ARCHITECTURAL REPRESENTATION AND DETAILING

SEMESTER – 4

BARC 407

RIYA YOGESH PATIL

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ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-2021

VIVA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

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QUESTION NO.-01
WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON TRAVERSING.

TRAVERSING:
A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and directions are to be measured and
the process of surveying to find such measurements is known as traversing. In general, chains
are used to measure length and compass or theodolite are used to measure the direction of
traverse lines.

TYPES OF TRAVERSE
A Traverse may be of two types:
1. Open Traverse
2. Closed Traverse

A) OPEN TRAVERSE:
A traverse is said to be open traverse when the traverse starts at one point and terminates at
another point as shown in the figure. Open traverse is also called as unclosed traverse. It is
suitable for surveying of roads, coastal lines, etc.

OPEN TRAVERSE

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B) CLOSED TRAVERSE:
A traverse is said to be closed traverse when the traverse formed a closed circuit as shown in
the figure. In this case, both starting and terminating points of the traverse coincide with each
other. It is suitable for the survey of boundaries of ponds, sports grounds, forests, etc.

CLOSED TRAVERSE

METHODS OF TRAVERSING:
The traversing is performed by four different methods and these methods are classified
according to the survey instrument used.
The methods are as follows:
a. Chain Traversing
b. Compass Traversing
c. Theodolite Traversing
d. Plane Table Traversing

A) CHAIN TRAVERSING:
Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only. Hence, chain or tape is enough for
chain traversing. The angle between the adjacent traverse lines is measured using the chain
angles concept. Chain traversing is performed in areas such as ponds etc. where it is difficult to
adopt triangulation.

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The chain angles concept is nothing but finding the angle between two adjacent sides by
establishing the third side using tie stations. This angle between the sides can also be fixed by
establishing a chord of known length between the sides.

CHAIN TRAVERSING COMPASS TRAVERSING

B) COMPASS TRAVERSING:
In the case of compass traversing, both linear and angular measurements of traverse lines are
taken by using chain and prismatic compass respectively. Both fore bearing and back bearings
are measured and required corrections for local attraction are applied. If any closing error is
obtained while plotting of traverse, then Bowditch rule is applied for the adjustment of error.

C) THEODOLITE TRAVERSING:
In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear measurements are done by using chain or stadia
method and angular measurements are done by theodolite. Using theodolite, the magnetic
bearing of the first traverse line is measured and from that magnetic bearing of other sides are
calculated. This method is very accurate compared to other methods.

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THEODOLITE TRAVERSING PLANE TABLE TRAVERSING

D) PLANE TABLE TRAVERSING:

In the case of plane table traversing, the measuring and plotting of the traverse on the paper
are done simultaneously. The plane table equipment is set up at every traverse station one by
one in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The sides of each traverse station are drawn on
paper to a suitable scale. If there is any closing error, graphical methods are used for its
adjustment.

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QUESTION NO.-02
WRITE PRINCIPLE OF COMPASS SURVEYING AND WRITE TYPES AND
USES OF COMPASS.

COMPASS SURVEYING:
Compass surveying is the branch of surveying in which the position of an object is located using
angular measurements determined by a compass and linear measurements using a chain or
tape.

PRINCIPLE OF COMPASS SURVEYING:

o The principle of compass surveying is traversing, which involves a series of connected lines.
o The magnetic bearings of the lines are measured by surveyor compass and the distances of
the lines are measured by chain or tape. Such survey does not require the formation of a
network of triangles.
o Interior details are located by taking offsets from main survey lines. Sometime subsidiary
lines may be taken for locating these details.

COMPASS SURVEYING IS RECOMMENDED WHEN:

o A large area to be surveyed,
o The course of a river or coast line to be surveyed and
o The area is crowded with many details and triangulation is not possible.
Compass surveying is not recommended for areas where local attraction is suspected due to
the presence magnetic substances like steel structure, iron ore deposit, electric cable conveying

current, and so on.

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A TRAVERSE MAY BE CLASSIFIED AS:

1) Closed traverse: A closed traverse is a traverse in which the sides of a traverse form a
closed polygon.
2) Open traverse: An open traverse is a traverse in which the sides of traverse do not form a
closed polygon.

MAGNETIC COMPASS:
Magnetic compass is used to find out the magnetic bearing of survey lines. The bearings may
either measured in Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) system or in Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B) system
based on the type of compass used. The basic principle of magnetic compass is if a strip of steel
or iron is magnetized and pivoted exactly at centre so that it can swing freely, then it will
establish itself in the magnetic meridian at the place of arrangement.
MAJOR TYPES OF MAGNETIC COMPASS ARE:
A. Prismatic compass
B. Surveyor’s compass
C. Level compass

A) PRISMATIC COMPASS
Prismatic compass is a portable magnetic compass which can be either used as a hand
instrument or can be fitted on a tripod. It contains a prism which is used for accurate
measurement of readings. The greatest advantage of this compass is both sighting and reading
can be done simultaneously without changing the position.

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PRISMATIC COMPASS

MAJOR PARTS OF A PRISMATIC COMPASS ARE:

 Magnetic needle
 Graduated ring
 Adjustable mirror
 Sliding arrangement for mirror
 Object vane
 Eye vane
 Metal box
 Glass cover
 Horse hair
USE OF PRISMATIC COMPASS:
This type of compass, being a very light and simple instrument, is extensively used for
preliminary surveys of roads, rough traverses, etc., where time and accuracy is not the deciding
factor.

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B) SURVEYOR’S COMPASS:
Surveyor’s compass consists of a circular brass box containing a magnetic needle which
swings freely over a brass circle which is divided into 360 degrees. The horizontal angle is
measured using a pair of sights located on north – south axis of the compass. They are
usually mounted over a tripod and leveled using a ball and socket mechanism.

SURVEYORS COMPASS
MAJOR PARTS OF A PRISMATIC COMPASS ARE:
 Graduated disc or ring
 Magnetic needle
 Jewel bearing
 Pivot
 Lifting lever
 Circular box
 Top glass
 Eye vane and object vane
 Bubbling tube

USES OF SURVEYOR COMPASS:

 It is used to measure horizontal angles.
 To determine the bearing of the surveying line of sight

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ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF COMPASS SURVEYING

ADVANTAGES
o They are portable and light weight.
o They have fewer settings to fix it on a station
o The error in direction produced in a single survey line does not affect other lines.
o It is suitable to retrace old surveys.
DISADVANTAGES
o It is less precise compared to other advanced methods of surveying.
o It is easily subjected to various errors such as errors adjoining to magnetic meridian, local
attraction etc.
o Imperfect sighting of the ranging rods and inaccurate leveling also causes error.

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QUESTION NO.-03
DRAW A SKETCH OF PRISMATIC COMPASS AND EXPLAIN ITS
COMPONENT PARTS.

a. A prismatic compass is a navigation and surveying instrument which is extensively used to

find out the bearing of the traversing and included angles between them, way points and
direction.
b. Compass surveying is a type of surveying in which the directions of surveying lines are
determined with a magnetic compass, and the length of the surveying lines are measured
with a tape or chain or laser range finder.
c. The compass is generally used to run a traverse line. The compass calculates bearings of
lines with respect to magnetic needle.
d. The included angles can then be calculated using suitable formulas in case of clockwise and
anti-clockwise traverse respectively. For each survey line in the traverse, surveyors take two
bearings that is fore bearing and back bearing which should exactly differ by 180° if local
attraction is negligible.
e. The name Prismatic compass is given to it because it essentially consists of a prism which is
used for taking observations more accurately.

PRISMATIC COMPASS

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COMPONENTS OF PRISMATIC COMPASS:

I. CYLINDRICAL METAL BOX
 Diameter of 8cm to 12cm.
 Protect the compass.
 Forms entire casing or body of the compass.
II. PIVOT
 Centre of the compass.
 Supports the magnetic needle over it.
III. LIFTING PIN AND LIFTING LEVER
 Below the sight vane.
 Lifting pin pressed when sight vane is folded.
 The magnetic needle lifted out from the pivot point with the helps of lifting lever.

IV. SPRING BRAKE OR BRAKE PIN

 To damp the oscillation of the needle.
 To bring it to rest quickly.
V. MAGNETIC NEEDLE
 Heart of the instrument.
 Measures angle of a line.
 Always pointed to North and South pole.
VI. GRADUATED CIRLCLE OR RING
 Aluminium graduated circle marked with 0˚ and 360˚ to measure all possible bearings of
lines.
 The ring is graduated to half a degree.
VII. PRISM
 Read graduations on ring and to take exact reading by compass.
 Placed exactly opposite to object vane.
 The prism hole is protected by prism cap to protect it from dust and moisture.
VIII. OBJECT VANE

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 Diametrically opposite to the prism and eye vane.

 Carrying horse hair or black thin wire to sight object in line.
IX. EYE VANE
 A fine slit provided with eye hole at bottom to bisect the object from the slit.
 Take reading simulatenously from the eye hole.
 Provided with prism and can be lifted up and down by the stud to bisect the object of
higher level.
X. SUNGLASSES
 Used when some luminous objects are to be bisected.
 Placed in front of the eye slit and in bunch of 3 or 4 shades of different colors to give
sharp picture of the objects only.
XI. REFLECTING MIRROR
 Used to get image of an object located above or below the instrument level while
bisection.
 Placed exactly opposite to object vane.
 The prism hole is protected by prism cap to protect it from dust and moisture.
 Placed on the object vane.

USES OF PRISMATIC COMPASS:

 This mirror is used for solar observations, or for viewing any very high object, and is not
a normal fitting to a compass.
 The two circular discs in front of the back vane are dark glasses which can be swung in
front of the vane when solar observations are being taken.

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QUESTION NO.-04
WRITE TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF PRISMATIC COMPASS

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF PRISMATIC COMPASS:

a) Fixing the compass to the tripod
b) Centering the compass
c) Levelling the compass
d) Sighting the object
e) Observation of bearings

FIXING THE COMPASS TO THE TRIPOD:

The box of prismatic compass is fixed to a spindle of ball and socket joint. By the ball and socket
arrangement, this can be quickly levelled and rotated in any direction.
CENTERING THE COMPASS:
The prismatic compass is centered over a survey station correctly by means of a plumb bob or
by dropping a pebble from the centre of the instrument.
LEVELLING THE COMPASS:
The compass is quickly levelled by ball and socket arrangement by eye judgement. It should be
levelled in such a way that dial moves freely and does not touch the rim of the bob.
SIGHTING THE OBJECT:
The object is sighted with the help of eye vane and object vane in the compass. The surveyor
views through the eye vane and rotate the box until the ranging rod at a station is bisected.
OBSERVATION OF BEARING:
After citing the object correctly, the bearing of the survey lines are noted through prism at
which the line of sight and object cuts the image of the graduation on the dial.

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QUESTION NO.-05
WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON TYPES OF BEARING SYSTEMS.

BEARING:
Bearing is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and another object, or
between it and that of to north.
Absolute bearing refers to the angle between the magnetic north (magnetic bearing) or true
north (true bearing) and an object. For example, an object to the east would have an absolute
bearing of 90 degree.
Relative bearing refers to an angle between the crafts forward direction and the location of
another object. For example, an objective relative bearing of 0 degree would be dead ahead; an
object relative bearing 180 degree would be behind. Bearings can be measured in miles or
degrees.

DEPENDING UPON MERIDIAN THERE ARE TYPES OF BEARING:

a. TRUE MERIDIAN:
True meridian through a point is the line in which a plane, thus passes through the true north
and south poles, intersects with the surface of the earth. It thus passes through the true north
and south. The direction of the true meridian through a point can be established by
astronomical observations.
True Bearing: True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the true
meridian through one of the extremities of the line. Since the direction of the true meridian
through a point remains fixed, the true bearing of a line is a constant quantity.

b. MAGNETIC MERIDIAN:
The magnetic bearing through a point is the direction shown by a freely floating and balanced
magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces. The direction of magnetic meridian can be
established with the help of a magnetic compass.

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Magnetic bearing: The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the
magnetic meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A magnetic compass is
used to measure it.

c. ARBITRARY MERIDIAN:
Arbitrary meridian is any convenient direction towards a permanent and prominent mark or
signals, such as a church spire or top of a chimney. Such meridians are used to determine the
relative positions of lines in a small area
Arbitrary bearing: Arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with any
arbitrary meridian passing through one of the extremities. A theodolite or sextant is used to
measure it.These are the bearings in surveying. Now we are going through designations of
bearings.

DESIGNATIONS OF BEARINGS (WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING SYSTEM OR AZIMUTHAL AND

QUADRANTAL BEARING):
The common systems of notation for bearings in surveying are whole circle bearing system or
Azimuthal bearing system and Quadrantal bearing.

WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING SYSTEM:

In this system, the bearing of a line is measured with magnetic north in a clockwise direction.
The value of the bearing thus varies from 0 degrees to 360 degrees. Prismatic compass is
graduated in this system

WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING SYSTEM

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QUADRANTAL BEARING SYSTEM:

In this system, the bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward from north or south,
whichever is neared. Thus, both north and south are used as reference meridians and the
direction can be either clockwise of anticlockwise depending upon the position of the line. In a
quadrantal bearing system, the quadrant in which lines lies will have to be mentioned. These
bearings are observed by surveyors compass.

QUADRANTAL BEARING SYSTEM

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QUESTION NO.-06
WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON LOCAL ATTRACTION

LOCAL ATTRACTION:
Local attraction is the phenomenon by which the magnetic needle is constantly prevented to
point towards the magnetic north at a place. This is because that these magnetic compass is
influenced by other magnetic objects at that locality such as wires carrying electric current,
rails, steel and iron structures, steel tapes etc.
The occurrence of local attraction can be detected by observing the difference between the
fore and back bearings. If there is no influence of local attraction and other error, this
difference will be 180. So we can then conclude that both stations are free from local
attraction.

DETECTING LOCAL ATTRACTION:

For detecting local attraction it is necessary to take both fore bearing and back bearing for each
line. If the difference is exactly 180°, the two stations may be considered as not affected by
local attraction. If difference is not 180°, better to go back to the previous station and check the
fore bearing. If that reading is same as earlier, it may be concluded that there is local attraction
at one or both stations.

ELIMINATION OF LOCAL ATTRACTION IN COMPASS SURVEYING

Due to local attraction significant amount of error can be occur in compass surveying
observations and they will be same on all the bearings. Local attraction can be minimized using
following methods:

METHOD 1:
This method is based on the difference of fore and back bearings. We already know that the
difference between fore and back bearing of a line will be 180˚ if there is no errors in

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measurement. So based on this error free observation of bearings, corrections for other lines
can be calculated. However if there is no two bearing has a difference of 180˚, we can calculate
the correction from the mean value of that bearings which may have least error.

METHOD 2:
This method is more faster method for applying correction. This is based on the interior angles
of the closed traverse formed. The interior angles measured will be correct on the basis of the
fact that these angles are not affected by the local attraction whereas the stations are. So the
sum of total interior angles for a closed traverse will be (2n-4) 90˚.If there is any error exists
both sum will not be same. The total error can be distributed among the angles equally because
equal error will occur on each interior angle. So starting from the correct observation of bearing
which has a difference in fore and back bearing is 180˚, we can calculate all other corrected
bearings.
SPECIAL CASE: this procedure is applied when there is no such observations which has a
difference of 180˚ in fore and back bearings of a line. Then two bearings of least discrepancy is
selected in such a way that the difference of them is closest to 180˚. The mean value is
obtained by adding half of the correction to fore bearing value and half to back bearing. Hence
a value which differs by 180˚ can be obtained. So from this corrected bearing value other values
can be measured.

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Question No.-07
A. The Fore Bearing of the following lines are given. Find the Back
B. Convert the following reduced bearings into whole circle bearings

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