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 Distr.
LIMITED
ID/VG.525/lO(SPEC.)
21 September 1992
United Nations Industrial Development Organization ORIGIIAL: ENGLISH
•

Sellinar on the Use ot Vood in Construction

• in the Latin American and Caribbean Region
Quito, Ecuador, 4-8 November 1991
Item 12(&) or the programme

TIMBER ROOF DESIGI AID COISTRUCTION - EVOLUTION,

CURREIT PRACTICE ARD TRENOO*

Prepared by

C. Mettem**

This document has not been edited.

*~ Engineering Coordinator, Research and Consultancy Group, TRADA Technology Ltd.

High Wycombe, United Kingdom.

"
V.92-57040
 - 2 -

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER 1 3

Introduction 3

CHAPTER 2 7

The historical development of roof carpentry 7

CHAPTER 3 35

Traditional pitched roof construction 35

CHAPTER 4 46

The development of the bolted and connectcred

roof truss 46

CHAPTER S 57

The desigu of trussed rafters and trussed rafter roofs 57

1. Engineering calculations 58
2. Load testing 59

CHAPTER 6 79

The futurt: 79

•
 - 3 -

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
In popular terms, the word rafters, Finks, Howes and
'roof' means simply the part monopitches, Fig 1.2, and so
covering the top of a on. It is almost as though
building, as seen from the the mysteries of the medieval
outside. The carpenter or carpenters• gui Ids have been
the timber engineer knows passed right on to modern
differently however. times, to create a
cognoscenti who speak a
different language.
The function of the roof is
obvious - it is needed to
keep out the rain, and to
provide shelter from the sun
and the other extremes of
climate. Everyone is assumed
to be familiar with it.

Figure 1.1
King and Queenpost Trusses

Whi 1st laymen and non-

technical authors ~ay mention
a roof of tile or slate,
thatch or palm, the person
who knows what goes on
beneath these coverings wi 11 Figure 1.2
discuss the roof in terms of
a coupled roof, rafters and Fink, Howe and llonopitch
purlins, collars and ties. Trussed Rafters
King and Queen posts, Fig
1.1. trusses and trussed
 - 4 -

However, drawing to scale or Good modern publications are

marking out, cutting and available on the subject of
jointing even fairly simple timber engineering, aud from
carpentry framing or trusses these much can be learnt that
is a skill that few people is relevant to roof
can command in this modern structures. Certain useful
age of DIY. space technoiogy codes of practice and
and sophisticated standards are also available,
communications. and these wi 11 be cited in
this paper.
Mistakenly, there is a danger
that the timber roof can be On the whole though, it is
regarded as something 'not not easy to encounter
moder~· and not 'high-tech'. comprehensive information on
Despite this aura of mystery, all types of timber roof.
it is possible to familiarize Part of the aim of this paper
oneself with the is to bring together several
technicalities of timber of the aspects involved, and
roofs. to provide 1eads to the
reader who wishes to pursue
People who do understand them each of them.
fal 1 broadly into two
categories. There are the A number of books can be
craftsmen, skilled carpenters recommended which deal with
who have served the history of timber framed
apprenticeships, and who buildings, including their
fortunately still exist in roof construction. However
modern society, albeit in there is far less information
short supp 1y, and there are which is readily accessible
the so called on roofs of the eighteenth
'professionals'. and nineteenth centuries, a
period in which many
These are structural developments of importance to
engineers, architects and engineers were taking place.
surveyors, who rely upon
textbook learning, codes and Likewise, the introduction of
standards, and who car.. gain modern engineering
further experience whilst calculation methods to the
carrying out their work on early twentieth century 'cut
the design and specification roof', or construction on
of timber roofs. site using individual
members, is only available in
Pro f es s i o na 1 s who are specialist establishments or
involved in the structural in libraries. Information on
aspects of buildings should the development of
certainly aim to acquire a industrialized, prefabricated
good understanding of timber truss components, which were
roofs, since as will be shown the forerunners of trussed
in this overview paper, rafters, is also not too
structural timberwork has not easily found in readily
only been the principal means available books.
of roof construction for
centuries, but also it is ·rhere are numerous ways of
1 ike l y to retain a l eadinq constructing pitched roofs
future role in this respect. over domestic buildings and
 - 5 -

1 •
--

I
t
!~
Figure 1.3

A 72.0 metre span glulam roof truss

Flower Market, San Remo, Italy

other similar sized prefabricated timber roof

structures. This paper components, there had been a
provides a review of the considerable popularization
techniques which are of glued laminated timber. or
available to timber engineers 'glulam', as it is known. At
and structural designers for first, it seemed as though
providing satisfactory and the trussed rafter might
stable overall roof displace glulam for small and
assemblies. It is essential medium span roof
to think in these terms, construction. Recently
rather than considering however there has been a
merely two-dimensional frames revival in the use of glulam
or elements. for such purposes.

Great changes and This has been led by

improvements in the design of excellent quality installed
roofs have taksn place since timberwork and accompanying
the introduction of trussed programmes of technical
rafters. some thirty-five dissemination and publicity.
years ago. which have taken place on the
continent of Europe, notably
A little before the in Germany, Switzerland.
ir. trod uc t ory phase of France and Italy, Fig 1.3.
 - tJ -

Large structures for public engineering. Computerized

use for a variety of design, estimation and
purposes, as well as big manufacture of timber roofs
industrial structures, have has enabled this adaptable.
gradually demonstrated the environmentally friendly, and
'seriousness' and modernity infinitely renewable material
of timber as a twentieth to remain to the fore in
century material. modern times.

The glulam revolution is now It is still the case that

being experienced in Britain, nothing can compete with
too. Whilst trussed rafter timber for the structure of
the roof. It wins in terms of
economy, lightness and its
almost endless adaptability
in shape. It is this timber
roof structure, and many of
the aspects and factors
associated with it, that will
be examined in this overview
paper.

Figure 1.4

Trussed rafter roof in non-

domestic application

Beaconsfield

Figure 1.5
roof construction pushes into
many non-domestic and Glulam is providing an
longer-span multi-storey alternative method in Britain
fields, Fig 1.4, such as
commercial and industrial Littledown Recreation Centre
premises, shopping centres,
sports complexes and the
like, glulam is providing an
alternative and complementary
structural material, Fig.
l. 5.

The power and f 1exibi l i ty

given to structural design by
the spectacular growth of
inexpensive microcomputer
systems has undoubtedly
contributed to the rapid
expansion of timber
 - 7 -

CHAPTER 2

The historical development of

roof carpentry

A dictionary definition of selection on the grounds of

carpentry is 'heavy woodwork the 'fitting together'
which is fitted together. as definition, then this might
for ship or house building'. eliminate mention of early
This is a useful definition, round timber construction.
since it distinguishes jointed with pegs and
carpentry from cabinet making lashings. Does one al so
and joinery. leave out log-built and stave
construction?
The terms 'heavy woodwork'
and ·fitting together', are In many cases these were by
of course relative. The no means crude structures.
thickness of the rafters of a and quite sophisticated
modern trussed rafter 'fitting together' techniques
construction is not great, were involved, both for the
compared with the same elemeuts and for the jointing
elements in a medieval of the con..ers and junctions.
cathedral roof. Nevertheless
the principle remains.
Early history:
Likewise 'fitting together'
ir. terms of modern timber Hitherto, it was said that
engineering, is less complex the basic principles of
than in the mortises and timber framing were prlbably
tenons, dovetails and pegs of first known in Western Zurope
former times. All the same, in the Bronze Age. New
the jointing method remains discoveries in peat levels in
at the crux of both carpentry Southern England have now
and timber engineering shown that Neolithic settlers
techniques. in the British Isles brought
with them ski 11 ed carpentry
Indeed it has been said that techniques.
the history of developments
in structural carpentry can These immigrants arrived from
be ascribed largely to the more easterly parts of Europe
history of jointing methods some 6000 years ago. Their
and the ways used to overcome carpentry and engineering
the perpetual problem ot skills enabled them to build
obtaining sufficiently large correctly surveyed elevated
and long timbers. timber walkways through the
Somerset marshes, which have
A difficulty in setting out been preserved in the acid
to summarize historical waters, and which have
development. is that at recently been radio carbon
whatever point in time one dated.
decides to begin. it is
possible for someone else to We can speculate that such
point out an earlier peoples built good quality
precedent. In the case of houses using timber too. in
carpentry. if one makes a view of the extensive forest
 - 8 -

cover available over the land The Phoenicians. the greatest

at the time. seafarers of the ancient
world, who visited the
Further afield than Britain. British Isles. and perhaps
no lesser an authority than sailed even further into the
the Bible gives us a great North Atlantic, acted as Kina
deal of information about the Solomon's timber merchants~
building of the Temple in It was they who provided logs
Jerusalem. which was begun from the great cedars of
'in the four hundred and Lebanon for this
eightieth year after the construction.
children of Israel were come
O'tt of the la!ld of Egypt. in
the fourth year of Solomon's Anglo Saxon ptriod:
reign'.
In Britain, and in south west
Since it is also documented. continental Europe, no such
in Egyptian as well as Hebrew pre-Christian documentation
writings. that the Israelites exists. Even during the
under Moses left Egypt during earlier Anglo Saxon and
the reign of Rameses II. in Franconian reigns. timber
1250 BC. then the date of the construction generally has to
building of the Temple is be deduced from
closely fixed. The First archaeological evidence such
Book of Kings gives a great as post holes.
deal cf technical information
about the construction. The It is known however that
walls, of course, were of amongst the prodigious
stone. However the roof efforts of Charlemagne (771
consisted of beams and boards to 814) were included a large
of cedar. timber bridge over the Rhine
at Kainz, and palaces and
Evidently. the Temp 1 e fortresses which incorporated
builders understood the skilled timber construction.
wisdom of not enveloping the
timber beams within the Offa, the King of Hercia.
stonework for fear of decay, became King of al 1 England
since we read that 'without, during Charlemagne's reign.
in the wal 1 of the house he Of fa was one of the few
made narrowed rests round rulers who was treated as an
about. that the beams should equal by Charlemagne. Since
not be fastened in the walls he constructed a great
of the house'. earthen defence to the west
of his kingdom which can
Furthermore. ·made he for the still be seen, and since
door of the temple. posts of medieval timber frame
o 1 i ve tree .... and the two construction is still very
doors were of fir tree: the much in evidence in Mere ia.
two leaves of the one door it seems likely that pre-
were folding'. 'He built the c o nq ue st structural
walls of the house within timberwork in Britain was by
with boards of cedar. both no means elementary.
the f 1oor of the house. and
the walls of the ceiling•. The Norman invasion and
settlement of Britain had
such a profound influence
 - q -

upon the society and economy ancient Christian links

of tt,e country. that it led between fishing. wooden
to wholesale reconstruction. shipbuilding. and
This masked a great deal of construction methods for
the earlier Anglo Saxon places of worship.
construction, which on the
whole has survived mainly in To this day, parts of the
the form of masonry and church, such as the ·nave ' .
comparatively rare timber are named after parts of the
joinery details. seldom in ship. It seems likely
carpentry. therefore that early British
building carpentry followed
An Anglo Saxon church built nautical guidelines. both in
of timber, Fig 2.1. stands form and in details such as
today as a solitary witness the joints.
in Greensted-Juxta-Ongar.
Essex. where the walls of the The majority of Saxon timber
nave. formed from split oak bui I dings were of the type
staves, have been classed broadly a~ 'box
scientifically dated to the frame' and hence these were
year 835. the forerunners of about a
thousand years of
uninterrupted timber frame
tradition in Britain.

Figure 2.1

ureensted-Juxta-Ongar church,
Essex
Figure 2.2
The connexion between Reconstruction of a Saxon
carpentry and ship building. timber frame building
as well as roof construction.
has already been mentioned.
There are also, of course.
 - ! ~1 -

·---1

Figure 2.3

Cruck frame and glulam portal; box frame roof and trussed
rafter roof

Although early Saxon the Norman Conquest of

construction was ~ased on Britain.
posts inserted in the ground
in prepared pits, later Saxon Cruck frame construction:
buildings developed the use
of a sole plate, giving Another type of early timber
greater durability. Saxon frame construction which was
carpentry joints differed certainly in existence before
from those seen in later the ~nd of the first
medieval times. Fig 2.2. millennium was the cruck
fr&me. Cruck frame
construction probably does
!t seems clear therefore that not have its origins in
during the so-called 'd~rk continental Europe, since it
ages' . timber framing had is found more in the north
developed a degree of west parts of England. rather
sophistication wel 1 before than in East Anglia.
 -.;--------=:--------7""7-------------- --

Figure 2.4

Fift~enth Century cruck framed cottage,

Harwell, Oxfordshire

Later. when considering The timber building tradition

modern timber construction. which had been started by the
it will be possibie to recall Saxons in western Europe,
the box frame and the cruck developed through Norman
frame. These two concepts times, using various forms of
can be considered to have timber framing.
been passed down to timber
frame and to trusses or Quite a large number of cruck
trussed rafter con~truction frame buildings sti 11
on the one ~and. and to survive, for example in the
glulam oortals. ar~hes and village of Harweil. in
domes on the other. Fig 2.3. OY.fordshire. there are ten
cruck frame dwellings. all
This is not of course to surviving from the f i fteen~h
c:aim that there is a strict century, their timbers having
~echnical or historical been dated by radio carbon
pedigree. but rather to note methods. Fig 2.4.
that there have al ways been
two distinct framing The species used were the
concepts. which we sti 11 native hardwoods. mainly oak.
recognise. b~t also elm and popiar.
These trees were used in
 - 12 -

Figure 2.5

Forms of cruck construction

their green state, and apart In more advanced forms of

f rem the main cruck frames, cruck construction, a tie
many of the timbers were beam was incorporated into
taken from quite young trees, the roof. The smallest types
often only 35 to 45 years of cruck buildings had two
old. frames only. Larger ones
usually consisted of several
Although primitive in bays, each aLout sixteen foot
essence, the cruck frame (4.9 m) long, with purlins
developed into forms which and common rafters between.
were no means crude. By the
twelfth or thirteenth The cruck frame building
century, it had incorporated always incorporated a ridge
fully develJped carpentry purl in. It also had
joints. Fig 2.5. intermediate purl ins and an
upper wall plate. The
The original cruck types had purlins were housed into the
frames right down to ground cruck blades, a tradition
level. Sometimes the tips of tha~ persisted for centuries.
the blades were merely butted right through into early
to one another. In other trussed construction.
cases, they were housed,
halved, crossed over. or tied As use of the system
with various types of yoke or developed, walls were erected
collar. vertically to a projected
wall plate which was
cantilevered off the cruck
 - l \ -

r. '
·~· . -.·.~.
__,_
,. ~

·- .........

ll
Figure 2.6

Stokesay Castle, Shropshire, has a fourteenth century cruck

trussed roof. Each blade represents a whole oak tree; with a
sharp angle of about 35 degrees at the knee, the timbers had
to be sought from craggy hillsices.

frame by means of a spur, strutted. Common rafters are

dovetailed into the cruck then supported by this
blades. structure, through the usual
purl ins.
Developments from the simple
cruck framed structure took As well as overcoming span
several courses. In some limitations, .by making
cas~s. early forerunners of optimum use of the length of
the roof truss can be the cruck .blades, such forms
envisaged in these forms of of construction gave c 1 ear
construction. In others. such unobstructed ground floor
as the base cruck roof. the areas, suitable for tithe
action is essentially t~1at of .barns. Both .base crucks and
the portal frame. cruck trusses were also used
in large fortified manor
Here. a pair of blades are houses and halls. Although
connected by a collar. and these developments from the
this structure, the base simple cruck frame permitted
cruck. supports a further tie more ambitious structures.
beam. From this stage, a they undoubtedly stretched
crown post or other higher- the resources of the timber
1 eve l supper~ for the apex is merchants, Fig 2.6.
 - 14 -
Box frame construction:

In box frame construction.

the roof and wall frames can
be built independently of one
another. An essential
feature of box frame is that
the roof members are
supported by runs of
longi tudi:.al timber framed
walling, j~st as in modern
timber f-ame construction,
rather than having to be
borne through a post and beam
arrangement.

Box framing is based upon the

bay system. A bay was
probably either a direct unit
of measurement. or at least a
well-recognized standard
dimension.
Figure 2.7
It is ir.iposs ible w: thin the
scope of this paper to ftedieval box frame junction.
discuss all the various roof using cleft heart-of-oak pegs
types associated with box
frame construction. They
have been classified by a
number of authors into eight Pegs, skilfully cleft from
major groups. It is only partially dried hardwood
possible to indicate a few blocks, served mainly as
principles of the main types. locking devices. Fig 2. 7.
These pegs carried negligible
In general. in addition to shear forces, unlike modern
employing main frames in timber engineering bolts.
which all the members were dowels and connectors.
maintained in a single plane,
al 1 forms of ttmber framing
prior to apprvximately the
second half of the Development of roof framing:
seventeenth century had to
rely mainly upon the 'Single' framed roofs consist
transmission of compressive entirely of simple rafters
forces. as only the and associated members which
relatively weak dovetail and are not connected together
half lap types of joint were longitudinally. The simples~
available to carry any degree of all is termed the ~oupled
of tension. roof.

The compressive forces were This merely consists of pairs

passed by direct timber-to- of simple rafters, which are
timber contact. through butted at their apex. and
joints cut entirely in the which rest on the wall plate
wood. at their base. The weight of
 - 15 -

Figure 2.8

Church of St Mary Magdalene, East Baa, Essex - early 12th

Century roof of simple coupled rafters with high collars.
ahlars, and apsed sanctuary wall

the roof is transmitted had the useful function of

through these members evenly, stiffening the rafters at a
al 1 the way along the wal 1 point of high moment.
plate. spreading the reaction of the
roof from the walls, and
A common rafter roof. helping to reduce the
possibly with the addition of effective span. Such roofs
simple collars. can span no had little inherent bracing
more than about 6 metres in their construction.
without excessive deflection Racking had to be prevented
and outward thrust on the by means such as boarding, or
walls. A number of methods by providing apsed ends, Fig
were used in medieval church 2.8.
and cathedral roofs to
overcome such problems and to Another favoured method was
span up to 10 or 11 metres. to employ a steep pitch of
around sixty degrees, in
On roofs constructed on thick conjunction with collars and
masonry walls, transverse scissor br~ces. The
members were added at wall fourteenth century scissor
plate level, and to these braced common rafter roof
were attached vertical struts above the nave of Ely
kne;wn as ·ashlars'. These Cathedral, Cambridgeshire.
 - 16 -

was constructed in this way. one end of the building.

r'ig 2. 9, and was only boarded known as the solar, was a
ovP.~ some five hundred years more enclosed private area
after its original where the owner and his
construction. immediate family lived.

Fiqure 2.9

Ely Cathedral, ,·.

cambridgeshire, .. ·... . ..... .
~· ~
·
;
Scissor brdced common rafters

The corr.men rafter roofs of

Westminster Abbey are also
bui 1t in a similar manner, Fiqure 2.10
and span almost 11 metres,
with rafters about 200 mm sq. Crown post roof, Craw 1 ey
Al though scissor bracing is llarket Hall, Sussex. A
architecturally pleasing, and converted 15th Century manor
indeed is still sometimes house Rote the stout tie
chosen, it unfortunately beams at eaves level
creates a rather inefficient
form of structure, requiring
large rafter sizes. The crown post roof was
commonly employed for these
In late medieval times, the open halls, Fig 2.10.
open hall was a common style
of living. Its arrangement The crown post itself arose
was related to the feudal from the centre of a
system of society. The open principal tie beam, located
hall consisted of two-storey, at each bay ending. It was
two-bay construction. There braced to an upper collar.
was an open space in the and at its head sat the
middle, centring around the central crown or collar
fireplace which vented in a plate, which ran
simple hole in the roof. At longitudinally, in the samP
 - I~ -

i
.. -";":-:- ~
·····:··-~-
I
.I .
-
~-··
.. _.
_
.•

..
..
.
.
..: - ~
,.

Figure 2.11

A crown post roof, Stanstead Mountfitchet, Essex

sense as a purl in. This The stout construction

member in turn was used to surmounting the transverse
carry the common rafters, by tie beam which crosses at the
supporting a series of common eaves of each bay \s regarded
upper collars. as being structurally
independent of this member.
Host authorities regard the The tie beam serves to 1 ink
crown post roof as belonging the longitudinal walls and to
to the broad class of prevent their spread. rather
'single' roofs, together with than forming the basis for
the simple coupled and any kind of primitive truss.
collared roofs described
above. In several parts of England.
the crown post roof can still
Al though the crown plate be found within high quality
fulfils a similar role to the medieval buildings in
purl ins of the 'double' important towns. The roofs
roofed types of construction. are often carved. and always
the arrangement is less than incorporate skilled carpentry
fully effective in joints. Noteworthy examples
tran~mitting along to the bay are to be found in the South
endings all of the load from East of England, in the city
the common rafters which are of York. and in several towns
located in the central in East Anglia. Fig 2.11.
regions of the bay. The crown
post roof therefore is seen
as structurally transitional.
 ..;

Figure 2.11

A medieval street of timber framing - Warwick

After abou~ the year 1500, The shapes of the wall frames
the double framed. or purlin varied. In the South c:
roof. large i y superseded the England, close vertical studs
single rafter form in predominated, whilst further
Brita in. On the Continent, North, square panels were
however. the simpler roof more usual, often with the
persisted regionally. right addition of curved braces.
through to the last century. Fig 2.13.

The outward appearance of Important town buildings were

late medieval timber frame often jettied, sometimes
buildings must be familiar to repeatedly. This was thought
anyone who has seen tourist to be both to protect the
pictures of Britain. Fig occupants of the open ground
2 .12. floor, and also to gain extra
space.
Fortunately numbers of these
lovely buildings still stand. With the abandonment of the
and in several English towns open hali, through social
it is possible to see whole changes taking place durin9'
streets of them. Wall infill the sixteenth century. and
panels evolved from the use the almost universal adcptic~
of materia 1 s such as wattle of the double framed reef.
and daub. through 1 ime the opportunity arose of
plastered rubble. to brick utilizing the attic space
which was used from the thus created. Dormer windows
fifteenth century onwards. were added. to ligh~ this
roof accommodation.
 - 19 -

Figure 2.14
Clasped purlin roof

Figure 2.13
The Feathers Inn, Shropshire,
curved bracing evolved into
decoration

Figure 2.1!'
Butt purlin roof
 - 20 -

There were several Origins of the roof truss:

alternative principles used
in connecting the purlins to The clasped purl in roof
the main roof frames. Two incor~orated the first
important types were the recognizable form of roof
clasped purl in roof, Ftg truss. A few trusses datin~
2.14, and the butt purlin from the sixteenth century
roof, Fig 2 .15. are sti 11 to be found which
can be said to bear some
The latter appears the similarity to modern forms of
simpler form of construction, truss, Fig 2.16.
but it demanded a higher
degree of carpentry skill. It An early type was the Queen
was more common in Southern post truss. Originally, this
England and was regarded as a truss was used with trenched
feature of high quality work. purl ins, cut into the outer
face of the principal
rafters. In the Northern part
of the country, the King post
roof was more common.
Elsewhere, the King post was
not used unti 1 the
seventeenth century. This is
somewhat surprising, since it
is a sound structural
~olution.

Figure 2.16

Shell Kanor House,

Warwickshire Sixteenth
century roof of distinctive
Queen post truss form

In the clasped purlin roof. Figure 2.17

the principal rafter was cut
with its upper face in 1 ine Typical King Post to tie beam
with the common rafters. The connexion
purlin was clasped beneath
the main rafter in the
birdsmouth at the end of the
collar. the latter being
further held in place with a
strut.
 - 21 -
Figure 2.18
ftultiple King Post truss,
Century, Stokesay Castle
The Kina post itself is a
stout compression member.
rising from the centra of the
principal tie beam. Fig 2.17.
It carries the ridge piece
loadings. brought in by the
ridge rafter which supports
the tips of all the common
rafters.
The King post triangulates
the main truss. Fig 2.18.
Secondary struts. originally
more like simple braces in
shape. spring from its base
and meet on the underside of
the principal rafters.
The common rafters were
generally of much lighter
cross section. Normally
they fell in their own
continuous plane. outs1ae
and above the purlins.
From the seventeenth
century onwards. buildings
grew more ambitious in
plan. Larger houses were
constructed on what is
known as the 'doubie-pile'
principle. whose essential
feature is the use of two
rooms throughout the depth
of the house at each floor
level.
Carpenters had to deve 1 op
new trussing methods to
meet these requirements.
and they were often based
upon adaptations of the
simplest King Post truss
type. having more than one
vertical strut.
17th
At this stage. furthermore.
softwoods were beginning to
replace oak and other
hardwoods as the usual timber
for such roofs, whilst joint
details were beginning to
make greater use of ironwork.
giving highe~ capacity for
tensile force transference.
Historical change:

As early as the six~eenth

century. exposed timber-
framing began to be
regarded as unfashionable.
in comparison with · rnoderr. •
materials such as brick.

Hampton Court Palace and

Hatfield House, Fig 2.19.
are notable examples of
major brick structures.
which nevertheless contain
elegant timber roofs
exposed within the
interiors of their halls.

There are a few timber

framed buildings in which
bricks were the original
infill material, but these
are fewer than is commonly
believed. It was a
favourite Victorian fashion
to 'decorate' timber frame Figure 2.19
by replacing earlier infi 11
with herringbone brickwork. Hatfield House, Elizabethan
Consequently. this is now Banqueting Hall 'modern' brick
often regarded as original. construction with fine timber roof

In bastions of timber construction, such as the West Midlands and

the Welsh borders. where it was still considered dignified to
expose the timber of the structure, buildings took on classical
embellishments. whilst the bracing of the wall panels became so
decorative, as in sume instances to loose it structural
efficiency.
 - 23 -

Figure 2.20

Wren's trusses for the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, 1669.

At 21 metres span, with a low pitch and a leaded roof, these
had composite lower chords

Renaissance architecture: Composite elements started to

be used, Fig 2. 20, and Fig
The revival of art and 2.21. Softwoods and
letters under the influence hardwoods, usually oak. were
of classical models was known sometimes found in
in Europe as the Renaissance. combination with one another.
I t had its origins as early
as the f~urteenth century,
but in ~rchitecture its
culmination in Britain was in
the great buildings of Wren,
Gibbs and Hawksmoor.

The Regency period of the

early eighteenth century
ex~ended fashionable
classicism. Many a timber
frame town house has been
rediscovered behind a
classical facade added during
that era.

By approximately these times,

roof trusses based on the
King post principle a.dupted
more or less standardized Fig 2.21
jointing details,
incorporating patented metal Sheldonian Theatre
fixings.

In many cases. such trusses Foundations of engineering:

were extended to form several
bays. and to carry the heavy
loadings due to lead sheeting
on the lower pitches dictated
by architectural etyle.
The foundations of modern
structural calculations had
been laid by the eighteenth
century. In order to be able
to cal cu late structures.
thr~e aspects are involved.
 - 24 -

Figure 2.22

'Engineered' King and Queen post truss designs published by

the Tredgold brothers, 1820

Firstly, the principles of textbooks such as Tredgo 1d,

statics are required, and Fig 2. 22, based in part upon
these had been firmly experience but also drawing
established by Isaac Newton. upon sources such as
Palladio, in Italy, for
Secondly, information on theory.
materials' properties, are
neceseary. These had been
initiated in the case of
timber by French academics,
who conducted surprisingly
large-scale tests.

Thirdly, applications rules

are required, or as we would
now say 'codes of practice'.
These have as their basis
 Figure 2.23

Weavers' cottages, Bourton, Gloucestershire

Serial manufacture had its Victorian mill construction

origins in 'cottage also entailed considerable
industries'. Weavers' use of standardized iror.
cottages, for example, Fig bracket work, bolted detaiis
2.23. are still preserved in for timber joints. and
many English towns and tightening and lee king
villages, having steep devices.
pitched, dormered roofs and
large windows.

The industrial revolution

marked the bi~th of the
'manufactory' or 'factory'
for short, Fig 2.24.
Industrial buildings involved
much heavier loadings. due to
both the machinery. goods and
power sources. By the
standards of the day, long
clear spans were required.
and stronger members had to
be provided both in floors
and in roofs. Mechanized Figure 2.24
sawing produced the necessary
beams of pine. now orientated The New Ki 11, Saltaire,
in the optimum manner with Bradford, 1868 - typical
depth much greater than Italianate Victorian mill
breadth. construction
 Figure 2.25
Chatham Naval Dockyard, Kent - Covered Slipway.
Large timber structures such as these, bui 1 t to protect
s~iling ships during construction, were amongst the earliest
instances of industrial timber structures

In the south of England, industrialists in their 'new'

examples of large industrial materials.
structures in timber included
the Covered Slipway Number 3
for the naval shipyard at
Chat~am. built in 1837, Figs
2.25. 26.

Whilst it is possible to cite

other notable examples of
structural timberwork
undertaken during the
Victor-ian era, it must be
admitted that in Britain the
material was beginning to
suffer from being regarded as
·second rate'.

The problems of promoting

timber as a serious medium
for large structures. even at Fiqure 2.26
this present time. can be
traced in part to tne pride Chatham, covered slip
of the Victorian iron interior, showing large
masters. mi 11 owners and timber roof
 - 27 -

=: •. ':"· :- ! - ;
. . - -

F------;-
~----1
-~·--=.;---:--::a. --- ----

Figure 2.27
Details of composite timber and malleable iron construction
in the Crystal Palace. 1851

Victorian ingenuity:
The 'Grand International sense of lacking mass. and
Building of 1851 for the also in the sense of allowing
Exhibition of Art and the maximum of 1 ight to
Industry of All Nations'. penetrate the acres of
later known as Crystal glazing involved, Paxton
Palace. was first built in combined structure with
Hyde Park, in the centre of glazing joinery.
London.
He even used a special
A prestigious competition was patented structural ridge
held for the design of a piece, having a complex
worthy structure to contain machined section in timber.
this great Victorian which doubled up as a
exhibition of trade and rainwater channel, Fig 2.27.
industry.
The structure was erected
The winner was Joseph Paxton, within six months, and
an unknown pro vi nci a 1 covered 70 000 square metres
designer of glasshouses for of ground. Its height was 22
country mansions. Paxton's metres to the upper eaves
scheme was revolutionary in level, and it was crowned
several ways. It was bold, with a glazed barrel vault,
large, and innovative. It which consisted of
was a 'first' in terms of a prefabricated timber modules.
prefabricated structure of having a 22 metre span. Fig
anything like the size 2.28.
conrerned, and it employed a
great deal of timber, nearly The entire structure was in
all of it structural. fact modular. based upon an 8
foot ( 2. 44 m) grid. The
However, used to the demands extensive prefabricated
of lightness, both in the timberwork was often
 - 28 -

Figure 2.29

Figure 2.28 Prefabricated barrel vault

construction in vertically
Crystal Palace, interior laainated. timber
perspective showing glazed
barrel vaults

composite, for example spruce

and oak were combined in some After the Great Exhibition.
of the members. Timber was the Crystal Palace was
also used in conjunction with di smant 1 ed and removed to a
malleable iron, to form South London site where it
lattice girders. and the stood until 1936, when
pretensioned timber purlins unfortunately it was
had iron tie ro~s. destroyed by fire.

The glazed timber vaults

contained vertically
laminated curved members, Fig
2. 29. These were connected
with bolts. and the whole
assembly was stiffened with
diagonal metal tie rods.
Glued laminated timber:

Small-scale uses of wood curved over forme:rs by the

adhesives have been known side of the bridge site.
since prehistoric Egyptian having been ~armed over a
times. and the technique of coal fire. He had
building up timber elements previous 1 y proved the
by assembling layers of strength of such glulam beams
boards is also extremely by making tests on full-sized
ancient. laminated specimens.

According to extensive The lack of durability of the

studies into the history of early adhesives was
timber engineering which have undoubtedly a frustration to
been made by Dr L G Booth of designers. Had they been
Imperial College, London, the more reliable, the ability to
beginnings of modern glulam laminate with glues would
may be traced to the start of have been a great advantage
the nineteenth century. to shipwrights, as wel 1 as
to bridge and building
There are possibly earlier engineers.
contenders for the
foundations of s~ructural Claims for so-called
laminating. such as De L'Orme 'waterproof' adhesives, which
in France, but so far as were based on substan~es such
glulam is concerned, it seems as rubber compounds . can be
that the method has its noted in Admiralty patents
origins in bridge filed in Britain in the
engineering, rather than in nineteenth century.
roof structures.

Horizontally laminated timber

arch bridges with spans of up
to 200 ft ( 30 m) were first
Jeveloped by an engineer
called Carl Friedrich von
Wiebeking, working in Bavaria
during the period 1807-9.

Wiebeking achieved a
remarkable construction
r~cord of completing nine
large bridges during those
two years. Host used thick
bolted laminations, a
technique now known as
mechanical laminating. which
is still popular for bridges
today.

How~ver one of his bridges

was certainly glued. The ribs
of this structure were formed
from oak boards, two inches
thick, with staggered butt
joints. These boards were
 - "3l1 -

Figure 2.30
Laminated arched roof at Worsted aill in Bradford,
constructed about 1875 and in use for about ninety years

As laminated timber Famous railway engineers such

construction progressed, as I X Brunel, were also
there were more frequent familiar with laminated
examples where tha joining of timber and they made use of
the layers was achieved by it, not only for outstanding
mechanical methods. rather railway bridges, but also for
than by glues. Fig 2.30. building structures.

Nevertheless. occasional
ninetee&th century glued
laminated timber can be found
on record. such as the roof
of the wedding ceremony hall
at Southampton Registry
Office. Fig 2.31. ?his was
fabricated around 1860. and
belongs to a building which
is still in use.
Former 1 y part of a grammGr
school, the roof consists of
i:ircular glulam arches from Fiqure 2.31
which principal rafters are
strutted. together with a Possibly the oldest
small crown truss type of glulam roof in the world,
apex. Southampton, 1860
 - 31 -

Figure 2.32

Glulam arches for Festival of Britain entrance, 1951

For nearly another century, Wilson gave details of a

however, glulam development number of the structures
awaited the availability of which he had inspected in
truly waterproof adhesives. Switzerland. Some, such as
the dome of the University of
In 1906, the German. Otto Zurich, had been manufactured
Hetzer. working in Weimar, as far back as 1913.
obtained a patent in order to
start to commercialize glulam By 1937, urea formaldehyde
manufactured with casein (UF) adhesives had become
adhesive. So successful wa!J available on a commercial
he that his name was .,til 1 scale. These could offer the
being associated with glulam potential of glulines
construction in Switzerland. stronger and more durable
when a TRADA study visit was than the timber itself.
made there in 1962. Wartime requirements for
laminated marine and aircraft
Switzerland was one of the components gave impetus to
first countries to use such adhesive developments.
'modern' glulam. Following a
tour of Europe in 1936, Under ""Ch exacting
Wilson of the Forest Products conditions, casein, which was
Research Laboratory. USA, certainly surprisingly
wrote that the most extensive waterproof, considering its
use of glulam had been in basis of manufacture. was
Germany. Sweden and nevertheless found to .be
Switzerland. but that it was inadequately durable.
only just being introduced
into the USA.
 - 32 -

Figure 2.33

Structural model of conoid roofs, Oxford Road Station,

!lanchester

By around 1943. the modern lack of confidence through a

family of synthetic resin seri.!s of glueline failures.
adhesives was completed by These were attributed to the
the large-scale introduction ef feet of acid hardeners on
of resorcinol formaldehyde the wood fibres.
(RF) and phenol formaldehyde
(PF) adhesives. The loss of key personnel.
particularly skilled foremen
In Europe, the 1950s were an and craftsmen, caused by the
exciting era of recovery and recession and the war, was
redevelopment. in which also a serious problem.
individualism flourished. The
'Festival of Britain' Strict control was
embodied this spirit. subsequently set up under the
aegis of the Otto Graff
A group of professionals and Institute, Stuttgart, and
timber enthusiasts, who won a technical promotion and
competition for the design of development has since then
the entrance to the Festival, boosted German glulam usage
employed for the purpose an back to the leading position
elegant and exciting glulam in Europe, now about twenty
structure, formed with times that of the UK.
parabolic arches, Fig 2.32.
In public buildings, roof
On the Continent. the same forms consisting of strict
period showed interesting geometrical surf aces such as
developments in Switzerland, shells, hyperbolic
the Netherlands and Belgium, paraboloids and conoids.
with Germany and France featured strongly during the
lagging. 1950s. These frequently made
use of glulam. Examples such
Problems with glulam in as Oxford Road Station,
Germany were ascribed to a Manchester, Fig 2. 33. are
temporary setback caused by still in daily use.
 - )) -

Figure 2.34
Hyperbolic paraboloid shell roof being prepared for test, TDA
Laboratories, 1956

Outstanding examples of
hyperbolic paraboloid shell
roofs. Fig 2.34, included the
multiple paraboloid shell
roof for the Royal Wilton
carpet factory. in 1957, and
an attractive confe:ence hall
for the Scott Bader company
in Northamptonshire. built in
1959.

In more conventional form,

the merits were realized of
glued laminated timber to
construct. for example,
portal frames for factories.
Fig 2.35.

Figure 2.35

Gl ul am factory under
construction, Granqemouth,
Scotland, 1959
 - 1.:. -

Figure 2.36
Roofs of the Thaaes Flood Barrier. constructed. fro• glued
laainated iroko arches

Recently, some very large

building structures. domes
150 metres in diameter for
example, have employed
glulam. Although none so
large have yet been located
in Britain, glulam continues
increasingly to be used here.
Applications range from the
Thames Barrier shells. Fig
2.36, to beautiful buildings
such as that housing the
Bur re 11 Collection in
Glasgow. Fig 2.37.

Figure 2.37

Burrell Collection
 - 35 -

CHAPTER 3

Traditional pitched roof construction

~------------------------------- -- ..

/
r Ridge board

/Rafter
/ Ceiling
joist

Spana of ceiling joists

and spacing of ceiling
binders

Fig 3.1

Typical example of simple pitched roof construction,

illustrating main terms for components

This Chap~er deals with the laminated timber <glulami. or

modern design principles of other modern composites sue~
traditional pitched roof as laminated veneer lumber
construction. This is (LVL).
construction using purlins,
rafters. ceiling joists and Roofs such as these are of te~
o~her members. which are described as ·cut roofs' .
generally cut and fixed Although ·traditional' in the
toge~her on site, as opposed sense that they have evolved
to roof construction based from carpentry craf ~
upon the use of prefabricated practice, which was reviewed
trussed rafters. in Chapter 2. cut roofs are
now designed usinq
The members involved in engineering calculations.
traditional pitched roof
construction ace genera 11 y They are a form c:
made of solid timber. construction which is sti 11
although in some instances. very much in use. despite
such as larger purlins for being essentially quite
example. the design methods primitive. Also they conta::-;
C:)Uld be applied to glued elements of structure which
many have found surprisingly
difficult to analyze.
 - 36 -

In addition to the fact that The Approved Documents span

~~e to their continued tables can be used tc si:::e
usefulness cut roofs form a the individual timber members
suitable subject for study in in a cut roof, thus ensurincr
their own right. a knowledge structural adequacy and henc~
of their design principles is compliance with the
helpful in order to be able regulations.
to apply trussed rafter
construction satisfactorily. The methods used to calculate
This is especially the case the span tables in the
when adaptations are required Aprroved Documents have
to the latter. when non- become established over the
standard features are period since Model Byelaws
required. for example. and town and city building
regulations began. In
A typical example of a simple London, for instance. laws
pitched roof is shown in Fig controlling building methods
3.1. which illustrates the can be traced back to as long
main terms used in ago as the rebuilding
conjunction with the subsequent to the Great Fire
components of this type of (Rebuilding Act, 1667).
construction.
The design methods upon which
In Britain. the sizes of many the modern Approved Documents
of the elements of a cut roof are based have been studied
are prescribed in documents by government departments
which accompany the Building concerned with construction.
Regulations. The design of and by British Standards
all new roof structures in Institution technical
England and Wales must committees. They have
conform with the requirements recently been set down in
of the Building Regulations publicly available standards.
1985. In Scotland. Building as explained below.
Standards (Scotland)
Regulations 1981 to 1986 Meanwhile, the Approved
apply, whilst Northern Documents which are issued by
Ireland uses regulations the same body as that which
s1m11ar to those of England pub 1 is hes the Bui 1 ding
and Wales. Regulations themselves. are
an invaluable design aid for
The statutory documents. that cut roof construction. Other
is to say the regulations publications based upon the
themselves. state the Approved Documents methods of
functicnal requirements with calculation are also
which the design must avai!able from TRADA. These
conform. For trussed rafter are prepared by means of
roofs for example, these special 1y written computer
functional requirements can programs. whose calculations
be met by designing in follow the approved
accordance with BS 5268: Part procedures.
3. For cu.t roofs however.
there are a number of span To date. there has been
tables given in wh~t are little demand for computer
termed 'Approved Documents'. programs which can guide the
user to select on screen his
own solutions for a
 - 17 -

particular form of cut roof not exist. Accordingly i":

construction. To write such was decided to eliminate such
programs would be a differences of interpretation
relatively easy adaptation of by recommending in detail the
the existing types which design equations and the
generate tables. On the loadings to be used in the
other hand. selection from preparation of the joists and
printed tables which have cut roof span tables.
been calculated by computer
is also quite an easy matter This was dealt with bv
for the user. so it is preparing a complete series
doubtful whether there would of sections of a new part to
be a great call for such the structural timber code.
softwar<?. numbered BS 5268: Part 7.
This part of the code was
The general principles for written to ensure that
the design of structural different organizations would
timber members are stated in produce span tables on a
BS 5268: Part 2. Using this consistent basis.
guidance. it is possible for
span tables to be prepared Part 7 is not necessarily
for a wide range of simple intended for direct use by
timber members. including designers for individual
those needed in cut roofs. designs. 1~1 most day-to-day
Hence the span tables for work on residential
members comprising accommodation of up to three
traditionally framed roofs, storeys, and on similar sized
which are given in the non-residential buildings.
Approved Documents, were designers will be able to
calculated using dasign wcrk to the span tables which
recommendations having their are in turn based on Part 7.
basis in the main structural
timber code. Routinely, structural
calculations or checks on
However. experience showed simple carpentry members such
t h a t d i f f e r e n t as joists and rafters can
interpretations of these Part adequately be performed with
2 recommendations led to very elementary calculations.
inconsistencies in span
tables published by various The loading conditions and
organizations. These design equations which are
variations amongst span described for the various
tables were not necessari 1y elements included in Part 7
due to errors. In the are quite elaborate and
wording of a structural code comprehensive however, since
of practice. it is qu1~e they are intended to be
normal to leave certain incorporated into computer
dee is ions to the designer's programs which will generate
judgement. span tables giving optimum
economy.
Obviously however it is
desirable that in the case of
span tables for common
elements of small buildings
such as cu~ roof members.
arbit:::-ary differences should
 - 38 -

Sections of BS 5268: Part 7:

published by o~her
The sections available within organizations should fol iow.
BS 5268: Part 7 are as Since there are many
follows:- combinations of geometry and
materials for each of the
Section 7.1 Domestic floor member types covered.
joists computer programs which were
prepared by TRADA were used
Section 7.2 Joists for flat to generate the sampie
roofs outputs and the samp 1 e span
table formats.
Section 7.3 Ce i i ing joists

Section 7.4 Ceiling binders The role of the cut members

in the complete roof:
Section 7.5 Rafters
Traditional carpentry
Section 7.6 Purl ins textbooks tend to take the
supporting rafters reader progressively through
cut roof construction.
Section 7.7 Purl ins beginning with 'simple
supporting sheeting or couple' roofs, through 'close
decking couple' and 'collar' roofs.
to 'double roofs', a term for
Of these. Sections 7.3. 7.4. those incorporating purl ins.
7.5. 7.6 and 7.7 are relevant These forms follow the
to cut roofs of pitched form, customs of carpentry already
as discussed in this Chapter. described in Chapter 2.

As already mentioned. the The Approved Documents , and

timber stresses and moduli to more recently the Part 7 span
be used for span tables tables, have brought a
fol lowing the r.1ethods given greater measure of uniformity
in BS 5268: Part 7 are those to cut roof desiqn. However
recommended in BS 5268: Part it is sti 11 found necessary
2. The latter provides grade in some instances to employ
stresses for very many individual carpentry skills
combinations of species and in providing roof shapes
grade. Hence it is which go beyond those
impractical to publish in the indicated in Figure 3.1.
British Standards themselves
span tables for al 1 of the Examples of such shapes
possible combinations of include attic roof
species, grade and size that construction, and cut roofing
may be required. infills in trussec rafter
roofs, which e~tail hip ends
The approach adopted and valley intersections.
therefore is to give the These will be discussed more
basis for the calculations, fully in Chapter 5.
along with sample span tables
for a few important strength Other instances in which
classes. grades and standard these long-established
sizes. Par~ 7 recommends the dimensioning rules are used
formats that span tables for the common roof elements
shown in Figure 3. 1. whilst
 - \\J -

at the same time taking

advan"ta.ge of more modern
methods for the construction
of the pri•1cipal trusses.
occur with the bolted and
connectored prefabricated
trusses described i~ Chapter
4.

Such forms of construction.

hybrids between traditional
and fully prefabricated
methods. are well worth
considering in a number of
developing country
s i t 'J.a t i o n s . wher e the
expensive modern plant.
required to fabricate trussed
rafters with punched metal Fig 3.2
plates. is not yet installed.
Common cut roof members
supported on purlins carried
Figure 3.2 shows a purlin, on a bolted truss
common rafters. ceiling ties
and a ceiling binder.
However instead of being
supported via the purlins
just by cross wal 1 s. the
common members are borne on
purlins resting on a standard
type of bolted truss. To the
right of the illustration, Such forms of domestic hipped
the pur11n and binder are roof were very popular during
supported by a cross-wall. in the post-war reconstruction
the more conventional manner, boom in Britain. The model
as in Fig 3.1. illustrated in Fig 3.3 was
exhibited as long ago as
In Fig 3.3. the complexity of 1947, at the Building Trades
the roof is taken a stage Exhibition, Olympia. to
further. since half-trusses promote the merits of
are added. to provide a partially prefabricated
hipped end. with infilling by construction using TD~
means of loose. or cut common trusses.
rafters. Deep. slender
plate-like members. called Millions of such rorf:3 still
'hip rafters·, are serve well, covering a large
incorporated at the curners proportion of the housing
of the roof. The main stock of Britain, a fact
purpose of these is to worth bearing in mind when
transmit a smooth thrust ;~we 11 ing upon more ·modern·
between the compressive methods. One of their
rafter members in one roof special merits is that the
plane. and those in the structural form is inherently
adjacen": surf ace. The very stable, and hence these
shortened rafters are known roofs required no special
as 'jack raf":ers·. addition of bracing members.
 - .:.o -

Fig 3.3

Hipped roof using bolted trusses, half-trusses, and purlins

with common cut members

Trussed and common raftered basis for permissible clear

roofs are really just more spans for ceiling joists to
modern. engineered versions be used in situations where
of several of the forms of there is access to the roof.
domestic roof construction The joists are 1 imi ted to a
described in the previous maximum spacing of 610 mm
Chapter. Hence it can be centre-to-centre. The design
appreciated that in calculations are based on
experienced hands, BS 5268: engineers' bending theory.
Part 7 provides a valuable and are consistent with the
bas1s for such further needs, recommendations of BS 5268:
as well as just enabling Part 2. For example, the
member sizes to be looked up deflection due to bending and
for the exact simple type of shear is restricted to 0.003
roof shown in Figure 3.1. times the span.

The lateral load distribution

Features of BS 5268: Part 7: possible with the majority of
ceil;ng types is not
:::imprehensive disc11ssion of sufficient to al low stresses
3S 5268: Part 7 would be to be increased for 'load
beyond the scope of this sharing' , hence this is not
;:aper. however salient included. However there is a
:ea~ures are presentad as concession to the fact that
follows: long experience has shown
that it is satisfactory to
Part 7.3 Ceiling Joists: use the mean modulus of
elasticity in the equations
This sec~ion of BS 5268: Part for limiting deflection.
recommends a calculation
 - 41 -

For roof pitches greater than

twenty degrees, which covers
the maj~rity of cases. the
axial tension induced by the
rafter thrus'.: is ignored in
the design of the ceiling
joist member itself. The
code war;.s however that there
is significant tension in
such members. so far as the
design of the connexions is
concerned.

As with all sections of Part Fig 3.4

7. loadings follow BS 6399.
Uniformly distributed dead Location of ceilinq binders
and imposed loads are in a typical cut roof
involved. as well as a 0.9 kN
concentrated load in a single
position.

Bearing lengths indicated are

the minimum necessary to
ensure that ~he permissible at each end by external or
compression perpendicular to internal walls. The roof
the grain stress is not space is considered to be
exceeded in the joist. accessible; this affects the
Prac ti ca 1 construct iona 1 loading.
considerations may demand
longer bearings. The usual references to BS
5268: Part 2 and to
Section 7. 3 continues by deflection limitations are
detai 1 ing the loading made. Load sharing is not
equations: stress equations assumed for stress, nor for
in the form of polynomials to stiffness, unlike the case
be solved for span; and with ceiling joists. Hence
deflection equations under the m1n1mum modulus of
point and uniform loads which elasticity is used.
incorporate both bending and
shear effects. Sample Clauses fol low on loading
calculations for a ceiling conditions, design loads.
joist are provided, together limitations of bending
with specimen span tables. stress, shear stress.
deflection and permissible
clear spans. The format of
Section 7.4 Ceiling binders: the document is similar to
Section 7.3.
The function of the ceiling
binder is to give Section 7.5 Rafters:
intermediate support to the
ceiling joist over its eaves- Section 7.5 recommends a
to-eaves span, Figure 3.4. calculation basis for
permissiblf! clear spans for
The method of calculation rafters . The rafter member
given in the Section is for extends the full distance
single span binders supported from eaves to ridge.
 - 42 -

The rafters described ir. the

Section are for use in roofs
with a slope of fifteen to
forty five degrees. These
pitches cover the majority of
applications. The maximum
spacing of the rafters is 610
mm. It is assumed that the continuous over purlin
tiling battens are capable of
providing lateral load
distribution and lateral
support to the rafter, hence
the load sharing modification
factor given in BS 5268: Part
2 is used for stresses, and
the mean modulus of Ron-continuous over purlin
elasticity is applied in the

~in
deflection calculations.

The uniform and concentrated

loads of BS 6399: Part 1 are
considered. Provision is
made for a uniformly
distributed imposed load Fig 3.5
derived from BS 6399: Part 3.
co...on rafters
The types of rafter covered
in the Section are shown in
Figure 3. 5. The references
to BS 5268: Part 2 and to
deflection limits are as
given in other sections of weight. The loading
Part 7. The calculations conditions for design are
relate to pitched roofs then prescribed. These
having a single purlin on consist of a uniform imposed
each side of the ridge. The load condition, a point
rafter may be continuous or imposed load condition and a
non-continuous over the 1ong··term load.
purl in. The purl in is
perpendicular to the rafter. Explanations of the design
and is centrally placed, so formulae are then given.
that the upper and lower They are derived for the form
portions of the rafter have of construction already
equal spans. described. It is important
to note this. since formulae
It is assumed that the can only be set down once the
ceiling joists will be used geometry of the structure is
to transmit to complementary closely defined. The
rafters the horizontal formulae differ for the three
component of thrust occurring types of rafter shown in
at eaves level. Figure 3.1. Figure 3.5.

The constituents of the roof For simplicity. rafters

1cads are described in without support are treated
detai 1 . these are imposed in the same way as no1.-
loads. dead loads. and self- continuous rafters. with
 - 41 -

slight conservatism. The imposed load. and long-tern:

spans derived in this way are load are prescribed in
also recommended for jack detail. For each of these.
rafters. Section 7.5 details the equations for the load
the loadinq equations: stress are resolved perpendicular tc
equations and the deflection the roof plane.
equations under point and
uniform loads. The equations Formulae are given for
include both bending and permissible spans for purlins
shear effects. Sample of the type described. the
calculations for rafters are permissible effective span
included. and specimen span being the shortest resulting
tables are provided. from the calculations for
bending strength. shear
Section 7.6 Purlins: strength a.nd deflection.
Sample formats for purlin
Section 7. 6 of Part 7 gives span tables are provided. so
recommendations for that those wishing to produce
calculations for purl ins data in conformity with the
supporting rafters in pitched standard may fol low this
roofs. The purlin is the uniform method.
beam which runs para 11 el to
the eaves, giving Section 7.7 Purlins
intermediate support to the suppo:-ting sheeting or
rafters. Figures 3.1 and 3.2 decking:
show the location of purlins
in typical pitched roofs.

The calculations given in the

section are for single spans,
or for two-span continuous
purlins. The major axis of
the purl in is arranged
pe!'"pendicular to the rafter
s 1 ope. This is not always
done in practice. but it is
the recommended arrangement,
since it is structurally more -Perp
efficient. to
•lope
The loading assumptions for
the Section are as for the
other elements of the pitched
roof. already described. The
purl ins are treated as Fig 3.6
principal members. with no
provision for load sharing. Purlins supporting sheetinq
It is necessary to make an or decking
assumption as to how the
rafter spans are divided in
order to calculate the purlin
loadings, hence these are Purlins supportinq sheeting
~reated as two equal spans. or decking in pitched roof
construction differ from
The three loading conditions: those supporting rafters. as
~ni farm imposed l cad: point described i.n relation to
 - . '
....... -

Section 7. 6. above. Purl ins The information and

of the type covered in recommendations given in this
Section 7. 7 of the Code are Section of the standard
normally supported by generally follows broadly
external or internal walls. similar 1 ines to that
as shown in Fig 3.6. although described above for domestic
it is possible for these purl ins, al though in detail
supports to be in the form of the calculations differ.
solid or glulam beams, or
trusses, such as those
discussed in the following Extending the principles of
Chapter. BS 5268: Part 7:

The ~ajar axis of the purlin It has been shown that by

is assumed to be designing traditional pitched
perpendicular to the roof roof e 1ements in conformity
slope. This is by far the with BS 5268: Part 7,
most common arrangement when compliance with the Building
such ?urlins are used in Regulations can be achieved.
conjunction with trusses, at without the necessity for
fairly wide centres. such as employing a structural
f ram 1.2 metres to 4. 8 engineer. Often however the
metres. principles of ?art 7 need to
be extended for forms of roof
This form of construction is construction which go beyond
frequently useful in fairly the simple type shown in
simple tropical building Figure 3 . 1 . The degree to
designs such as classrooms. which this may also be done
workshops and community without a knowledge of
buildings. Fig 3. 7 shows a engineering is to some extent
typical application of a matter of judgement.
purlins of this type. Prudence would obvious 1 y
suggest that adaptation
should be undertaken with
caution.

A simple hip roof can be

formed from timbers cut on
site with only the addition
of a hip rafter, plus jack
rafters, which are cut to a
compound angle at the tips.
using a carpenter's square.
This wi 11 create a roof
similar to that shown in Fig
3.3. but using entirely loose
members rather than trusses
Fig 3.7 in combination with cu~
construction.
Typica 1 application of
purlins supporting sheeting The purl in requires
alternative support at the
hip end, in place of the
usual gable wal 1. This
support is normally provided
by propping from a load
 - ..
I •
) -

bearing wal 1. At the wall

plate corners, an angle tie.
and a dragon beam were
traditionally added. in order
to contain the substantial
outward thrust from the hip.
Fig 3.8.
Valiey structures are another
common feature. In a simple
cut roof. the intersecting
roof or dormer is formed by
means of valley jack rafters,
which are supported on a
valley board. This is fixed
over the rafters of the main
roof.
Attic roofs using site cut Fig 3.8
timbers require greater
extrapolation from the Corner details in a hipped
principles just stated. ended cut roof, showing
Consequent! y they are dragon beaa to prevent spread
probably better constructed
nowadays using trussed
rafters, the system owners
having a number of standard
solutions available.

Another alternative is the

TRADA 'Room in Roof
Construction'. which involves
the use of stressed skin
panels and which makes
special prov1s1on for the
tying together at the eaves
of the components concerned.
 - 46 -

CHAPTER 4

The develonment of the bolted and connectored roof truss

Origins:

Soon after i ":s formation in structural timber par~s. Fiq

1934. the Timber Development 4.1.
Association <TDAl. which was
the immediate f ere runner of The method of construction
the Timber Research and was stressed skin. and both
Development Association ribs and formers. and the
'. TP.ADA) . took up the skin panels themselves. were
d~velopment of more made from timber and plywoo~.
economical means of producing
timber roof structures. Alongside these important
developments in timber
A little earlier. the British construction in the aircraft
Forest Products Research industry, the structures in
Laboratory <FPRL) had been which the aircraft. balloons
fcrmed. originally as part of and airships were housed and
the Royal Aircraft serviced were often of a
Establishment. ~any aircraft major size. Several record-
of the time were constructed break i ng spans were
from t1moer. The use of wood constructed. These were
in aircraft structures may be nearly always formed using
-:hought to have had its bolted. connectored trusses.
culmination in the famous arches. built-up columus. and
Mosquito design. but even trussed frames. Fig 4.2.
some of the eariy jets. such
:.s the De-Ha vi !land Vampire.
co~tained important

Fiq 4.2

Larqe spans such as this

Fig 4.1 airship shed were built using
bolted and connectored timber
Timber and plywood were construction
important !tructural
materials for aircraft. even
in early jets, such as this
De-Havilland Vampire
 - 4i -

The first types of timber timber bolt and connec~or

connector were probably design. until very recently.
invented in Scandinavia.
Ceri:ainl y the round toothed Post-war developments:
plate connector was a
Norwegian device. Fig 4.3. In Britain. there was a grea~
Quite soon after these first shortage of aii forms of
developments. separate types building materials as a
were invented in Germany. consequence of the Second
World War. Licences were
required in order to obtair.
permission to build and to be
able to obtain materials.

Amongst the methods pro~osed

to overcome these
difficulties with respect t::>
timber was the first
introduction of tropical
hardwoods intended for
structural purposes. These
were mixed hardwoods
described in terms of an
elementary grouping system.

One of the countries of

supply was Malaysia. or
rather Malaya as it was known
at the time. In some
instances, bolted and
connectored frameworks were
made in Britain from these
mixed Malayan hardwoods. Fig
Fig 4.3 4.4. Sometimes problems
Round, double-sided toothed
plate connector

Du:-:i.n:rthe 1930's. study

teams travelled to Europe and
Scandi na•: ia from North
America and witnessed timber
engineering methods playing
an important role in
redevelopment after the First
World War and the depression.

There were impor~~nt research

publications on timber bolted
and connectored joints issued Fiq 4.4
by the Forest Product
Research Laboratory. Madison. Bolted trusses for the roof
USA. These have continued to of a spa, using Keranti
serve as the basis for timber members
code recommendations for
 - 48 -

arose. because the different

grading characteristics of
tropical hardwoods were not
fully realized.

Roof solutions had already

been identified by pre-war
studies initiated by the TDA.
and there was even a smai l
amount of effort continued
throughout the war period.
When the time came to re-
build therefore. not
unnaturally. a programme to
develop standard designs for
prefabricated bolted and
connectored roof trusses
received high priority. Fig 4.5

A range of roof designs were

In bolted and connectored
developed and tested using construction, the individual
principal trusses jointed members of the truss do not
with bolts and connectors. all lie in a single plane
together with nailed
secondary parts. purlins and
:::-afters.

Where previously simple

bolts. nails and devices such
as 'joggles' would have been
used in traditional trusses
such as the kingpost type. Connectors al low the forces
the TDA truss designs all which must be transmitted by
u3ed bolts with various types the timbe~ joint to be shared
of connector. mainly the over a larger area of the
toothed plate. or the split faces of the connected
ring. members, Fig 4.6.

Joints formed from side- By contrast, in a pl air.

1 a p pe d members were bolted joint. there are great
invariably employed. so that concentrations of stress
the individual connector unit around the area where the
ra bolt. plus the set of bolt bears on the truss
individual connectors on its members. Hence the bo l ":
axis) would be loaded in tends to crush and cleave
sin~le or double shear. apart the timber at quite a
low value of force.
This was a distinguishing
feature of the bolted and Properly constructed
co nnec to red construct ion connectored joints also tend
method. Fig 4. 5. as opposed to be more rigid. that is to
to both earlier carpentry say there is less joirt slip.
frames and later truss plated and less deformation due to
rafter sys~~ms. where members tolerance being taken up a~
lying al 1 in one plane were the joint tightens under
possibie. load.
 - 49 -

design, using graphical

techniques to calcula~e
forces and deflections.
Joint design details were
calculated and listed by the
draughtsman in tables which
accompanied the
drawings.

The first standard domestic

connectored r~o f truss
designs were known as types
'A' and 'B'. T~ese had
pitches of 40 degrees and 35
degrees respectively. and
covered spans up to 30 ft <9
m).

During the later 1950' s and

Fig 4.6 ear 1 y 1960' s . the trend was
to lower roof pitches. Later
Connectors such as this split
it was later discovered that
ring spread the shear forces
this was to the detriment cf
over a greater zone than a both performance ~~d
plain bolt appearance: however it was
seen as an economy at the
The initial bcited and time.
connectored designs were
mainly intended for domestic As a consequence. further
;i-.irposes. The trusses were 'TDA' truss types were
known affectionately as 'TDA introduced. The · C' range
~=~sses'. and are still gave pitches from 22 to 30
described as such from time- degrees and spans of up to 32
~~-~ime ~cday. since a number ft (10.8 m). Around 1965.
of the standard types are the types · D' , · E' and ·'I:''
s~ill used. ranges were published. These
used a slightly different
A~ first. the urgency was to truss member layout. They
develop the designs by a went down to 15 degrees in
~ombination of calculation pitch. and up to 40 ft <12 m•
and testing. Fig 4.7. They in span. The construction
were issued as dye 1 ine details on the design sheets
prints. in order to get them permitted some flexibility in
into use as quickly as pitch and span. within stated
possible. limits.

Gradually. documentation work A range of trussed rafter

caught up. and by around 1950 designs were also in~roduced
printed design sheets with at about the same time. since
construction detaiis and these components were just
instructione were being becoming known in Britain.
issued. having already been used in
North America for f~ve or ten
Str 1lc~uraicalculations were years.
?repared for each standard
Fig 4.7
A standard TDA trussed roof design under prototype test

Fig 4.8
Roof construction using standard TRADA bolted and connectored
trusses
 - 51 -

The bolted trussed rafters

were more frequently used for
classrooms a~d similar smail-
span institutional buildings.
rather than for hvusing. As
such. they were often
required to carry a light
roofing. such as plywood or
boarding with three-layer
felt. School buildings and
other social re-building was
of course an urgent priority
at the time.

These bolted and connectored

trussed rafters were spaced
at close centres. commonly 2
ft (600 mm). without
intermediates. in just the
same way as the later punched Fiq 4.9
metal plate fastened trussed
rafters would be arranged. This series of standard
bolted and connectored truss
In this respect they were designs is still available
quite unlike the TDA. and from TRADA, in spans from 5.0
later. TRADA trusses. These to 12.0 metres, and in a
were much more common at the ranqe of pitches and roof
time. and were always widely weights
spaced. usually at 6 ft <1.8
ml centres. Fig 4.8. The
standard domestic bolted and
connectored trussed roof
construction a.l so inc 1uded
common rafters carried on
purlins between the trusses.
and binders which were
designe~ to support common
ce1.!.1ng joists which were
piaced between truss centres.

Many of the standard domestic Industrial trusses using

bolted and connectored roof bolted connectored joints:
truss designs are still
available from TRADA. Fig In the 1950's and 1960's
4.9. and there is a regular industrialized building
demand for the standard methods were believed to be
design sheets. The designs part of the solution to rapid
are often preferred for rebuilding programmes. There
smaller building projects. was also a strong belief in
where only a few trusses are the timber trade tha~ in
to be built in a particular order to promote the
style. material. faith should be
shown in its 1lse by
reconstructing timber storage
sheds and the like using
one's own medium.
 ~rr;-·:
: ! •. .:. ..
::.._
~ ~-

· ·· -

Fig 4.10

A standard bolted and connectored industrial truss design of

17 m span undergoing prototype testing

Nail gusseteu portals:

"=~tpes :ie~:a:-led La~er. the ind~St!'"ia: ':~~SS

-:es-:e=. F:.c 4.~c. types i.oere supp i. emente-:. ~.
standard desian stee-:s f:::
nailed ply gusseted pc::':a.
frames. These ~a·.·e s::;ac:::-::;.=
frcrr: 3.6 m tc 4.2 rr. -··-
:. :-.~: spans up to l~ mas s~a~=ar=.
shee-:s wr.:. ::-.
ar.C. -:'hese solid.
demand arose. gusseted po!'"'t.al
ex't.ensively develcpeC.. S:~e
fer- of of the first special:~-
30 written computer ;ro;ra~s
de;;::ees anc were produced •~- t~es~
.:.:::-4.~: desiqns at :RhDh. a~~ la':er _
":C 6C .. _ postal com;rnter des:.::~.
service was cr:vided ---
TRADAFAR~ member= usina ~~~-
forma computer inp~': s~eets.

:>cca£:::::ally
designs were
pt.!r?cses
ac:::. :·..i: t~ra l and
:::)\,.::. ldi::gs. • r. o~e

4:hey w~!'"Q 1 l~ed fc!."

,
·~
.
. . ,, -·- examplP. F:.c 4.
 - - - -- - ·- ----------·-----

Fig 4.11

A pair of Warren trusses of 26m span under prototype test

Fig 4.12

Warehouses under construction for Mersey Docks and Harbour

Board. using trusses shown above

por-:ai designs have A case has recently arisen in

proved eminently which buildinq designs o:
s~i-:abie as industrial this type have been provided
buildings in the tropics. for for a Wood Use Cen-:re i~
'1r-~iic.3.'tions such as Honduras. for examole.
sawr.i i ls. sawdoctors' shops
and The st..indard por-:a J des i ans
wcrlr.s ~::; ps and are also stil! available ~nd
wood;.;ori--. i r.:; shoos. As such. have been ~necked !~r
they ir~ fr~quent:y specified validity to the :atest codes.
as or.e-') ff
 ---- ----------------------------------.

Fig 4.13

Nailed gusseten portals for classrooms and assembly hall,

Stakes Hill School, Hampshire

Recent developments: 'Room-in-roof' construction

is especially favoured in the
A standard design information Netherlands. and in Scotland.
pack has recently been Also it has always been
pubi ished. giving drawings employed quite extensively in
and instructions for a ·room the Scandinavian countries.
in roof' me~hod of It provides a large volume of
construction. This is based habitable space in ~roportion
on a st~essed-skin panel to relatively low standard
design. It uses rafters costs. and is amenable to the
formed into panels covered by inclusion of large quantities
nailed structural plywood of thermal insulation.
sheathing. These panels butt
together at the ridge, and Recently, extensive research
are suoriorted at their base programmes by TRADA. PRL and
by a timber plate with a several technical trade
shaped cross-section. Fig associations have brought
4. l4. about developments in several
new forms of structural panei
The whole assembly is product. These materiais
provided with rigidity. and have been rigorously assessed
prevented from spreading, by to ensure that they have
means of a bolted collar tie. adequate moisture resistance.
Such forms 0f panellized roof strength and durabi 1 i ty.
construction. which may be They lend themselves
jointed effectively with therefore to further
mechanical timber fasteners opportunities in ~~e
such as nails ho 1 ts and application of panellized
connectors. lend themselves roof systems, both for
ideally to factory domestic use and for iarger
prefabricat:ion and hence to buildings. New designs based
fast and efficient on-site on these principles are
cons t:::-•..:ct: ion. likely to be of pitched
~ather than flat roof form.
 - 55 -

:!11/
L_=-
I H-<==:"'
,,J-;
/ I L~-- Fig 4.15
--
--- An example of a roof in which
the architect has .~hos en
Fig 4.14 deliberately to express the
structure of connectored
Room in roof construction, trusses
using nailed stressed skin
panels

Reverting to the current use

of the more traditional plane
frameworks. it has to be said
that in Britain trussed
rafter systems are now so
wel 1 developed. and so well
proven in use for non-
domestic as wel 1 as for from hardwood of exceptional
housing applications, that cross-section, as in the case
there is little merit in of the recent North Transept
preferring bolted and roof reconstruction following
connectored assemblies for the fire in York Minster, Fi~
spans up to about 18 metres. 4.16, or when using glulam
unless there are special members, timber connectors
reasons. are 1 ikel y to remain in use
for many years to come.
However this is not
uncommonly the case. The When bolted connectored
special reasons may include trusses are formed using
the need to carry hardwood or glulam members.
exceptionally heavy loadings; the trusses of ten need to be
the desire for 'historical detailed and manufactured
authenticity'; a call for with great attention to their
·traditio~al' trusses, or external appearance, since
simply preference on the part the truss remains exposed
of the architect for an forming a feature of the
·expressed' s'tructura 1 roof. internal architecture of the
Fig 4.15. structure.

It is common for baited and

For iarge. framed roofs, connectored joints to include
usinq either trusses made a number of connectors. both
 - 56 -

Fig 4.16 Fig 4.17

Oak trusses using specially The complications of joint

fabricated stainless steel design using timber
shear connectors, for York connectors provide an ideal
Minster roof application for computer-
aided design in the field of
timber engineering
It is common for bolted and
connectored joints to include
a number of individual
connectors, both several on
one bolt, in the case of
multi-member nodes, and also
in many cases a pattern of
several connectors in the
face of each member, Fig
4. 17. Since the diameter of
the connectors may be quite
large in relation to the
width of the joined members.
there is a considerable
amount of skill in arranging
the details of such joints.

When EC5 is adopted, it can

be expected that there wi 11
be new computer programs
facilitating the design of
such joints. A European
Standard <CEN) Working Group
has been formed in 1990, to
ensure that when
harmonization measures are
effected. data will still be
made available to designers
for the use of traditional
connectors.
 - 57 -

CHAPTER 5

The design of trussed rafters and trussed rafter roofs

Fig 5.1
A simple symmetrical Fink or 'V' trussed rafter,
viewed as a single component

Trussed rafters are be manufactured from

lightweight triangulated roof
frames. spaced at intervals
generally not exceeding 0.6m,
and made from timber members
of the same thickness
throughout. Fig 5.1.
These members are f a~tened
together in one plane. The
normal method of connecting
them is by means of punched
metal plate fasteners. These
are metal plates with
integral teeth. Fig 5.2.
stipulated types of stainless
steel.
The British 'Code of practice
for trussed rafter roofs'. BS
5268: Part 3: 1985. is a
well-proven and comprehensive
standard for the design of
trussed rafters. It also
contains importan~
recommendations for complete
trussed rafter roofs built
using these components.

Various proprietary patterns These recommendations are

are available. The plates based upon the results of
are required to be galvanized extensive research and
to certain s~andards. or to testing. Non-domestic roofs
 - SS -

The connexions of the trussed

rafter roof to the supporting
structure, and through this
ultimately to the ground. are
equally important.

Desiqn considerations:

BS 5268: Part 3 contains two

major sections devoted to
design. The first of these
deals with the design of the
trussed rafter as an
individual component. and the
second with the overall
trussed rafter roof design.

The code states that three

Fig 5.2 methods are equally
acceptable in establishing
Punched metal plate fasteners the structural adequacy of
with integral teeth trussed rafters. These are
as follows:

1. Engineering calculations

This method itself comprises

two sections. Firstly. the
now represent a major sector code presents in great detail
of the trussed rafter a method of simplified
industry in Britain and in analysis, which is to be used
other parts of Europe, and for the common configurations
the code also refers to of fully triangulated trussed
these. rafters.

Tru!'Ssed rafters are normally This method has been derived

designed to spar. between from a knowledge of the
external loadbearinq walls performance of the components
without the need for both under test and in actual
intermediate supports. use. By following it,
designs wi 11 be obtained
They are often described as which correspond with those
'highly engineered' recommended in permissible
components. Because of this. span tables, which are also
their successful use depends included in the code.
upon the careful observance
of proper specification and In this simplified analysis.
selection of materials; axial forces are determined
control of production and assuming a pin-jointed
handling: correct erection framework. Bending moments
procedures. and adequate are determined assuming that
bracing of the whole roof members are continuous
structure. throughout their length. with
pin supports at the nodes.
Deflection at the nodes and
partial fixity at the join~s
is allowed for by a reduction
cf ten percent in the bending
moment at the nodes.

A table of bending moment

coefficients in accordance
with these assumptions is
provided. for a series of
common configurations.

Secondly. as an a!ternative
to the simplified analysis, a
so-called rigorous analysis
is permitted. However when a
s~andard configuration is
proposed by the user of the Fig 5.3
programs provided by the
trussed rafter system owners. Buck.I ing in the plane
these ncrmally follow the perpendicular to the rafter
simplified analysis.
Nevertheless. they will
follow the rigorous analysis
for non-standard designs.
This avoids conflict between
'designed' and tested spans.
as given in the code tables,
for conventional of tests. and which uses an
configurations. adaptation of the norma:
combined stresses summa~icn
The r i g c ro us a na l y s i s equation.
procedure applies normal
s~ructural engineering plane
frame analysis procedures, 2. Load testing
with certain assumptions
stipulated by the code. The code also contains a
unless other evidence is section on load testing.
available. For example. zero which is an equally
fixity at the joints should acceptable alternative to tne
be assumed. if alternative two types of theoretical
specific data are not analysi!. It may also be
available. necessary to test trussed
rafters .;here a comp 1ex anc
The desian of the individual unusual d~sign is required.
members of trussed rafters or where t:iere is doubt or
fol lows norrna l timber disagreement as to whether
engineering principles. but the design or the materials
it includes some additional or fabrication comply with
considerations. For example. standards.
there is a check agains~
buckling in the direction General 1 y speaking. tens or
perpendicular to the plane of perhaps hundreds of thousands
the rafter. Fig 5.3. which of conventional trussed
takes account of the results rafters have now been tested
 - oO -

Fig 5.4

A conventional, standard trussed rafter under prototype test

since the inception o! the

method. Fig 5.4. and such !1a ter i
al s for trussed
procedures are now norma 11 y rafters:
confined tc unusual
configurations. and to Confidence in the performance
quality con~rol testing. of trussed rafters is
strongly dependent upon close
attention to the
Span tables: specification and control of
materials. and it is
The first British code of essential to build u; trust
prac~ice for trussed rafters and knowledge in species
contained simple span tables. proper~ies; grading: sizing
When BS 5268: Part 3 was standards and in finger
published in 1985. revised jointing ar:d fastener
span tables based on testing technology. In brief. these
and service experience were aspects may be covere:! under
inch..::ied. for a range of four headings:
combinaticns cf grade and
species. These covered
machine stress graded 1. Timbers
softwoods, including British-
grown material. and visually Suitable timbers for trussed
stress graded sof tll'loods. rafter manufacture must be
grouped into strengtt". fully defined in term~ of
classes. structural properties. and
 - 61 -

should be capable of forming modification factors for

satisfactory joints. The finger joint effi:ie~:~
latter depends upon the types ratings. which allow for t~e
of fastener used. There is possible effect of pla'tes
evidence from other being pressed into an act~a~
countries. where it is finger-jointed regior. c: ~~~
necessary to make use of truss member.
hardwoods. that trussed
rafters can be fabricated
with these. provided that 4. Fasteners
heavy-gauge punched metal
plates are employed. Clearly there must be str:=~
control over these critical
items. Punched metal pla'te
2. Grading and sizes fasteners with inteara:
teeth, and perforated pia~e
Because of the exacting fasteners must be made from a
strength requirements of stipulated grade of ho't-d.:;
trussed rafters, stress galvanized plain steei shee~
grading in accordance with.BS or coil. Alternatively where
4978. or other rules such as a greater resistance ·~
certain North American ones. corrosion is requireC.. bare
is mandatory for trussed austenitic stainless steel c:
rafters in Britain. In a grade defined in BS 144<?:
addition. there are certain Part 2 may be used.
extra requirements for
straightness and freedom from Minimum mechanical properties
~wist. cup and wane. which are laid down for the pl a":=
are stated in the trussed material, and there is a
rafter code itself. restriction upon the type cf
manufacturing process used
7imber is also required to be for the steel. There is als:
sized in accordance with BS an absolute minimu~
44 71 : Par~ 1 . and there are restriction upon the gauge c:
s'trict 1 imitations on steel to be used (0.9mmi.
deviaticns in the finished
thickness and depth of
members. Sizes and spans:

Irrespective of the required

3. Finger joints member sizes calculated
following framework analysis
It is an advantage to be able and member design. it i:
t~ finger joint trussed desirable to place practical
rafter stock. s i nee in this limitations on the
way high grade and stiffness cross-sectional size tc
material may be ensured more length proportions of the
economically. Finger jointed complete members. and o~ the
timber is admitted in trussed distances between the node:
rafters in Britain. provided of the truss. This ensure:
that it complies with certain robustness during handl inc;
requirements. and provided and erection and avo1as
tha't the finger joints are 'theoretical' justifica~ion:
manufactured in accordance for spans going beyond t~cse
with a standard covering the shown by experience to be
subject. There are satisfactory.
 - n2 -

Fig 5.5

Trussed rafter sets, including hip components, of 18.Bm span.

Such sizes are close to the upper limit for trussed rafter
construction

The trussed rafter system

owners also place practical
and 'experience' limitations
upon applications of the
design metr.od. Broadly
speaking. it is unusual to
find trussed rafters in use
for spans beyond about 20 /

~-'--------------.....,"~
metres. Fig 5.5. At greater
spans thac this. one would
normally expect the designer
to be considering the use of
glulam. or similar structural
composites. Fig 5.6
De 1 iv e ry and erection 'Top hat' trussed rafters
considerations. rather than
structural performance. also
tend to place an upper limit
on trussed rafter heights.
Me~hods such as 'top hat'
trusses. Fig 5. 5. have been
devised for tall roof allowed. Larger spans are
structures. achieved by means of what are
known as 'multi-ply' trusses.
The code also places limits These consist of two or more
upon span which are related frameworks. simila!" to ar:
to the finished member individual truss. which are
thickness. The common member rigidly joined together by
thickness (rafter or tie means of mechanical
breadth: of 35mm is fasteners. to provide a
restricted to a maximum span complete component. Fig 5. 7.
cf 11.0m. For a finished
member ~hickness of 47mm.
spans of up to 15.0m are
 - 6J -

Fig 5.7
A flat topped girder truss, formed with twin-ply members

l. • T' intersections and

Trussed rafter roof valleys
formations:
A 'T' intersection occurs
Nowadays. a building which is when two ridge lines are
s imp I y rectangular in pl an. required to intersect at
roofed with a parallel rid9e ninety degrees. Fig 5.8. The
and with plain gabled erids. ridges need r.ot necessarily
is the exception rather than be at the same height as one
the rule. Trussed rafters another. Even the pitches
can prcvide ar. economical need not be equal. Solutions
structural solution to a have been found to al 1 S\.J.ch
great variety of roof shapes. variations. generally based
giving the architect much on similar broad principles.
freedom of design. Amongst
the most important variations The intersect ion between the
in roof formation are the two roofs is construct~d
hipped end. several types of using a set of diminishing
'T' intersection, and the valley frames. These ar-e
scissor truss and dormered slightly adapted symmetrical
truss families. Some of trussed rafter frames.
these are briefly discussed
below: The valley frames transfer
loading in a reasonably
uniform manner onto norm~!
trussed rafters. forming the
Fig 5.8 Fig 5.9

'T' intersections Hipped roof variations

intersected roof be 1ow. and shaped plans. and with 'T'

bracing is rearranged intersections, Fig 5. 9. !n
accordingly. Often it is all cases, the hip system is
required to construct a · T' the preferred soluticn.
intersection without a load rather than site-built
bearing wall at the crossbar infill.
of the 'T'. In this case. a
strong girder truss is For domestic and other small
designed. using multi-ply structures up to twelve
chord and web members. metres span. the trussed
rafter system owners have
standard solutions for hips.
2. Hipped roofs Above this. special is~
structural engineering advice
There are four basic is recommended. Fig 5.10.
variations on the simple
hipped roof. and in addition. Roofs including hipped ends
such forms may be combined should normally be pitched a~
with corners. to provide 'L' a minimum of twenty two
 - ti) -

Fig 5.10
Large trussed rafter roof contract for hospital, involving
spans greater than 18 metres, and cornplex hip structures

degrees, to ensure that This hip system comprises a

adequate height is avaiiable number of identical flat-to~
for economical hip girders. trusses. and a multiple
The positioning of the hip girder of the same profile,
girders should be planned to Fig 5.11. This girder
benefit from load bearing supports mono pitch trusses
walls. and to avoid clashing off its bottom chord. The
with chimneys and large wall hip and monopitch trusses
openings. contain 'flying rafters'.
These are s l!ghtly
Broadly spealdng, all hip over length, cantilevered
systems are based on a rafter extensions which are
combination of hip girders. trimmed to their exact
which are rather like strong. required length as the roof
flat topped trusses. and is fitted together on site.
intermedia-:.e m:ir.opitch
trusses. It is impossible to
describe al: variations on
hip framing even briefly.
P.owever a short descrip<:.ion
of the ·Gang-nail' ·Standard
Centres' hi~, will givf' a
typical examp!e:
 - bb -

Fig 5.11
The 'Standard Centres' hip system

3. Attic trussed rafters

The attic trussed rafter. Fig Cases outside these have to
5.12. has to fulfil the be treated as special
structural duty of both the designs.
normal truss and also provide
the ceiling joists of It is easier to construct
the'room-in-roof' space. attic roofs with gabled ends.
In addition. due to the large although hips are possible.
aperture provided for the Dormers should be restricted
living space, there are less to 1200 mn1 width if possible.
opportunities for in order to economize on
structurally efficient girder sizes.
triangulation. Consequently
member sizes are considerably The transportable height o~
larger than in normal trussed the attic truss se~ is
rafters. another important cost
consideration. Where
Timber of 44 mm or 47 mm possible, this should be
thickness is usual. with restricted to a maximum of
depths ranging from 145 mm to 4.0 m.
245 mm. As an indication of
spans and pitches, from 9 m
spa:1 to 11 m span is a good
range at 35 degrees pitch,
whilst at 45 degrees. 6 m to
10 m can be considered.
 - t>' -

Fig 5.12

Housing incorporating attic framed trussed rafters

Bracing:
the British trussed rafter
All roofs require pe:-manent code was revised in 1985.
bracing. Although it had
always been the case that in From experience in the use of
order to provide a stable and trussed rafter roofs in
satisfactory structure, the Britain, standard bracing
roof needed to be braced in methods for the majority of
various ways, it became normal domestic roofs up to
evident that there are 1 ess twe Ive metres span have now
hidden reserves in a trussed been worked out i~
rafter roof than in some of considerable detail.
the more traditional forms.
Since it is not practicable
Also these components proved to expect a professional:y
so versatile that there was a qualified structural engineer
tendency to stretch their to approve every small
application to new limits. building design. the code
with:~ut gi·.ring f~l l thought prescribes s•.J.ch details. It
to the principles of scund alsc states the limits tc
structural design. which they are applicable. i~
terms of factors such as
For these reasons. the areas span. roof shape and pitch.
of respons i bi 1 i ty of the and site wind loadir.g
trussed rafter designer and conditions.
the building designer were
considerably clarified, when
Roofs which exceed these compression member=
parameters are required to especially in laraer
have a pro f es s i o n a 1 1 y monopitch trusses. w~ich can
engineered solution to ensure be quite long.
both stability and wind
resistance. For the majorit~{ of
conventional trussed r~fters
Fig 5.14, stability bracinc
Roof bracing serves three consists of five bas:=
distinct functions: elements. as follows:

1. Teanporary Bracing a) Longitudinal Bracing

This refers to bracing used b) Rafter Diagonal Bracing

to restrain the structure
during erecticn, Fig 5.13. c) Tiling Battens

d) Web Chevron Bracing

e) Lateral Web Bracing

The last two i terns are or.l y

necessary with larger s~ans.
for example web chevron
bracing is only required for
duopi tch spans greater than
eight metres. It is the
triangulation of the diagonal
bracing members that adds a
great deal to the stiffnes.=
of the roof framework.

The diagonal bracing of atti~

trusses can often be achieved
by adding ply~~ ~ to the
Figure 5.13 undersides of tne rafters.
Internal linings and
partitioning may also be
Temporary bracing
des\gned to play a structur~l
role.

2. Stability Bracing Where the internal layout

cannot be adapted to f o 11 ow
This is permanent bracing, th~· precepts indicated above.
vhich holds the trussed or where large rooms are
rafters upright, in plane, required, cross wall girde~s
and parallel to one another. or glulam beams can be
It serves a very important combined with attic trussed
function in restraining rafters. Outward thrusts
members subject to from the attic frames must be
compression, thus preventing accounted for, and connexio~s
lateral buckling. carefully designed.

The members which must be

braced in this way include
rafters and other
 Fig 5.14
Stability bracing

3. Wind bracing
Extra bracing may be required
to withstand wind forces on also function adequately as
~he walls and roof. Whether the wind bracing. However,
or not the walls of the trussed rafters are used for
structure are able to resist a wide range of roofs beyond
wind loading alone. there is this scope.
always a connexion between
the walls and the roof to be There are several options
taken into account. available for the wind
bracing of these larger
In addition. the roof roofs. Applying standard
itself receives a
str·.:i..;~ure engineering pr:nciples. a
port:on of the total wind triangulated bracing system
loading on the building. can be designed using solid
Wind brae ing thus has to be timber members and site
designed with careful connexions.
consideration of the building
cons~ruction as a whole. Although adequate for smaller
roofs. this often presents
For a wide range of domestic fixing problems. A good
structures it has been shown alternative is to provide
tha-: the standard stabi 1 i ty diaphragm action. usi~g
bracing described above will structural plywood or a
 - 70 -

Fig 5.15
Horizontal wind girder, fabricated with punched metal plates

similar material. In this role. Decisions have to

Scotland. boarded sarking was be taken by the structural
traditional in all roofs. engineer as to the amount of
consequently the substitution horizontal deflection
of this by a structural permitted at the eaves of the
plywood can be cost walls in this type of
effective. arrangement.

Another very satisfactory As already indicated. the

means of providing wind British trussed r-i.fter code
bracing in larger roofs is very specific about areas
relies on the use of wind of design responsibility for
girders. Fig 5.15. These are bracing. In general
fabricated using punched responsibility for stability
metal plates in exactly the and wind bracing rests with
same way as the tru.s sed the building designer.
rafters themselves. but they whereas the tr~ssed raf~er
are a component which is designer specifie~ the
installed in a horizonal brae i ng necessary to prov 1 de
plane. restraint to his component£.

Wind girders span between the

cross walls of the structure,
and transmit the wind forces
from one part of the
structure to another.
re:ieving the roof trusse! of
 - 71 -

Structural design programs: Generally the complete desigr.

suite of each system owner
The major trussed rafter consists of several programs.
system owners provide The parts relating strictly
extensive suites of computer to the structural aspects of
programs for their customer the design can be described
networks. These customers as either performing a
are known as ·fabricators'. 'simplified analysis• or
They are the firms. normally 'rigorous analysis'. In some
integrated within the timber cases. as for example with
merchandising and building Gang-Nail 's 'Concept 2000 '
supp:y industries. who design suite, the simplified
provide tn•.ssed rafter analysis is further sub-
components and other parts of divided.
the complete roof system to
the builder. In this case, a method known
as 'Superfast', which rapidly
yields pre-computed design
solutions which are accessed

•~•
~- by the program code. may be
selected for many of the most
• • common configurations. Such
computer programs will
general 1 y guide the user
towards a suitable profile

•
~ a •dv~•
selected from the system
owner's library, Fig 5.16.

When the simplified analysis

program is run, it will firs~

~
produce a header sheet of
output giving basic job
• I.
reference information. If
the truss being designed can
be solved by reference to the
standard span tables included

•~•
in the code, then the
programme will indicate thij
by the words 'Tested Truss'.
Information will continue
giving plating and bracing
detai 1s. Otherwise computer
calculations will be made
based on a method giving
comparable levels of safety
Fig 5.16 to the standard trusses.

Typical truss shapes from a There are standard ways of

system owner's library referencing the dimensions of
trussed rafters. and the
design programs ref~: tu
these in their output. This
information is reported.
together with the truss
member sizes; left and right
top chord pitches: number of
 - 72 -

·- ---· - --------- - ---·--

..... ...
_,_-.
.. ,_._ ---·
·- .......... ··-c--· ...·--•...._. - ·-
......... - -------
....... _....
.--.
-----·
' · ' - ••• • __.,
..... I -~~·
•te
, ...... n.
~-· ~·­ ,,_ -~~
~--
~
1:•.

.
.•
.ii
..
~ .

··- .............. ••ISi• .,.....•

• ,,, .•.• ~ C...•• _ . - ..... - · ···-····
..... OW•••• C•••-·••• __.,.._._.,.--•••·_,.I -

n.n ~-u n.n !-15

Fig 5.17 Fig 5.18

Example of standard plotting Example of standard plotting

output output (cont)

trusses required in the roof

section concerned. and
finally the truss centres.
All of the loadings selected
by the user of the program
during his design session are Although fully detailed
listed in the output. design drawings are no longer
The grade and species of necessary when using the
timber used for the top software and equipment
chord. bottom chord and web provided by system owners for
members is also indicated. trusses within their normal
Fol lowing this, the plate library ranges, simple line
file is referenced indicating diagrams are normal 1 y
the type and gauge of included in the standard
connector plate to be used. output. as an additional form
If non-standard heel joints of error checking. These
are requ1rea for ~he design, di4gram5 may ~ither take the
these are indicated. Rafter form of a 'star plot' sketch
overhang details may a 1so be (not to scale), or a scaled
given. 1 inear sketch if a computer
graph plotter is available.
Figs 5.17 and 5.18 show
 ~ -~ i. :.

Fig 5 .19

A roof plan and truss layout on-screen on a microcomputer

examples of standard plotting is given. together with its

outputs for a worked example slenderness ratio. The
using Gang Nail's Concept def 1 ections are al so state::
2000 software. at each joint considered in
the ana 1ys is, together wi t!"l
The analysis program finally the support reactions f cr
outputs the essentials of the e3.ch load case.
design calculations. It
gives the bending moment
coefficients calculated for
the design. at each joint and Software for the complete
panel position in each chord trussed rafter roof:
member of the truss. Applied
stresses and forces are also Other aspects of the
listed. Only the worst cases structural roofing service
are given for the chord which are computerized. in
members. For web members. a addition to the structural
full output is provided for truss design, include the
each duration of load case. overall roof design. In this
Trussed rafter system owners case one is considering the
norm;:i 11 y rPf er to the index shape of the roof in terms of
computed by summing the building plan. sections ar.d
stress ratios due to flexure elevations; truss and girder
ana ax1a1 forces as a cutting. plating, jigging a:-.d
combined stress index (CSI). estimating information:
This CSI and also the direct drafting for the creation of
stress index is listed. The fabrication drawings and
maximum local deflection of architectural plans. and
each member between the nodes management information sue~
 - 74 -

I
I

Fig 5.20

·sections' as defined in the program 'ROOF'

as plant planning and span, hipped ended roof is

performance. materials indicated.
management. transport
costing, and sales analysis. Roof truss profiles are also
indicated as part of ~he
A typical whole-roe£ design output, and files containing
program is that contained in information about them can be
the Gangnail Concept 2000 transferred to other programs
suite. One of the important within the suite, !or steps
programs in this set, known such as structural sizing.
simply as 'ROOF', is intended and fabrication detailing.
to take off a complete
schedule of roof trusses, The roof shape is entered by
girders and ancillary roof the user of ROOF through
materials from a description simple graphical routines.
of the roof perimeter. A For the purposes of operating
roof plan and truss layout the program, the overall roof
Clrawings are also produced. shape is subdivided into
These may if required include areas which are rectangular
intersections, various types in plan. The roof sections of
of gable, hips and valleys. these subdivisions are
stipulated by the user during
The ROOF program produces a the design process. In the
roof plan of a complete special definition used in
building, or even a building the program, 'secticns' are
complex. A fairly simple zones of roof containing a
example of ~ roof plan and single ridge line, together
truss layout is shown as it with prescribed end
would appear on-screen on a conditions, Fig 5.20. The
computer in Fig 5.19. In results of the program.
this examp 1e, quite a 1arge including the truss layout
drawings, and the truss
 - 75 -

schedules can also be related The ·roof general file'

to these sections. as defined contains many of the user-se~
during the design process. default values. These can be
Internal walls and girders. overwritten during individual
capable of providing job input, but by a wise
potential support points for selection, the user can
the trussed rafters. are greatly speed up his
taken into consideration in operation of the program.
defining the sections. Perimeter wall data. for
examp 1 e, can be kept in the
A real trussed rafter roof general file. These
seldom ccnsists merely of a stipulate the thicknesses of
rectangular plan with a the brickwork or masonry. the
simple set of symmetrical standard wall plate
duopitch trusses in parallel thickness, and similar
al 1 along the roof. At the values, so that a datum point
very least. there is likely can be established for the
to be a chimney or other truss setting out values.
opening at some point. This Eaves conditions default
will involve the use of what values are another option
are known as ·stubbed' that can be set in the
trusses. Hore frequently, general file. A default
buildings often include truss overhang value.
trusses which are typically 600 mm. can also be
cantilevered, or which set, together with a default
intersect walls and girders. type of overhang cut.
The ROOF program
automatically ensures correct ·Section data• relate to an
truss modification at al 1 important menu which governs
such points. many of the truss design
features in the roof section
When beginning a new design. under consideration at any
the user of ROOF will usually particular time. Examples of
inp~t data concer~ing the s~ction data include the
roof plan and shape by default pitch, typical 1y 30
ref ere nee to a plan layout degrees; the truss family;
defined on the screen. A truss centres, very often 600
provision exists, however, to mm; the standard water tank
retain files of partially load; the default timber
defined roof configurations, thickness and grade
known as 'parameterized typically 35 mm, H75 grade.
shapes•. These can be data
relating to commonly used The term 'truss family'
building types. and 'building refers to the choice of a
block• plans. such as a series of trussed rafter
common core shape with forms such as duopitch fink;
alternative additions. Hip monopitch; flat; attic;
and corner solutions are asymmetric; scissor; raised
offered to the program user tie, etc. Within each of
in a similar manner to the these main families of
other faci 1 i ties. They can configurations. it is sti 11
be edited as desired, and a necessary for indi vidua 1
schedule of all the trussed designs to be sized at a
rafter components can be later stage. However. ROOF
produced for each hip and can work with the se~tion
valley in the roof.
 - 70 -

data provided, including the

truss family's outer profile.
The valley and gable setback IftEIUIAL VALL, VAI.t.ET, RIPS
dimensions and the hip type
also have to be selected.
A wide variety of hip types
are common. and ten types of
hip are provided as standard T
,7~
options by the program.

l![J~
Load cases are also
selectable from a menu. The
information chosen relates
mainly to the
roofing required.
weight of
such as
12,l 3 ,-
7 .k 3
...-..i---~.,p;---~---.1,1'"--...11'--j1

concrete interlocking tiles.

heavy tiles, or asbestos
tiles. Al though there are
options to selec~ top and Fig 5.21
bottom chord 1 i ve 1oads ,
these are more uniformly A sketch roof layout, as a
s'tandardized by the loading starting point for program
code. 'ROOF'
Some detai 1 s of fabrication
data are quite standard for a
given manufacturer. These
inc 1ude se 1 ection of timber
treatment, such as by the
·Pr ot j m' or ' Vac -Va c ·
methoc.s. or untreated
material. A reference is is the normal method of data
made to a standard plate file entry. This method is also
in the fabrication section of used to create a new
the general file. The 'parameterized shape' of
standard plate file contains roof. For example, Fig 5.21
details of the normal shows a sketch with
galvanized plates and the dimensions of a roof with an
stainless steel plates which internal support wall. valley
the fabricator carries in and hips which could be used
stock. giving their ~~uges as the starting point for a
and sizes. typical design using RCOF.
As in the case of the The overall dimensions of the
description of the general roof plan, including an
file selection procedures, allowance of about two metres
the fol lowing discussion of for a border, need to be
the normal input method is stipulated. A starting point
not intended to be fully for plan input then needs to
comprehensive, but rather to be chosen by the user for
give an indication of the commencing to draw the plan
functioning and capability of on the screen. Normally.
the program. this will be a 'bottom left'
position on the building pla~
Where a new roof shape is to shape. The external wail
be designed. 'input by plan' perimeter is entered in its
 - ii -

I
'
-~ ::
--· II
·-·
·-·
-·
.
.. . .
• ' • ' • ' ' . ' •
.
4

~ ~~
..
• • • ' . •
..
4 4 • •
.
4 ' .
.
•/
\
~~

-· i/ ~--
-·
. i/
/
. ·- ~
I"\ '
--;(
-

,/ I ~
/
~ ,....
·-
' ...
.... - - 4
/
/ "~ ---
' .......
: l
.....
..... b( ii i i ~ i l l'K~
I/ I I I'

zpgp
l ..... GOltOC»o T•L 1 - · - 72242S
. , . , . _ I I LTD
T.- T...., I llST,.,T•o I ' - • llUIUtaY
P ILll 1 IWllM J09 1 WOllKllO ~ NO. 2
- . & II tOO - T • 1 TMU 27TM Dll~•lt l•illl"'

Fig 5.22
A roof truss layout drawing, one of the principal outputs from
the program 'ROOF'

entirety. Each external wall Once the perimeter and node

is described in turn, using a points have been input, the
clockwise sequence starting program re-scales the
from the selected origin. perimeter to one of the
pre-selected standard scales.
To assist input, the program Sequential reference points
always tries to close the are then indicated on the
perimeter in a clockwise screen. The inner and outer
manner. Keyboard directional wallplates, brickwork
and dimensional defaults thickness and dimension lines
always tend to anticipate are al 1 added, obeying menu
this function to close the selections.
shape. Because it may be
necessary to include recesses The initial screen plot of
or re-entrant shapes in the the roof perimeter, created
plan. the user has the by the steps described above.
option to override the is edited into a completely
program choice. If an error dimensioned roof layout, by
is made during a draw) ng, a executing a series of
single key permits stepping functions in a sequence
back a chosen number of prescribed by the software.
stages. without the necessity
for complete re-entry. After the complete perimeter
has been input, the user may
decide it is necessary to
 - 78 -

include additional nodes, output to generate drawings

other than those on a graph plotter or simila~
automatically formed at the device. Listings are a:so
corners in the perimeter. produced of the ancillary
Reasons for this may include i terns required to construct
the requirement for a new the roof, such as the truss
node at a girder support clips, hangers and shoes. a~d
position along a wall, or at the soffit and barge boa~d
the intersection point sizes.
between a perimeter wall and
an internal loadbearing wall.
A boundary modification
option is available in the
roof data menu to permit
this. A 'redraw' or 'tidying
up' facility is also
available at this stage.

Any girders not included

during the perimeter input
stage must be positioned
before the design can be
completed. Once this is
done. the roof sections can
be fully defined. The
principal sections are
defined before any secondary
ones. For example, in many
buildings, there wi J l be a
main accommodation area,
which is essentially a large
rectangle in plan. Once the
main sections are defined,
the program can calculate the
ir.tersection zones between
them. and assign the relevant
data to each sub-file. After
this step. the program can.
if necessary, be used to
close the data into a
'parameterized file'
Otherwise the user proceeds
to stipulate his required
outputs, which may be to the
screen, on a printer. or to a
graph plotter.

The principal outputs of the

ROOF program are a roof plan
drawing. a roof truss layout
drawing. Fig 5.22. truss
profiles, and a truss
take-off schedule. Transfer
files are also created, so
that a general drafting
program can receive the
 - 79 -

CHAPTER 6

The future

European Harmonization:

The Eurocode No 5:'Common The present EC5 is also a

Unified Rules for Timber draft at this stage. The
Structures•, is one of eight drafting work drew largely
Eurocodes being prepared to upon studies whict have been
promote the aims of the undertaken for more than
Common Market by removing twenty years in Working Group
obstacles due to differing W18 (Timber Structures) of
structural design rules. the CIB (International
Council for Building Research
The Eurocodes are a major Studies and Documentation).
aspect of the European
harmonization process. They Comment upon the EC5 draft
provide common technical has been thorough, detailed
rules for the efficient and in-depth. A second,
application of the intentions substantially revised and
of the Construction Products printed draft in English is
Directive (CPD) with respect expected to appear by about
to design. April 1992. Subsequently it
is hoped that this will be
It is anticipated that their adopted as a voluntary but
use will first be introduced legal code (ENV). This could
mainly as an alternative to be applicable from April
national rules for public 1993.
contracts. Their gradual
introduction for all other Currently, progress towards
contracts is expected to European harmonization in the
follow later. structural timber field
continues quite rapidly. An
Many of the supporting important political
documents for EC5 are well development is that member
advanced and are being agreed countries of the EFTA group
as CEN drafts (European are now fully participating
Committee for in this work, in addition to
Standardization, in English). the twelve Member States of
The standards organizations the Community.
of the individual countries
within the Community will Amongst these, Finland,
publish these 'Euro-norms' Norway, Sweden and
(ENs) with corresponding Switzerland have considerable
national numbers. Thus the structural timber
system of British Standards, proficiency, as well as
French (AFNOR) and German being, in some cases, very
standards (DIN) is likely to important suppliers to the
continue for a considerable other member countries within
time to come, although these the group.
standards may only amplify,
not conflict with, those Hence when harmonization is
commonly agreed. achieved, the nations
adopting these codes and
 - 80 -

standards will not only steps are laid down in the

represent the largest ENs which support the code.
coherent economic bloc in the
world, but will also form a The design value of a timber
grouping of great material property is derived
significance for timber by multiplying the
supply and demand. characteristic value by a
partial coefficient for
material properties. In
BCS 4esiqn philosophy: addi~ion, account is taken of
duration of load, moisture
Like all the other Eurocodes, content and similar effects,
EC5 is a limit states design some of which are peculiar to
code. 'Limit states' are timber.
states beyond which a
structure no longer satisfies
the design requirements. For Trussed rafter qui4elines for
instance, there are limit Europe:
states for ultimate strength,
and for serviceability of the A notable omission from the
structure. first draft of EC5 was that
there was no section dealing
Buildings are required to with the design of trussed
withstand 'actions' rafters. Consequently
(generally speaking, trussed rafter 'guidelines•
equivalent to 'loads' ) with ~ere initiated by a sub-group
an acceptable probability of of WG18, at its meeting in
risk. Actions are divided Berlin in September 1989.
into permanent, variable and These have now been broadly
accidental effects. adopted, and are in the
process of being finalized by
Because timber is the EC5 Editorial Group, with
load-duration sensitive, national inputs from various
durations of actions must be concerns.
also be defined. Partial
coefficients are applied to Scope of the qui4elines:
the values of the actions, to
take accoun~ of unfavourable Unlike the 3ritish trussed
deviations of estimated rafter code, the EC5 draft
effects and to allow for guidelines are confined to
uncertainties. the design of individual
trussed rafters, treated as
In the design process, design what are termed 'plane
values of actions are frames' in the strict
compared with the design structural analysis sense.
resistances of the proposed
structure. The design of the truss is
treated in three phases,
In limit states design, although it is noted that
material properties are often these three phases Juay
stated in terms of not be followed sequentially
'characteristic values'. but that iterations may be
These are defined by means of involved. These three steps
standardized tests, followed are as indicated overleaf:
by agreed statistical
procedures. Both of these
 - 81 -

1. Static analysis of the 1. Linear elastic behaviour

framework of the individual members
and of the structure as a
2. Strength verification of whole.
the timber members
2. First order method of
3. Strength verification of analysis - this means
the connexions that non-linear changes
in the geometry of the
The draft concentrates on structure under lo3d are
trusses jointed with nail not taken into account
plates, and assumes that the iteratively by the
plane frame analysis phase program.
will b2 ca~ried out using one
of the many existing general 3. Members are modelled as
st:uctural plane frame straight beam elements.
analysis programs.
4. Most programs permit
The strength verification of deformations in the
the timber members may in joints to be included in
principle be carried out as the deflection predicted
described in general timber by the analysis. This is
codes, such as the main done either by adding a
sections of ECS. Only prescribed slip at
certain aspects of this which selected nodes or by
are peculiar to trusses have including spring elements
therefore been added. in the model.
The strength of nail plates
has been discussed in several Methods of allowing for slip
CIB papers, and the in the ~onnexions are of
guidelines adopt some of practical importance in
these recommendations. attempting realistically to
model the behaviour of
A recent addition to the trussed rafters using
guidelines has been the standard plane frame
adoption of a simplified analyses, since the degree of
analysis for fully fixity and the stiffness
triangulated statically provided by nail plates
determinate trusses. The impinges upon the strength
method used is quite similar verifications made as a
in principle to the result of the analysis, as
simplified method which is well as affecting the
given in BS 5268: Part 3. serviceability (deformation)
considerations.
Prame analysis: Because of limitations, there
are only two realistically
Typical of the assumptions applicable possibilities for
made in generally available modelling slip. These are as
linear elastic plane frame shown overleaf:
analysis programs are as
follows:
 - 82 -

1. Prescribed slip deform non-linearly, both

under test and in the real
From tests on nail plates, structure. Hence stiffness
the load-slip behaviour in constants for the joints must
absolute terms (so many be stated as a secant
millimetres or so many modulus.
radians per Newton or Newton
metre) is prescribed for each This means that for each load
nail plate type. case under analysis the
designer needs to indicate
Load-slip curves are the relative strength
generally quite non-linear, utilization. The stiffness
but when the connexion matrix which is being
reaches the ultimate load operated upon by the
that will be used as the math~matical 'inner workings'
basis for design values, a of the program has to be
corresponding slip may be updated, hence again
assumed. analytical iteration is
inferred.
If it is also assumed that
the plates will normally be
used efficiently, so that The frame aodel:
plates of a larger area will
be used at nodes where The frame model is an
members carry greater forces idealization of the real
and moments, then the slip structure which is capable of
that will occur in practice being analyzed by the
can roughly be equated to the computer program. As such,
plate type, by linear it should represent as nearly
interpolation, independent of as possible the real
plate size. structure, particularly with
regard to intersections of
Even with such crude centre lines of the real
assumptions, there are still members, and the rea 1
difficulties, since not for stiffnesses of the
every load case in a given connexions. However, certain
member will the nodes simplifications are
concerned reach their essential.
ultimate value divided by the
accepted load factor. Beam elements are used to
model the real linear
members; fictitious beam
2. Elastic spring elements elements model some of the
con~traints within the
Many elastic plane frame connexions (including
analyses permit elastic a 1 1 o w a n c e s f o r
spring elements to be non-intersection of some real
associated with the nodes members' centre lines, due to
(mathematically, this merely the width of the real
entails adjustments to the members); spring elements
stiffness matrix). model the elastic behaviour
of the connexions.
However, in common with
nearly all mechanical timber As the in~ention is to
fasteners, punched metal nail represent as nearly as
plates used for trusses possible the elastic
 - 83 -

behaviour of the real rotational st..1..ffness of the

structure, it is preferable connexion between two timber
in the frame model to state members is smaller than the
mean values of stiffnesses. stiffness of the members
This is not always themselves.
understood, since for some
purposes during the design Sometimes for the purposes of
process, engineers use lower analysis it is necessary to
bound (eg fifth percentile) treat a continuous timber
characteristic values of such member in the real str~cture
properties. as two or more beam elements
terminating at common nodes.
In providing the computer Where this is the case, the
program with the geometrical connexions at such nodes are
data of the framework to be treated as completely
analyzed, chords should stiff.
always be modelled such that
beam elements lie along the Completely stiff connexions
centre line of the actual are also involved if the
members. rotational stiffness of the
connexion between two timber
For internal members, such members is greater than the
coincidence is not always stif fnes~ of the members
possible with a single model, themselves.
however the beam elements
should at least extend from Constraints in the connexions
nodes which lie within the of the real structure, such
actual cross section of the as contact areas between
timber used. adjacent timber members, are
modelled using fictitious
beam elements. These
Connexions: elements should be located
such that they coincide as
Connexions can be modelled in near as possible with the
several ways, and the choice real force transfer path.
depends upon the
interpretation by the user of As the fictitious members are
the static behaviour of the quite short, the results of
real connexion. The the analysis are not
following main possibilities sensitive to their
exist: stiffnesses, and arbitrary
values may be assigned to
1. Pinned connexions them. Fictitious elements
may require coupling by
2. Completely stiff pinned or fixed connexions.
connexions
3. Spring elements
Prescribed slips can be
included in the data relating
to any of these three types.
The guidelines suggest that
pinned connexions should ba
used in the model if the
 - 84 -

static analysis: Effective column lengths are

one such aspect. dasing
Different static analysis effective column lengths on
approximations are suggested the distance between points
for the serviceability limit of contraf lexure is a common
state and the ultimate limit recommendation, and this is •
state. included in the guidelines
for certain conditions.
As regarf.s the loadings
required as input to the Reduced column lengths
analysis, the guidelines related to the bay lengths or
indicate that 'relevant to the largest adjacent bay
codes' should be referenced. length are also included, for
Unified structural loading the design of fully
codes for Europe however are triangulated trusses. These
some years away from being rules apply where members are
available. taken as continuous over
several bays, which is the
There are some suggestions most common situation.
giving guidance on when to
approximate a series of
concentrated loads by a Plate atrenqth verification:
uniformly distributed load.
Large concentrated forces Clauses have also been
must of course be applied drafted describing the
where they act in reality. strength verification
procedure for the nail plate
Supports are generally connexions in the truss.
treated as simple pinned or The data to be found on
rollered arrangements, in punched metal pla~es in
keeping with normal sources such as Agrement
structural analysis, unless Certificates may still be
there are special conditions used.
such as a non-stiff support
structure that would Design modification factors
influence the internal forces for plated joints relating to
in the truss under analysis. aspects such as load duration
and moisture effects are
still not well validated by
research. Capacities of the
Strenqth verification: steel sections of the plates
themselves however are well
The intention of the known.
guidelines is that the
strength verification of the
timber members in the trussed
rafter should broadly follow
the principles of the main
ECS document.
However it is recognized that
there are several aspects of
the strength checks required
for a trussed rafter that are
special or that need
assumptions to be stipul~ted.
 - 8) -

The developaent and future of punched paper tape, of a

structural coaputinq in program that would nowadays
qeneral: be regarded as a 'package' .
This was based on the
To conclude, a brief section Livesley paper.
of this final Chapter
considers the development and It was well documented, with
future of structural a simple but clear and
computing in general, and thorough explanation of the
offers some thoughts as to program, a worked example,
where this is likely to lead and a standard data entry
with respect to timber roof sheet. The program was
design. intended for the elastic
analysis of rigid jointed
Hardware developaents: plane frameworks, the user
specifying details of the
The first generally geometry and the forces at
programmable electronic the nodes. The sample
comput~r was known as problem had twenty joints,
'EDSAC'. This machine, which thirty four members and one
first ran at Cambridge load case.
University in 1949, was
distinguished from earlier It took 6 minuteg 40 seconds
types by the fact that its to run on an Elliot 803
programs were held in an computer. Nowadays such a
internal memory of the same problem would run on a
type as the memory designed desktop microcomputer so
to store data. This rapidly that the results
interchangeability of program would appear to flash up on
and data in memory was a the screen the instant the
major innovation which proved user hit the 'Enter' key.
to be the key to further
developments. The 1960's were the decade in
which mainframe computers
The fifties saw computers became fully established and
develop, relatively slowly by much more widespread in use,
modern standards. 'LEO• both for commercial and for
(Lyons Electric Off ice) was scientific applications. It
the first computer used for was also the time when IBM
commercial purposes. dominated the industry. There
were mainframe machines of
In 1953, the journal importance other than the IBM
'Engineering' carried a 360 and 370 series however.
mi le stone paper by Dr. R I<
Livesley entitled 'Analysis Notable amongst these were
of Rigid Frames by Electronic the Control Data
Digital Computer•. Corporation's CDC 6600
Previously it had been series, upon which much
necessary for structural software of structural and
frameworks to be analyzed by civil engineering importance
laborious hand calculations, was available.
using tabular methods to
organize the matrices. In Europe, contributions to
progress were mainly through
The Elliot company published improvements in high level
details, and issued copies on programming languages. These
 8b -

aspects had a permanent affordable, through the use

influence, not only by of modem links, and public
encouraging better structured services telephone networks.
languages such as Pascal, but
also upon later machine By the mid 1970 's, such
architecture such as the operations had been switched t

modern 'RISC'systems. to in-house mini-computers,

usinq early models of the
Most of the early timber hiqhly succ~ssful Digital
engineering design aids Equ~pment Corporation (DEC)
produced and published by range. This made it possible
TRADA from 1965, until about to harness the computer for
1972, were developed and run operations such as the
on a postal bureau basis, logging and analysis of
using the London University research results, as well as
Atlas computer. the development
-& , _______ ,
and running
- - & ...... _ _ _
I ..... _._.""-
U.L }'G.L li:IUllG.L lli:JV.L '-WQ.L c; I ...,...,"-&&

Each of these machines, of being types of operation

which only four were built, which would previously have
occupied a large air- been too expensive for other
cond itioned room, and than high technology
required many large magnetic laboratories.
tape decks and other bulky
peripherals. Many of DEC's scientific and
engineering users have
The actual program code was migrated to microcomputers,
prepared on punched paper in recent years, now that
tape, using a fairly these have attained far
primitive keyboard machine greater power than the
known as a 'Flexowriter'. 'hobby' machines through
Great care had to be taken in which the technology and
coding a program, since a operating software was first
minor error such as the introduced, around 1980.
omission of a single comma in
a statement would cause Ever since computers first
several day's delay in became available for general
developing a compilable use, their technology has
program. continued to develop at a
rate much faster than other
It seems almost incredible to modern inventions such as
recall that at the beginning cars, aircraft, and even
of the 1960's, the 'large' other electronic devices,
mainframe (about as including televisions.
powerful, in memory terms, as
an average PC nowadays) Thus it is by no means
depended upon valves, rather extravagant to expect that in
than microchips. Memory, ten years time, a commonly
often called 'core' at the available machine the size of
t~me, did actually consist of a present-day 'IBM PC' , or
a matrix of wires and rings probably an even more compact
of semiconductor material, or device, will operate at ten
'cores'. times or more the speed, and
will have thousands of times
Towards the end of the more mass storage capacity.
mainframe era, remote
processing began to become
 87 -

The prediction concerning Puture applications~

microprocessors is that for
so long as such devices are Whenever prognostications of
based merely upon great increases in computer
improvements on present power are made, the natural
technology, the day is reaction is to question why
rapidly approaching when such facilities could
performance will reach a possibly be useful for such
plateau. This is because mundane applications as those
speeds will start to become in the building industry.
limited by the physics of However experie-ce teaches
circuit design, for example that computer users swiftly
heating effects, preventing become accustomed to whatever
further miniaturization. power, computing speed and
storage is provided, and soon
It seems inevitable that the begin to demand more.
tiw~ will ~vwe wh~tt
limitations will have to be Take the mundane example of
overcome by means of major sizing, drawing, scheduling
revisions in machine and costing all the trusses
architecture. At present, and components in a roof, for
the conventional wisdom is example. As has been shown,
that once i586 processors in a modern, reasonably
operating at about 50 million complex building, there can
instructions per second are easily be up to about twenty
commonplace, then techniques different major components.
such as symme~rical multi-
processing will be usual in At present, fabricators are
d~sktop-sized machines. normally unwilling to price a
job of this nature whilst the
At present, such methods only client waits on the
operate on 'supercomputers' telephone. However, with
such as the Cray X-MP greater speed, power, and
machine, which is used to communications, such as
make predictions for the next multiplexed computer-
ten days• worth of weather in facsimile networks, 'real
the entire northern time' response is likely. The
hemisphere each time it is reliable remote exchange of
run. technical drawings in the
form of paper sizes and
In the longer term, prospects quality of detail that are
for ultra high speed required for engineering work
computin1 are thought to lie is another barrier that will
in circuitry based on light, soon be overcome to assist
rather than electrons, since such rapid response.
laser beams can transmit
signals at the same Computer-aided drafting and
theoretical speed as design are no longer new. On
electrical charges, but at the other hand, they are
far greater efficiency and still not commonplace in the
without overheating. To this 'lower tech' industries such
end, resi?arch is already in as building. This is almost
hand on new materials upon certain to change in the
which miniaturized light second half of the 1990's.
circuits c~n be based.
 - 88 -

It has been said that most and geometrical properties,

CAD users could make good use all held in an operable
of the predicted 1995 type of spread sheet file. The spread
microcomputer this very day. sheet data can if necessary
Additional processors on the be viewed on part of the
mother board and on the screen at the same time as •
communications and I/O the drawings. Drawing
devices are likely, to management facilities are
provide the types of machine also found, which keep up to
required to put Autocad date extensive information on
networks in every drawing sets of drawings. Drawings
off ice. can thus be searched by
project, drafter, revision
The British Standard used in date, budgeted time and so
all drawing offices, BS 1189, on.
is about to have a new Part 5
added which will deal If everybody designs and
exclusively with CAD. 'draws• with the computer,
Predictably, in about five then we shall no longer wish
years' time, drawing boards, to rely upon the post or the
compasses and templates will low resolution 'fax• machine
seem as quaint as slide rules to exchange drawings.
do now.
DXF (drawing exchange
Recent improvements in facility) is the name of a
microcomputer operating well-advanced technology that
systems are permitting better is expected to become
facilities to be put at the established to pass and
CAD designer's disposal at receive 'drawn• technical
modest cost. information.
Program exchange techniques At present, although Computer
are becoming available on Aided Manufacture {CAM), so
simple operating systems often linked with the acronym
working on smaller but CAD, is likely to find its
powerful machines. These link way gradually into the higher
the actual CAD design technology areas of the
software and its database building industry, such as
with ancillary programs and factory prefabrication, it is
data. inconceivable that for some
years yet, the drawing will
Thus whilst working on a set be eliminated from the site.
of drawings on screen, the
designer can make changes With the trend towards
which will not only affect companies and groups
the object he is viewing, but enlarging and integrating,
will also generate updated and everybody storing more
tabular and file-listed and more information,
information in real time, as communications bottlenecks
he affects the changes. can be expected.
For example, alterations in Very advanced and expensive
the geometrical ratios of an communications facilities
engineering component will such as fibre optics cables,
bring about corresponding have had to be installed in
changes in its areas, mass large commercial buildings
 - 89 -

such as Lloyds Exchange, Again, the laws of physics

simply in order to give an come into play. Glass
acceptable response to the screens involve problems with
required data transmissions weight, heat dissipation and
made possible by hundreds of sheer cost of manufacture.
• present day desktop machine
operating on the same
When twenty
television
inch
screens
flat
become
premises. affordable for every home,
then corresponding
Optical disc controllers improvements in the computer
(operating like music compact screen are likely.
discs) are now offered for
sale interfaced with Other screen techniques, such
microcomputers costing less as liquid crystal displays
than E 2000. This provides a (LCD), used for 'laptop'
very compressed method of computers, can only be
storing large databases. described as disappointing at
present. Improved colour LCD
Initially such systems have displays built into the
been used mainly in the field surf ace of the desk itself
of information technology, in are forecast, for those who
order to access relish and will be able to
encyclopedias, atlases and afford such devices.
similar.
Users of specialist software
As an example of a technical are demanding the change from
application, however, a older-style screen
database giving basic wind presentations, as they become
~peeds and basic snow loads accustomed to more lively
at geographical locations software presentation through
specified by means of their familiarity with the
Ordnance Survey grid points more universal management
is shortly to become programs, such as the Lotus
available to structural 1-2-3 spreadsheet, and
engineers in the UK. Such advanced word processors,
applications certainly demand such as WordPerfect.
inn~vative methods of
storage, access anL However, it is becoming
retrieval. evident that serious
limitations are 11o·w being
When the computing power placed upon effective use of
available at the individual the computer by constraints
workstation is considered, involving human performance.
there are aspects beyond mere
machine power and speed. Aspects such as screen size,
layout and illumination, and
A major constraint has now human data and pro;ram entry
become the screen itself. and modification techniques,
.. For a combination of as well as operating system
technical and economic and communications network
reasons, screen technology is design, need to play a major
unable to progress at the role in achieving further
tenfold or thousandfold rate improvements.
of microchip technology.
These steps are likely to be
seen in all specialist
 - 90 -

a p p 1 i c a t i o n s o f
microcomputers, including
their use for timber
engineering design and
construction software. Hence
those contemplating offering
new systems and software need •
to be ever mindful of such
trends.

..