Cleofas, Keith Cyril

ARCH 401
ARBT05 – Prelim Research no. 1

1. Footing Systems
1. Mat Footing
Mat footings are used when the building load is so high, that spread, or strip footings
could not bear the weight, or their employment would be inefficient. Furthermore, mat
footings are helping to reduce the varying settlements caused by construction on non-
homogenous soils or uneven load distribution on the footing.
Thickness
Depending on the total load applied to the mat and underlying foundation system, the
thickness of mat foundations can vary from 1 ft (0.3 m) to more than 20 ft (7 m). The
reinforcing system in the mat can be quite substantial, with heavy reinforcing bar mats in the
bottom, top, or both locations within the mat depth.
Function
1. Transfer superstructure loads and spread it over the entire area of the building
footprint.
2. Reduce differential settlement of structures constructed over weak soil.
Usage
1. It is employed for the construction of commercial buildings. In this case, the loads are
commonly large. Mat foundations are popular in areas where basements are common.
2. Mat foundation is also used for low bearing capacity soil in order to spread the load of
a building and hence construct a stable foundation.
3. It is used to reduce differential settlement of buildings.
4. Raft or mat foundation is used when the soil layer is unstable. In this case, strip
foundation would cover more than 70% of the ground area beneath the building.
There are also situations usually in mining areas that soil layer may suffer
movements.
 Fig. 1 : Mat Foundation

Requirement
As per IS 1080, a minimum depth of 50 cm shall be used for mat foundation. This is
required to ensure that the soil has a safe bearing capacity which is assumed in the design.
The depth of mat foundation must satisfy shear requirements.
Allowable Bearing Capacity
For mats on clay, the factor of safety should not be less than 3 under dead load
or maximum live load. However, under the most extreme conditions, the factor of safety
should be at least 1.75 to 2. For mats constructed over sand, a factor of safety of 3 should
normally be used.
Construction
1. Remove dirt and excavate soil to a uniform and flat level.
2. The foundation bed is then compacted by ramming.
3. Then, a waterproof plastic sheet is laid over the earth.
4. After that, pour around 7cm layer of plain cement concrete to create a perfectly flat
and level base for the foundation.
5. Lay reinforcement on spacers over the foundation bed. Reinforcements are provided
in both directions in the form of steel mesh. Two meshes are reinforced at the top and
bottom of the foundation to balance upward and downward bending forces.
6. After all the steel has been put in place, concrete is poured to the desired thickness,
which is usually in the range of 200mm to 300mm thick for small buildings: this can
be much thicker if heavy loads are to be carried. A minimum rebar cover of 50mm
should be maintained.
7. Finally, a suitable curing regime should be used to make sure that concrete achieves
the designated compression strength.
 Fig. 2: Excavation for Raft or Mat Foundation Construction

Fig. 3: Installed Reinforcements for Raft or Mat Foundation

Fig. 4: Concrete Pouring for Raft Foundation

2. Pile Footing
Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is a slender column or long cylinder made
of materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support the structure and transfer the
load at desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction.
 Pile foundations are usually used for large structures and in situations where the soil
at shallow depth is not suitable to resist excessive settlement, resist uplift, etc.
When to Use Pile Foundation
Following are the situations when using a pile foundation system can be
 When the groundwater table is high.
 Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed.
 Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible.
 When the soil at shallow depth is compressible.
 When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the riverbed or
seashore, etc.
 When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure.
 When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to poor soil
condition.
 When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by
any other measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.
Types of Pile Foundation
Classification of Pile Foundation Based on Function or Use
Sheet Piles
This type of pile is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral pressure
from loose soil, the flow of water, etc. They are usually used for cofferdams, trench sheeting,
shore protection, etc. They are not used for providing vertical support to the structure. They
are usually used to serve the following purpose-
 Construction of retaining walls.
 Protection from riverbank erosion.
 Retain the loose soil around foundation trenches.
 For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
 For confinement of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of the soil.
Load Bearing Piles
This type of pile foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from the structure to
the soil. These foundations transmit loads through the soil with poor supporting property onto
a layer which can bear the load. Depending on the mechanism of load transfer from pile to
the soil, load-bearing piles can be further classified as flowed.
End Bearing Piles
In this type of pile, the loads pass through the lower tip of the pile. The bottom end of the pile
rests on a strong layer of soil or rock. Usually, the pile rests at a transition layer of a weak and
strong slayer. As a result, the pile acts as a column and safely transfers the load to the strong
layer.
The total capacity of end bearing pile can be calculated by multiplying the area of the tip of
the pile and the bearing capacity of at that depth of soil at which the pile rests. Considering a
reasonable factor of safety, the diameter of the pile is calculated.
Friction Pile
Friction pile transfers the load from the structure to the soil by the frictional force between
the surface of the pile and the soil surrounding the pile such as stiff clay, sandy soil, etc.
Friction can be developed for the entire length of the pile or a definite length of the pile,
depending on the strata of the soil. In friction pile, generally, the entire surface of the pile
works to transfer the loads from the structure to the soil.
The surface area of the pile multiplied by the safe friction force developed per unit area
determines the capacity of the pile.
While designing skin friction pile, the skin friction to be developed at a pile surface should be
sincerely evaluated and a reasonable factor of safety should be considered. Besides this one
can increase the pile diameter, depth, number of piles and make pile surface rough to increase
the capacity of friction pile.
Soil Compactor Piles
Sometimes piles are driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil
by compacting.
Classification of Piles Based on Materials and Construction Method
Primarily piles can be classified into two parts. Displacement piles and Non-displacement or
Replacement piles. Piles which cause the soil to be displaced vertically and radially as they
are driven to the ground is known as Displacement piles. In case of Replacement piles, the
ground is bored, and the soil is removed and then the resulting hole is either filled
with concrete or a pre-cast concrete pile is inserted. Based on materials of pile construction
and their installation process load-bearing piles can be classified as follows:

Timber Piles
Timber piles are placed under the water level. They last for approximately about 30 years.
They can be rectangular or circular in shape. Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16
inches. The length of the pile is usually 20 times of the top width.
They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. Additional strength can be obtained by bolting
fish plates to the side of the piles.
Advantages of Timber Piles
 Timber piles of regular size are available.
 Economical.
 Easy to install.
  Low possibility of damage.
 Timber piles can be cut off at any desired length after they are installed. 
 If necessary, timber piles can be easily pulled out.
Disadvantages of Timber Piles
 Piles of longer lengths are not always available.
 It is difficult to obtain straight piles if the length is short.
 It is difficult to drive the pile if the soil strata are very hard.
 Spicing of timber pile is difficult.
 Timber or wooden piles are not suitable to be used as end-bearing piles.
 For durability of timber piles, special measures have to be taken. For example-
wooden piles are often treated with preservative.
Concrete Piles
Pre-cast Concrete Pile
The precast concrete pile is cast in pile bed in the horizontal form if they are rectangular in
shape. Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms. Precast piles are usually reinforced
with steel to prevent breakage during its mobilization from casting bed to the location of the
foundation. After the piles are cast, curing must be performed as per specification. Generally
curing period for pre-cast piles is 21 to 28 days.
Advantages of Pre-cast Piles
 Provides high resistance to chemical and biological cracks.
 They are usually of high strength.
 To facilitate driving, a pipe may be installed along the center of the pile.
 If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the installation phase is due, it can
increase the pace of work.
 The confinement of the reinforcement can be ensured.
 Quality of the pile can be controlled. 
 f any fault is identified, it can be replaced before driving.
 Pre-cast piles can be driven under the water.
 The piles can be loaded immediately after it is driven up to the required length.
Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles
 Once the length of the pile is decided, it is difficult to increase or decrease the length
of the pile afterward.
 They are difficult to mobilize.
 Needs heavy and expensive equipment to drive.
  As they are not available for readymade purchase, it can cause a delay in the project.
 There is a possibility of breakage or damage during handling and driving od piles.
Cast-in-Palace Concrete Piles
This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil up to the desired depth and then, depositing
freshly mixed concrete in that place and letting it cure there. This type of pile is constructed
either by driving a metallic shell to the ground and filling it with concrete and leave the shell
with the concrete or the shell is pulled out while concrete is poured.
Advantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles
 The shells are light weighted, so they are easy to handle. 
 Length of piles can be varied easily.
 The shells may be assembled at sight. 
 No excess enforcement is required only to prevent damage from handling.
 No possibility of breaking during installation.
 Additional piles can be provided easily if required.
Disadvantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles
 Installation requires careful supervision and quality control.
 Needs sufficient place on site for storage of the materials used for construction.
 It is difficult to construct cast in situ piles where the underground water flow is heavy.
 Bottom of the pile may not be symmetrical.
 If the pile is un-reinforced and uncased, the pile can fail in tension if there acts and
uplifting force.
Steel Piles
Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may
vary from 10 inches to 24 inches in diameter and thickness is usually ¾ inches. Because of
the small sectional area, the piles are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end-bearing
piles.
Advantages of Steel Piles
 They are easy to install. 
 They can reach a greater depth comparing to any other type of pile. 
 Can penetrate through the hard layer of soil due to the less cross-sectional area. 
 It is easy to splice steel piles
 Can carry heavy loads.
Disadvantage of Steel Piles
 Prone to corrosion.
  Has a possibility of deviating while driving.
 Comparatively expensive.
3. Drilled Shafts / Caisson
Drilled shafts, also known as drilled piers, caissons, bored piles, or cast-in-drilled-
hole piles (CIDH), are high-capacity deep foundation systems.
Common uses
 Structural support
 Slope stabilization
 Earth retention for retaining walls and sound barriers
Process
Drilled shafts for structural support can be installed by the dry (open hole), stabilizing
polymer slurry, or steel-cased methods. The permanent casing is typically only specified in
corrosive environments, voided (open cavity) conditions, or for shafts drilled through the
water. For open hole shaft installation, the temporary casing may also be required if adverse
subsurface conditions are present (i.e., groundwater, caving soils, granular soils, sidewall
loss, etc.).
A hole of the required diameter is augured to the required bearing stratum or design
depth, cleaned out and inspected. Inspection may be manual for shallow holes or with a Mini-
SID (shaft inspection device) or down-hole camera. Large boulders encountered during
auguring may prevent shaft continuity or required bearing capacity and must be removed,
typically by drilling out. A core barrel or rooting tool may also be used. If reinforcement is
required and the client elects to remove this from their scope, Keller will purchase and
fabricate the cage(s) on-site. Following insertion of the steel cage, concrete is placed either by
freefall or tremie methods. The casing, if temporary, is then withdrawn. The completed shaft
can resist compressive and lateral loads and uplift forces.
Access conditions required for drilled shaft construction are as variable as the
diameters and depths to which they can be drilled. Drilled shafts can be constructed in low
headroom and limited access and provide effective support for most structures, including
buildings, tanks, towers, and bridges. Keller owns and maintains a diverse and up-to-date
drilled shaft equipment fleet outfitted with the highest quality, state-of-the-art tooling.
Experience combined with specialty proprietary drilling equipment and tooling gives Keller
the ability to meet specific site constraints such as limited access and low overhead
construction. For a variety of subsurface and access conditions, drilled shafts may be the
answer for your project.
Advantages
 Variety of equipment and tooling for virtually any condition
 Experienced at both dry and wet shaft construction
 Limited access capability
 Ability to construct drilled shafts in diameters ranging from 12 to 240 inches
 Manufacturing facility to design and build, repair, maintain, and modify equipment
and tools needed to complete the work
 Capability of completing alternate foundation systems if required by changed
conditions
  Wide variety of applications
Quality assurance
Non-destructive test methods help determine the quality of the concrete throughout
the length of the shafts. Crosshole sonic logging (CSL) and/or Gamma-Gamma logging
(GGL) can be conducted by placing test pipes in the shaft reinforcement and subsequently
testing the integrity of the pile concrete. Load testing can be conducted on drilled shaft
foundations to verify the load-carrying capacity of the foundation elements and/or the quality
of the subsurface materials. This testing can be completed on production or sacrificial drilled
shafts. Load testing is often completed by one of the following methods: Osterberg Cell (O-
Cell), direct static testing, and statnamic testing, for both compressive and lateral testing.
Testing is often utilized to refine designs and can result in significant savings to projects by
removing some of the uncertainties inherent in the typical foundation design process.
4. Isolated Footing
Isolated footings (also known as Pad or Spread footings) are commonly used for
shallow foundations to carry and spread concentrated loads, caused for example by columns
or pillars. Isolated footings can consist either of reinforced or non-reinforced material. For the
non-reinforced footing however, the height of the footing has to be bigger in order to provide
the necessary spreading of load.

Isolated footings should only be used when it is certain, that no varying settlements
will occur under the entire building. Spread footings are unsuitable for the bearing of
widespread loads. In this case, either strip (continuous) footings or mat footings are used.
The basic program for design and analysis of isolated footings is GEO5 Spread
Footing. It can design the entire footing and to compute settlement, rotation and bearing
capacity of the footing. Also, it determines the required longitudinal and shear reinforcement
(punching).
5. Combined Footing
Combined footings are constructed for two or more columns when they are close to
each other, and their foundations overlap. Design of combined footings with example is
discussed. The function of a footing or a foundation is to transmit the load form the structure
to the underlying soil. The choice of suitable type of footing depends on the depth at which
the bearing strata lies, the soil condition and the type of superstructure.
Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread
footing, it is called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are generally the
economical. Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as
1. When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
2. Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
3. Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building
column.

 The combined footing may be rectangular, trapezoidal or Tee-shaped in plan.

 The geometric proportions and shape are so fixed that the centroid of the footing area
coincides with the resultant of the column loads. This results in uniform pressure
below the entire area of footing.
 Trapezoidal footing is provided when one column load is much more than the other.
As a result, both projections of footing beyond the faces of the columns will be
restricted.
 Rectangular footing is provided when one of the projections of the footing is
restricted or the width of the footing is restricted.
Rectangular combined footing
 Longitudinally, the footing acts as an upward loaded beam spanning between columns
and cantilevering beyond. Using statics, the shear force and bending moment
diagrams in the longitudinal direction are drawn. Moment is checked at the faces of
the column. Shear force is critical at distance 'd' from the faces of columns or at the
point of contra flexure. Two-way shear is checked under the heavier column.
 The footing is also subjected to transverse bending and this bending is spread over a
transverse strip near the column.

Steps for Design of Combined Footing

 Locate the point of application of the column loads on the footing.
 Proportion the footing such that the resultant of loads passes through the center of
footing.
 Compute the area of footing such that the allowable soil pressure is not exceeded.
 Calculate the shear forces and bending moments at the salient points and hence draw
SFD and BMD.
 Fix the depth of footing from the maximum bending moment.
  Calculate the transverse bending moment and design the transverse section for depth
and reinforcement. Check for anchorage and shear.
 Check the footing for longitudinal shear and hence design the longitudinal steel
 Design the reinforcement for the longitudinal moment and place them in the
appropriate positions.
 Check the development length for longitudinal steel
 Curtail the longitudinal bars for economy
 Draw and detail the reinforcement
 Prepare the bar bending schedule
2. Slope Protection Systems
A. Retaining Walls
Retaining wall is a structure that are designed and constructed to withstand lateral
pressure of soil or hold back soil materials. The lateral pressure could be also due to earth
filling, liquid pressure, sand, and other granular materials behind the retaining wall
structure. There are various types of retaining wall structures which are used for
numerous goals.
1. Counter-fort / Buttressed Retaining Wall

 It is a cantilever retaining wall but strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the
back of the wall slab and base slab.
 Counter fort spacing is equal or slightly larger than half of the counter-fort height.
 Counter-fort wall height ranges from 8-12m.

2. Freestanding

3. Hybrid
Retaining walls that use both mass and reinforcement for stability are termed
as Hybrid or Composite retaining wall systems.
 4. Gravity

 Gravity retaining wall depends on its self-weight only to resist lateral earth pressure.
 Commonly, gravity retaining wall is massive because it requires significant gravity load
to counter act soil pressure.
 Sliding, overturning, and bearing forces shall be taken into consideration while this type
of retaining wall structure is designed.
 It can be constructed from different materials such as concrete, stone, and masonry units.
 It is economical for a height up to 3m.
 Crib retaining wall, gabions, and bin retaining wall are also type of gravity retaining walls
 5. Cantilevered

 Cantilever retaining wall composed of stem and base slab

 It is constructed from reinforced concrete, precast concrete, or prestress concrete.
 Cantilever retaining wall is the most common type used as retaining walls.
 Cantilever retaining wall is either constructed on site or prefabricated offsite i.e. precast.
 The portion of the base slab beneath backfill material is termed as heel, and the other part
is called toe.
 Cantilever retaining wall is economical up to height of 10m.
 It requires smaller quantity of concrete compare with gravity wall but its design and
construction shall be executed carefully.
 Similar to gravity wall, sliding, overturning, and bearing pressure shall be taken into
consideration during its design.
 6. Sheet Pile / Piling

 Pile retaining wall are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to each
other as shown in the Fig.
 Piles are forced into a depth that is sufficient to counter the force which tries to push over
the wall.
 It is employed in both temporary and permanent works.
 Piled walls offer high stiffness retaining elements which are able to hold lateral pressure
in large excavation depths with almost no disturbance to surrounding structures or
properties.
 Sheet pile walls are built using steel sheets into a slope or excavations up to a required
depth, but it cannot withstand very high pressure
 Sheet pile retaining wall economical till height of 6m
 7. Gabion Wall

 Gabion retaining wall walls are multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh boxes, which are
filled with rocks or other suitable materials.
 It is employed for construction of erosion control structures.
 It is also used to stabilize steep slopes.

8. Riprap
Riprap is a layer of stones on an embankment slope used to prevent erosion and to protect
the structure from the effects of stream flow. Riprap is used in various situations on ditch
banks, channel bottoms, berm slopes, or any area where erosion is to be prevented. The most
common types of riprap used are gabion baskets, machine placed riprap, wire enclosed riprap,
or hand placed riprap. The type of erosion protection used can come from the Engineer's
recommendations in the field, Hydraulic Section recommendations, Geology Program
recommendations, or at the discretion of the Squad Team Leader.
A riprap detail sheet does not need to be included if the geometry and elevations of the
riprap can be shown on the General Plan & Elevation sheet. However, the fabric under the
entire length of riprap must then be shown on the elevation or noted on the GP&E or as a
General Note.
Generally, the top of the riprap is located 1'-0" above design highwater.
Machine Placed Riprap
consists of stones that are machine placed on an earth embankment or gravel bedding.
Larger stones are placed in the toe course and on the outside surface of the slope protection.
Bulldozers or other suitable equipment may be used to dump or spread the layers of stone.
Wire Enclosed Riprap
as the name implies, consists of wire enclosed segments that are fabricated on site, laced
together, and filled with stones to provide an area of dense protection against erosion. The
size of the enclosure segments is formed to the dimensions shown on the plans.
Hand Placed Riprap
consists of hand placed stones on an earth embankment or gravel bedding. Larger stones
are placed first with close joints. Smaller stones are then placed to fill the voids as best as
possible.
The Contractor may use wire enclosed riprap instead of gabions, in compliance with the
Standard Specifications. The Standard Plan (Wire Enclosed Riprap and Gabions) should be
included in the References on the General Notes sheet of the plans.
Wrap-Around Riprap
is used primarily in large fill areas or in areas where soil erosion is likely to occur at the
abutments. This technique is used at the discretion of the Squad Team Leader. The pivot
points for wrap-around riprap are usually at the end of the wingwall at rear face for elephant
ear wingwalls or the end of the abutment cap at rear face for sweptback wingwalls.

B. Cellular Confinement Systems

Cellular Confinement Systems (CCS) are widely recognized in the construction industry
as a permanent soil stabilization BMP used for a variety of applications including erosion
control and soil stabilization on steep slopes, revetments and flexible channel lining systems,
roadway load support and stabilization, and earth retention structures. The goal of this report
is to identify potential uses for temporary construction erosion and sediment control
applications.
Typically, CCS panels or mats, also commonly referred to as “geocells,” consist of High-
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) strips ultrasonically bonded together to form a three-
dimensional honeycomb matrix that can be filled with soil, sand, aggregate, or concrete. The
relatively lightweight panels are shipped in a compact, collapsed form that are expanded at
the job site. The panels typically come in a variety of cell sizes, and in perforated and non-
perforated formats. Originally, geocell mats were developed by the United States Army
Corps of Engineers (USACE) for building roads on soft and sandy soils. The USACE
developed the first material testing guidelines for CCS in their Technical Report GL86-19.
Currently CCS is available through a number of proprietary distributors and is manufactured
by a few companies, some of which manufacture the panels under patent license from
USACE.
3. Tube Structures
the tube is a system where, to resist lateral loads (wind, seismic, impact), a building is
designed to act like a hollow cylinder, cantilevered perpendicular to the ground.
 1. Framed
This is the simplest incarnation of the tube. It can appear in a variety of floor plan
shapes, including square, rectangular, circular, and freeform. This design was first used in
Chicago's DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building, designed by Khan and finished in 1965, but
the most notable examples are the Aon Center and the original World Trade Center towers.
2. Trussed
The trussed tube, also termed braced tube, is like the simple tube but with
comparatively fewer and farther-spaced exterior columns. Steel bracings or concrete shear
walls are introduced along the exterior walls to compensate for the fewer columns by tying
them together. The most notable examples incorporating steel bracing are the John Hancock
Center, the Citigroup Center, and the Bank of China Tower.
3. Bundled
Instead of one tube, a building consists of several tubes tied together to resist lateral
forces. Such buildings have interior columns along the perimeters of the tubes when they fall
within the building envelope. Notable examples include Willis Tower, One Magnificent Mile,
and the Newport Tower.
Besides being efficient structurally and economically, the bundled tube was
"innovative in its potential for versatile formulation of architectural space. Efficient towers no
longer had to be box-like; the tube-units could take on various shapes and could be bundled
together in different sorts of groupings." The bundled tube structure meant that "[buildings]
could become sculpture."
4. Hybrid
Hybrids include a varied category of structures where the basic concept of tube is
used and supplemented by other structural support(s). This method is used where a building
is so thin that one system cannot provide adequate strength or stiffness.
5. Tube-in-Tube
This system is also known as 'hull and core' and consists of a core tube inside the
structure which holds services such as utilities and lifts, as well as the usual tube system
on the exterior which takes most of the gravity and lateral loads.
4. Building Core Elements and Design
The typical floor plate of the standard commercial office structure contains the following:
• Vertical Circulation Core
• Open Lease Space
• Optional public corridor.
The Building Core of the Commercial building contains
 Passenger Elevators & Lobby
 Service Elevator
 Service Elevator Vestibule
  Mechanical Room
 Vertical Chase
The Core also consists of
• Fire Stairs
• Restrooms
• Drinking Fountain Vestibule
Core Location
The Building Core can take any of basic locations relative to the floor plate.
• Central Core
• In the central core the lease depth is relatively equal around the core of the building.
• The Tenant can lease the entire floor plate
• Or the tenant can lease a portion of the floor plate.
• Off- set Core
• The off Set-Core places the core off center creating differing lease depths.
• This provides greater leasing options.
• This eliminates the need for any peripheral access corridor and lease space can extend
right up to the walls of the core elements.
• Exterior Core
• In the Exterior Core configuration, the core is pulled either to one side or edge.
• If the core is pushed to one side creating a ‘dead wall’ this can be used to advantage
where poor views or party walls present a problem.
• The Core can also be isolated as a separate mass element independent from the lease
floor plate.
• Split Core
• The Split core divides the core with a central space, all components of the core are
accessed from this central space.
• The Split Core can be divided in any number of ways. It should be noted that this
increases the depth of the core and therefore the size of the floor plate.
• The lease area can here too be divided but access must still be maintained to two
means of egress in case of fire.
Elevator Configurations in Tall Buildings
• Different banks of elevators serve different floors
• Unused Elevator lobbies are used to hold core elements such as restrooms or
mechanical
• Elevator banks drop out of the core as they are no longer needed.
• As elevator banks drop out the space becomes lease space or the floor plate is
reduced
 • The reduction in the core due to the drop out of elevator banks allows for the
increase of lease space or reduction of floor plate allowing the building to “taper”.
• It may become necessary to relocate the fire egress stairs to maintain efficiency of
the lease space or for design purposes
• Fire egress stairs can be transferred horizontally
• To minimize the square footage of the core on very tall buildings architects can
stack the elevator banks and use express elevators to sky lobbies. Banks of
elevators service only a set of designated floors while movement between them is
achieved by the express system.
Lease Space Planning
Lease space can be arranged in basically two general configurations:
• Perimeter Office
In the perimeter office, private managerial offices line the outside wall of the building.
Their views make them prime locations
The corners of the building are then the most sought after. These are often reserved for the
highest staff level. Architects often facet the buildings corners to create more corner offices.
• Executive Core
Increasingly we see the introduction of the executive core which moves the executive offices
to the center of the floor plate.
This allows greater light penetration and maximizes the number of people who get a view.
Residential Cores
The typical residential core is smaller because it will usually not require as many elevators
and there is no need for the public restrooms.
The Residential Core consists of
• Fire Stairs
• Elevator Lobby
• Service Elevator
• Vestibule
• Mechanical Room
• Trash Chute
Residential Layouts
• It is common to push all major spaces to the perimeter.
• Closed spaces such as bathrooms, closets mechanical closets, and kitchens are often
pushed toward the core.
Residentials Cores
• This is because code calls for all major rooms to be accessible to the perimeter for fire
rescue.
• It also allows for maximum light penetration