of bridge trusses.
• Design of gussets is usually by rule of thumb.
• In short span (8 - 12 m) roof trusses, member forces are smaller, hence thickness of
gussets are lesser (6 or 8 mm) and for longer span lengths (> 30 m) thickness of
gussets are larger (12 mm).
Truss Joint Capacities
• Detailing of joints is a vital part of truss design.
• Capacity of truss may be controlled by capacity of joints as much as by capacity of
members.
• If members are selected so that their capacity is almost fully utilised, resulting joint
details required to transmit applied forces, can be very impractical.
• Joints should therefore be considered at an early stage in design, in conjunction with
selection of members.
• Joint eccentricities will effect design of truss and its members.
• Joints adopted in practice must not invalidate assumptions made at design stage.
Instability considerations of Trusses
• Trusses are stiff in their plane but very weak out-of-plane, in order to stabilize trusses
against out-of-plane buckling & to carry any accidental out-of-plane load, as well as
lateral loads, trusses are to be properly braced out-of-plane.
• Instability of compression members, such as compression chord, which have a long
unsupported length out-of-plane of truss, may also require lateral bracing.
• Compression members of trusses have to be checked for their buckling strength about
critical axis of member, buckling may be in-plane or out-of-plane of truss or about
oblique axis as in case of single angle sections.
• All roof truss members do not reach their limit states of collapse simultaneously.
• Connections between members usually have certain rigidity.
Instability considerations of Trusses
• Depending on restraint to members under compression by adjacent members & rigidity
of joint, effective length of member for calculating buckling strength may be less than
centre-to-centre length of joints.
• Codes suggest effective length factor between 0.7 & 1.0 for in-plane buckling of
member depending upon this restraint and 1.0 for out-of-plane buckling.
• In case of roof trusses, member normally under tension due to gravity loads may
experience stress reversal into compression due to dead/wind load combination.
• Web members of bridge truss may undergo stress reversal during passage of moving
loads on deck and such stress reversals & instability due to stress reversal should be
considered in design.
• IS: 800 imposes restrictions on maximum slenderness ratio, (l/r).
Economy of trusses
• Trusses consume lot less material compared to beams to span same length & transfer
moderate to heavy loads.
• Labour requirement for fabrication & erection of trusses is higher and hence relative
economy is dictated by different factors. In India these considerations are likely to
favour trusses even more because of lower labour cost.
• To fully utilize economy of trusses designers should ascertain following:
o Method of fabrication & erection to be followed, facility for shop fabrication
available, transportation restrictions, field assembly facilities.
o Preferred practices and past experience.
o Availability of materials and sections to be used in fabrication.
o Erection technique to be followed and erection stresses.
o Method of connection preferred by contractor & client (bolting, welding or riveting).
o Choice of as rolled or fabricated sections.
o Simple design with maximum repetition and minimum inventory of material.
Roof arrangement
• Roof coverings may be made from variety of materials ranging from traditional slates
or tiles, profiled steel sheeting or more exotic materials.
• These coverings are supported on purlins (members running between trusses), which
are supported by rafters and therefore apply loads to rafters.
• Purlins also provide out-of-plane stability to truss as stability to truss must be provided
at all times, including during erection, when temporary bracing may be used.
• Spacing of purlins (900 mm to 3.5 m) is normally dictated by roofing material.
Roof arrangement
• If purlins are only located
at points where internal
members meet, (panel
points) then truss
members will be
subjected primarily to
axial forces.
• If spacing is such that
purlins are supported
between panel points,
then rafters will need to
be designed for
combined axial load and
bending.

Local bending action

Pre-cambering
• Deflections of nominally flat trusses (Pratt trusses or Warren trusses) must be
considered if ponding and therefore overloading are to be avoided.
• Two possible solutions are to either pre-camber the truss or to have a shallow slope
in top chord.
• Concept of pre-cambering is often extended to longer span pitched roof trusses
where nominally horizontal bottom chord may in fact slope upwards slightly from
supports.
• This is carried out so that under loading, bottom chord does not deflect below
horizontal.