DISTANCE

Is the length of the space between two points.

Is the horizontal length between points.

Distance is a numerical qualitative measurement of how far apart objects or points are.

In physics or everyday usage, distance may refer to a physical length or estimation based on other
criteria.

Formula
Distance formula

d = distance
(X1, Y1)= coordinates of first point
(X2, Y2)=coordinates of second point

TYPES OF DISTANCES

Horizontal distances
A linear measurement on the horizontal plane determines the horizontal distance
between two points. However, the true horizontal distance is actually curved like the
Earth’s surface. Due to this curvature, the direction of gravity is different at each point.
Subsequently, vertical axes are not parallel to each other.

Illustration
Vertical distances
Vertical distances are measured along the vertical axis to determine the difference in
height (or elevation) between points.

Slope distances
This distance is the hypotenuse of the horizontal and vertical distances.
The horizontal and vertical distances can be calculated if the slope distance and vertical
angle is known.

METHODS OF DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

Direct method
Optical method
Electronic method
Direct method
1. Pacing:

The method consists in walking over a line and counting the number of paces. The average pace
length may be taken as 80 cm. However, the surveyor should standardize his pace length by
practice. The distance may then be obtained by multiplying the number of paces with the average
length of the pace.

An experienced person can attain results within accuracy of 1 in 100. The method is generally
useful where approximate results are required such as for reconnaissance survey, locating details
in small scale mapping etc.

The method, though rapid, is tiresome for long distances and also great difficulty is experienced
in counting the number of paces. To overcome this difficulty, an instrument resembling a pocket
watch in size and appearance and known as passometer may be used, this automatically records
the number of paces while pacing a given line.

2. Instrumental Method:

Some instruments like Speedometer of an automobile, Pedometer etc. may also be employed to
find the distance approximately. Speedometer gives better results than pacing provided the route
is smooth as along a highway.

3. Judging Distance and Time Measurements:

For very approximate results such as in reconnaissance survey, the distances may be determined
by judgment only. The distances are also roughly determined by knowing the average time taken
per km by a person at walk or a horse at trot and the total time taken to cover that distance.

4. Chaining:

The operation of measuring distance with the help of a chain or a tape is called chaining. It is the
most accurate of all the methods of measuring distance and is commonly used. Ordinarily a chain
is used for measuring the distance but where great accuracy is required, a steel tape is invariably
used.

5. Ranging

When the length to be measured is less than that of the steel tape, measurements are carried
out by unwinding and laying the tape along the straight line between the points. The zero of the
tape (or some convenient graduation) is held against one point, the tape is straightened, pulled
taut and the distance read directly on thetape at the other point.
When the length of the line between two points exceeds that of the tape, some form of
alignment is necessary to ensure that the tape is positioned along the straight line required.
This is known as ranging and is achieved using ranging rods and marking arrows. For measuring
long lines two people are required, identified as the leader and the follower, the procedure
being as follows for a line AB. This method of measurement is known as ranging by eye.

The process goes as below

(1) Ranging rods are erected as vertical as possible at the points A and B and, for a measure in
the direction of A to B, the zero point of the tape is set against A by the follower.
(2) The leader, carrying a third ranging rod, unwinds the tape as he walks towards point B,
stopping just short of a tape length, at which point he holds his ranging rod vertically.
(3) The follower removes the ranging rod at A and, stepping a few paces behind point A, lines
up the ranging rod held by the leader with point A and with the rod at B. This lining-in should
be done by the follower sighting as low as possible on the poles.
(4) The tape is now straightened and laid against the rod at B by the leader, pulled taut and the
tape length marked by placing an arrow on line.
(5) For the next tape length the leader and the follower move ahead simultaneously with the
tape unwound, the procedure being repeated but with the follower now at the first marking
arrow. Before leaving point A, the follower replaces the ranging rod at A as this will be sighted
on the return measurement from B to A, which should always be taken as a check for gross
errors.
(6) As measurement precedes the follower picks up each arrow and, on completion, the
number of arrows held by him indicates the number of whole tape lengths measured. This
number of tape lengths plus the section at the end less than a tape length gives the total length
of the line.

Common equipment used in direct distance measurement methods

1. Chains

2. Tapes e.g. Cloth or linen tape, fiber tape, metallic tape, steel tape, invar tape

3. Arrows/chain pins

4. Ranging rods and offset rods

5. Pegs

6. Plumb-bob

Common instrumental errors in linear measurement

 Length other than standard

Tape manufacturers do not guarantee 100 ft steel tapes to be exactly 100.00 ft. An error due to
the incorrect length occurs every time the tape is used.

 Temperature other than standard

Steel tapes are standardized at 68° F (20° C).

A temperature higher or lower will change the length of the tape. Temperature of the tape can be
quite different from the air temperature measured.

 Tension

If tension is greater than standard the tape will stretch. If less than standard tension is applied the
tape will be shorter than standard.

 Sag

A tape not supported along its entire length will sag. By applying correct tension the sag can be
reduced.

 Poor alignment

This error occurs when one end of the tape is off-line or there is an obstruction in-line. The
actual distance will be less than the measured distance

 Faulty marking

This error is random as the result of incorrect placement of chaining pins. Careful placement of
chaining pins and then checking the measurement will reduce errors.

 Incorrect reading or interpolation

The error occurs when reading or noting the measurement clearly or in a hurry. Careful reading
and using a small scale to determine the last figure will reduce errors.
OPTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Optical measurement method is also known as tacheometry method or stadia method. Optical
measurement is inspection of measurement with the help of telescope and then calculations are
solved using triangulation method to find out the distance. The instrument tacheometer is
considered as important in this method. Other than these, level staff which is a graduated wooden
or aluminum rod needed to carry out optical measurement. Before the electronic distant
measurement method this method is more famous and accurate for a particular distance. This is a
suitable method to survey a hill country and counter lines.

NB: To measure distances, light is emitted and reflected by the object. The distance between
the measuring device and the target object can be determined on the basis of the speed of light
and the measured time of flight of the light from the light source (emitter) to the object and back
to the detector. Here light sensors are used.

Instruments used in ODM

>Levelling staff

>Tacheometer

Levelling staff

Levelling staff is wooden or aluminum made rectangular rod, graduated as to ease the reading.
The levelling staffs are available in both metric and imperial graduation and sometimes even
single staff contains both graduations on two sides. The level staff helps to determine the height
difference between two points on a survey. The sliding joints of a levelling staff help to adjust
the length of staff according to the need of use. A staff can be divided into two depending on its
use as, self-reading staff and target staff. The only difference between self-reading staff and
target staff is an attachment of metallic circular plate with a vernier, which called as target.
Tacheometer

Tacheometer is an instrument used to measure the vertical and horizontal distance between two
points. Tacheometer is more similar to theodolite but an optical lens is available in a telescope
and two stadia line are available other than central cross hair. The telescope used to measure the
distance between two points using the level rod. Then the distance between instrument and
levelling staff is obtained by multiplying levelling staff interval by a constant. The common
equation to obtain the distance, d between the instrument and levelling staff is,

d=k×s+c

Here, s is the levelling staff interval; k and c are multiplicative and additive constants. In most of
the instrument the k is 100 and c is 0.

There are some methods available in tacheometric survey such as stadia hair method and
tangential method. Stadia Hair Method is a method in which a theodolite with the stadia
diaphragm is used to find out the staff intercept between the lower and upper hairs and also the
central hair reading is noted. The stadia hair method can be further classified into two as, fixed
hair method and movable hair method. In fixed hair method the cross hairs of the diaphragm are
kept at a constant distance apart and the staff intercept varies with the horizontal and vertical
position of the staff with respect to the Theodolite. But in movable hair method the staff
intercepts between the lower hair and the upper hair is kept constant by moving the horizontal
cross hairs in the vertical plane.
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between two
points using electromagnetic waves. EDM is commonly carried out with digital instruments
called theodolites

EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and can be
used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometers. Each piece of EDM equipment available at
Engineer Supply provides dependably accurate distance measurements displayed on an easy-to-
read digital screen.

Devices known as total stations share similarities with theodolites and can be used to measure
distances as well as angles.

Theodolite

A Theodolite is an instrument for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles, as used in
triangulation networks. It is a tool used in the surveying and engineering industry, but theodolites
have been adapted for other specialized purposes as well. A theodolite consists of a telescope
mounted movably within two perpendicular axes, the horizontal or trunnion axis, and the vertical
axis. When the telescope is pointed at a desired object, the angle of each of these axes can be
measured with great precision, typically on the scale of arc seconds. The measurements are
typically recorded by hand as they are not recorded by a computer or data collector.

Total station

A total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying. It is a combination of an

electronic theodolite (transit), an electronic distance measuring device (EDM) and software
running on an external computer, such as a laptop or data collector.
Applications of total stations in surveying

 To obtain the horizontal distance, inclined distance and vertical distance between these points.
 To find the length of a missing line.
 To locate the points at a predetermined distance along gridlines.
 To get the three dimensional coordinates of a point in space.
 To find the elevation of the remote object.
 To measure horizontal and vertical angles.

Use of EDM IN Surveying

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between two
points using phase changes that occur as electromagnetic energy waves travel from one end of
the line to the other end. Electronic distance measurement in general is a term used as a method
for distance measurement by electronic means. In this method, instruments are used to measure
distances that rely on propagation, reflection and reception of electromagnetic waves like radio,
visible light or infrared waves.
EDM instrument are classified based on the type of carrier wave as:

 Microwave instruments

These instruments use microwaves to take survey measurements. They have a range up to 100
km and are comprised of two identical units, a master unit, and a remote unit

 Light wave instruments

These instruments rely on the propagation of modulated light waves. Their accuracy varies
from 0.5mm to 5mm/km, and they have a daytime range of 3km and night range of 2.5km.

 Infrared wave instruments

This type of instrument uses amplitude modulated infrared waves and prism reflectors. They
have a range up to 3 km and accuracy of +/- 10mm

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Magnitudes of measurements are typically given in terms of a specific unit. In
surveying, the most commonly used units define quantities of length (or distance),
area, volume, and horizontal or vertical angles. The two systems used for
specifying units of measure are the English and metric systems.

THE ENGLISH SYSTEM

Units in the English system are historical units of measurement used in medieval
England which evolved from the Anglo-Saxon and Roman systems.

English Units
The basic units for length or distance measurements in the English system are the
inch, foot, yard, and mile. Other units of length also include the rod, furlong, and
chain.
THE METRIC SYSTEM

This is a decimalized system of measurement developed in France in late 18 th

century. Since the metric system is almost universally used, it is often
referred to as the International System of Units and abbreviated SI.

Metric Units.
The basic unit of length in the SI system is the meter. The meter was
originally intended to be one ten-millionth of the distance from the Equator to
the North Pole (at sea level).
The meter has since been redefined as the distance travelled by light in a
vacuum in 1/299,792,458 seconds (i.e. the speed of light in a vacuum is
299,792,458 m/sec).
Subdivisions of the meter are the millimeter, centimeter, and the
decimeter, while multiples of meters include the decameter, hectometer,
and kilometer.

METHODS OF MEASURING MASS THAT ARE SIMILAR FOR

DISTANCES

MEASURING A SHORT DISTANCE OF 50M

Using a tape measure
Measuring tapes are made of steel, metallic cloth or fiberglass material. They come in lengths of
10 to 30M or more. They are usually marked at 1M intervals, with the first and last meters
graduated in decimeters and centimeters. They are wound into a case, with a handle for
rewinding. Tapes can present some problems. Steel tapes can easily become twisted and break.
Cloth tapes are less precise than the others, since they often vary slightly in length.

Process

Establish pegs along the line of interest. First peg at the start point and second peg at the last
point.

Lay a 50M tape along the line with its starting tip at the first peg and unwind it up to its 50M tip
and you should place your second peg at this point.

NB; the tape should be held straight as possible without sagging.

Illustration

The distance can be divided into sections incase a shorter tape is used, where by you put a peg at
each last point of the tape until a distance of 50M is achieved
NEW TERMS
 Balls – Numeric code .00. for example, 4-balls translates to 4.00
 Box – A data collector
 Bullseye – Zero degrees of incline
 Burn one – To measure one foot at a time with a measuring tape rather than the entire
length of the tape. This is done to increase the accuracy of the measurement.
 Dummy – The base or end of a measuring tape or chain.
 Legs – A tripod.
 Rodman – the person tasked with holding the rod with the EDM prism. Formerly called a
chainman.
 Shoot – to take a distance measurement with an EDM.
 Zero – a perfect zero, whether it is in terms of degrees, minutes, or second.
 Artificial Monuments- A manmade marker such as a concrete bound, or drill hole
 Avulsion- The sudden removal or addition of land by the action of water
 Azimuth- The direction of a line relative to north (sometimes relative to south)
 Backsight- A target set up over a point where the instrument will set zero
 Base Line- In the PLSS, a line of latitude running through an initial point. Also, a
random line used in a road layout.
 Bearing- The direction of a line between 0° and 90°, measured clockwise or
counterclockwise from north or south
 Blaze- A mark or marks on a tree trunk for marking a survey point or boundary
point or line
 Boundary - property lines
 Break Tape- To make a horizontal measurement, usually while measuring up or
down a slope, by using less than the full length of a tape
 Called-For- A monument or other evidence called out in a conveyance
 Chain- A distance of 66 ft.
 EDM- Electronic Distance Measuring Device
 Electronic Distance Measuring Device- A device, usually attached to a total sta-
tion, which uses light beams to precisely measure distance
 Electronic Data Collector- A small digital computer with a screen which connects to
a total station or GPS receiver for the purpose of collecting data from the device. If
the total station is servo driven the data collector can drive the instrument
 Error of Closure- The length or length and direction of the gap in a geometric
figure where the end point is intended to be the same as the beginning point
 Foresight- A target or prism to which an instrument will measure an angle and/or
angle and distance
 Give Line- The process by which a person holds a prism pole or plumb bob string
over a point so it can be sighted by the instrument
 Tie Line.- A dimensioned survey line, usually not a property line, used to connect
boundaries. Tie lines are often used along an irregular and roughly dimensioned
water boundary as a means of connecting the accurately described points of a
boundary