TOPOHRAPHY SURVEYING

CHAPTER-ONE
1. Introduction
1.1. TOPOGRAPHY SURVEY

What is Topography Survey?

• Topographic surveying is the process of

determining the positions, on the earth's
surface, of the natural and artificial
features of a given locality, and of
determining the configuration of the
terrain. The location of the features is
known as planimeter and the
configuration of the terrain is known as
topography.
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• The topographic map shows by means of suitable

symbols: The spatial configuration of the earth's
surface, which includes such features as hills and
valleys; other natural features such as streams
sreams, oceans, seas,etc and man-made features
such as buildings, roads, canals, cultivation, etc.
• The principal data required for topographic
mapping are elevation and distance. Several
ground methods that require the use of transit,
total station theodolite, plane table and alidade,
level, hand level, tape, leveling rod in various
combinations are available for furnishing data
necessary for topographic mapping.
Photogrammetric methods are also employed
where available.
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• Use of Topographic Maps:
• The purpose of Topographic surveying is to gather
data necessary for the construction of the topographic
map that displays both the planimeter and
topographic features.: -
 Industrial Plants
 Rail ways & high ways
 Irrigation & drainage scheme
 Hydroelectric power station
 a building complex
 Bridges, tunnels and dams

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• The user of the map should be able to interpret the
map as a model of the ground. They are necessary
aids in the design of any engineering project that requires
consideration of landforms, elevations or gradients.
• They also furnish necessary data for
economists, geologists, and others interested in
the general development of natural resources.
• Topographic surveying and the preparation of a
topographic map of the terrain is therefore
generally the first step in the planning and
designing of a major civil engineering project.

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Planimetric Maps
•Show only the horizontal position of geographic and cultural features
•Do not show topographic features
•Show accurate horizontal distances
•Plan view

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• General methods applied to gather the necessary data for
the preparation of a topographic map.
1.Ground method: is done by means of total station or
theodolite (stadia tacheometry), as well as with levels, tapes.
This method is economic and suitable for relative small areas.
• 2.Photogrammetric method:
• Aerial photographs: are used to show the necessary ground
data. It is an economic method for larger areas and projects
and it overcomes the sometimes-difficult access problems to
the area to be mapped. The accuracy of photogrammetry
mainly depends upon the scale of the aerial photographs. The
ground work is only limited to establishing horizontal and
vertical ground control points (e.g. through traversing and
levelling) that must be clearly defined and well-distributed
over the target area and a final terrestrial field check should be
made.

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• The aerial photographs are measured stereoscopically (three-
dimensionally) by means of a special instrument called stereo-
plotter. With the help of such stereo-plotters the contour lines
and positions of all topographic features can be determined.

• Data from satellite: It is done by capturing land information

data from satellite

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II. Total stadia tacheometry procedure in topographic surveying:

1.Reconnaissance survey

• The term reconnaissance means the first inspection of the target area in
terms of existing control points, possible sites for new observation
stations, as well as the permanent marking of those stations, detection of
possible obstacles and possible solutions to overcome them etc. With
other words, after the first inspection, one has got some idea (mental
map) about the terrain and the features of the ground.

• Gathering information about the existing ground reference points,

benchmarks and their

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• coordinates and elevations respectively. Establishing additional

horizontal and vertical control points if the existing control network
is not dense enough. At this stage a reconnaissance survey of the
area to be mapped is absolutely indispensable and should therefore
be carried out thoroughly. Sketch map is showing man made
features and natural features clearly. Interesting ups and lows are
also showing on Sketch map. It is also necessary to estimate the
duration of the whole fieldwork.

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 2. Establishing control stations
 The establishing of horizontal and vertical control points is the most essential part
and is the first step in the field work process of topographic surveying, since the
three-dimensional coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each point to be surveyed can only be
determined with respect to well established reference points. The controls are
used for the basis of the topographic survey measurements. An error in the control
will be reflected in errors in the position and/or elevation of the topography.
 Types of controls : Horizontal and Vertical
I. HORIZONTAL CONTROL
 Is provided by two or more points on the ground and precisely fixed in position by
distance and direction.
 Is the basis for map scale and locating topographic features.
 For small areas, horizontal control for topographic work is usually established by a
traverse, but sometimes a single straight line may be used.

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II. VERTICAL CONTROL
• Is provided by bench marks in or near the tract to be
surveyed.
• Is the foundation for correctly portraying relief and
elevation on a map.
• Vertical controls are usually established by lines of levels
starting and closing on bench marks.
• A surface of a body of water is a continuous bench mark
and may sometimes be used as a vertical control.
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 Con’t…
 Most commonly traversing with EDM (Electronic Distance Metre) and/or satellite
technology (GPS) is applied for establishing reference points.

 With a level, the elevations of the traverse stations are determined.

 It is very important to close the level circuit in order to check the levelling work.
Late in the office the measured data have to be checked for mistakes and the
coordinates are calculated.

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3. Preparation of base map

• In Preparation of base map:
Arrange the paper shape in portrait or
landscape
Determine map area and mariginal area
Drawing cardinal direction
Determine scale
Grids drawing and labelling

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 4. Stadia tacheometry

4.1. DEFINITION OF STADIA

• A rapid and efficient method of measuring distances.

Not accurate for high order surveys, but is accurate enough for
trigonometric levelling, locating topographic details, and some traverses.
Stadia readings can be taken with theodolites, transits, and levels.

• THEORY

• Stadia works because of the trigonometric principle of similar triangles.

• PRACTICAL APPLICATION

• Stadia lines are etched on the telescope reticle at a given distance apart.

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The stadia lines on the telescope reticle correspond to the focal distance.
This ratio will always be supplied by the manufacturer of the equipment.
For most levels, transits, and theodolites the stadia lines correspond to one
hundredth (1/100) of the focal distance.

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 TELESCOPE HORIZONTAL
• The horizontal distance between a and b:
• L = 100 x l
• The height difference between a and b:
• h = h1 - h2

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 TELESCOPE NOT HORIZONTAL

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• Preparation of a field book where all measured features,
such as roads, buildings, trees, ditches, fences, manholes,
spot heights etc. are entered.
• In the case of stadia tacheometry all relevant readings,
such as horizontal angles, vertical angles, the three stadia
readings, and the instrument height are booked in a
special form.
• The distances and elevations are calculated in the office
and subsequently the three-dimensional coordinates (X, Y,
Z) of each surveyed point can be determined if necessary.

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• The heights of prominent points of some elevated features such as

mountain summits or hill tops and the bottom of depressions are called
spot heights. In addition, the characteristic valley lines and ridge lines, as
well as the lines of steepest slopes have to be surveyed.

• The determination of the location of a point by measuring the horizontal

angle and the distance from instrument station to that point is also called
“radial positioning”.

• The principle is very easy and is illustrated in figure.

• The illustration below (figure 4) shows an application of the radial

positioning method:

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• The benchmarks BM 101 and BM 102 are surveying stations with
known three-dimensional coordinates (Easting, Northing and Elevation).
The instrument is set up over (say) BM 101 and a reference direction is
measured to another visible benchmark BM 102.

• The reference target is occupied with a ranging pole standing in a

vertical position exactly over the point.

• To save manpower the ranging pole can be supported by a ranging pole

tripod. For setting up the ranging pole vertically a rod level or a plumb bob
can be used.

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• In case of stadia tachometry the following data are measured

and booked:-
1. point number of point to be surveyed

2. instrument height (can be determined with a tape)

3. horizontal angle

4. vertical angle ( most commonly the zenith angle)

5. upper, middle and lower staff reading

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• Before leaving now the station BM 101 it is very important to take a check
reading on BM 102. This assures that during the survey, done on BM 101, the
instrument has not been disturbed. The check reading is also booked and is
immediately compared with the initial measured reference direction.

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• The points 73 and 74 (corner points of a building) have been measured by means
of a stadia tacheometry. It is assumed that the building is rectangular. In order to
plot the other two corners of the building it is sufficient to measure the distances
5,50m and 5,50m by means of a tape. The distance 12,30m should be measured for
checking purposes.

• In the case of curves or tukuls at least three points have to be measured for an
unmistakable determination:

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 Sometimes it can be advantageous to take some features from at least two
previously surveyed object (e.g. two manholes) only by taking oblique offsets to
the point to be determined.

 This method is also sometimes referred to as distance intersection. In the office

this point can then easily be plotted by means of a compass. However, one
should consider that those points determined by oblique offsets do not have an
elevation

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• Sometimes it is not possible to measure all topographic features

directly from the traverse or triangulation stations because there are
obstacles in-between. In this case a new station is to be determined
by means of radial positioning. Figure 5 illustrates an example:

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As illustrated in figure above, the building cannot fully be seen from any
traverse point. Therefore, a new station from where the building corners
(say) 388 and 389 can be taken has to be established.

For a save determination of the new station the angle (direction) and
distance to the new station should be measured independently from two
traverse points in order to avoid a possible faulty determination and to
increase the accuracy.

The arithmetic mean of the two determinations is then calculated and

used for the further survey. The new station is also marked with a stake,
a nail or an iron pipe. A concrete monument is not for the moment
necessary because of the temporary character of the station.
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Table for Stadia method of topographic surveying (tachometry)

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 5.
5. Plotting of the topographic features:

• Plotting: refers to the transfer of survey data to the map. Before starting
plotting the required size of the map sheet can easily be determined by
examining the extreme station coordinates.

• The plotting of all topographic features, including spot heights, can be

done most easily with the use of a protractor and an engineer scale.
The centre of the protractor is held with a hand exactly over the observation
station.

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• Then, either the zero-degree mark or the known azimuth is lined up with
the respective traverse side in order to orient the protractor properly.

• The desired angle or azimuth of the points is then taken from the field
notes and noted along the edge of the protractor, and fine points are
marked at these positions (to avoid mixing up of points, the point numbers
are written next to the points).

• With a scale, the distances, also taken from the field notes, are then set out
from the protractor centre (traverse station) and going through the
respective previously marked points. The end points are marked with a
sharp pencil (just a point with a small circle around), and labeled with
their point numbers and elevations.
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• When all points of one station have been plotted, the protractor is
moved to the next position, and the process continues. The points
are then connected as illustrated in the field book.
• Plotting and drawing for surveying purposes has nothing to do
with architectural drawing, and therefore an artistic portrayal
of the topography should be avoided.
• However, a map title with the map scale, a north arrow and a legend
(explanation of the used symbols) are indispensable items of each
topographic map.

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6. Relief representation

Relief on maps

• How to show the ups and down (relief) on a plane sheet of paper is one of
the many problems that have been facing the mapmakers throughout the
history of map making.

• Still the maker cannot ignore the problem because the relief is one of the
most important properties of the earth’s surface, with vital influence upon
man and his activities. It is therefore, very important that the map should
inform us as accurately as possible about the relief of an area.

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• Topography may be represented on a map by relief models,
shading, color gradients, hachure, form lines or contour lines. Of
these representation techniques, only contour lines indicate
elevations directly and quantitatively. The rest of the chapter is
mainly devoted to representation of topography by contour lines
and conventional symbols. But first the uses of the plane-table
instrument will be discussed, as it is the most versatile
instrument used in compiling topographic maps by any of the
field methods.

• The topographic features and contour lines, plotted in a certain scale, form the
topographic map(plan). This map shows the horizontal distances between the
features, their location and elevations above a given datum.

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 Ways of showing relief

 Physiographic diagrams- (three dimensional pictures as

seen by the observer standing on the ground)
 It is a mixture of vertical and side view.
 Many details of the hill will be hidden from the
view behind the backs’.
 No accurate information about the actual height
of different point.
 Lack of accuracy

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• 1. Hill shading – today used together with contours.
• By hachures: These are short lines drawn in the
direction of the ground slope. An examples for
hachures, applied in the case of a road cutting
and embankment is illustrated in figure 1.

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• By spot heights: These are accurate altitudes for
individual points along roads, mountaintops etc.
There is no artificial physical evidence in the field
of the presence of such a spot height.
• They are marked on the map, usually with a dot
followed by a number giving the accurate altitudes
in meters (see figure 2):

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 6.1. Contour lines:
• The graphical portrayal of the configuration of the
land surface (relief) is most commonly done with
contour lines. It is the most accurate method of
representing relief today.
• A contour line is a line that connects points of
equal level on the surface of the earth. The
shoreline of a body of still water (e.g. a lake) is an
excellent illustration of a contour line. They are
drawn on the two-dimensional paper to give the
impression of a third dimension.

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The properties of contours (isohypses)
 imaginary lines
 fixed height interval
 known height
• Contour interval:
• The constant vertical distance (height difference) between two consecutive
contour lines is called the contour interval.
• The contour interval for the example, illustrated in figure 8 is 1 meter.
• The proper choice of the contour interval depends on the slopes of the terrain to
be represented, the scale of the map and the purpose of the survey. If, for
example, the terrain is very hilly and the contour interval is too small in relation
to the scale, the contour lines become too crowded.
• In addition, the smaller the contour interval the more points have to be measured
in the field and the more time consuming is the plotting. As a result of that the
topographic map would become more expensive.

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Table 1: gives an overview about which contour
interval should be selected for the different map
scales and terrain types:
Scale of the map Type of terrain Contour interval
large flat 0,2-0,5 m
1:1000 or larger rolling 0,5-1,0 m
hilly 1,5-2,0 m
intermediate flat 0,5-1,5 m
1:1000-1:10000 rolling 1,0-2,0 m
hilly 2,0-3,0 m
small flat 1,0-3,0 m
1:10000 or smaller rolling 2,0-5,0 m
hilly 5,0-10,0 m
mountainous 10, 25 or 50 m

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 Cont’d…
• Table 2 shows common contour intervals for
different purposes:
Purpose of survey Map scale Contour interval

building sites 1:1000 or larger 0,2-0,5 m

town planning and reservoir 1:5000-1:10000 0,5-2,0 m

planning

survey of extensive area, 1:5000-1:20000 2,0-3,0 m

earthwork, etc.

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Characteristics of contour lines:
• The contours have the following characteristics:-
1. The contour lines are closed lines. However, they may close either
on the map itself or outside the map, depending upon the
topography.
2. As the perpendicular distance between two contour lines is the
shortest distance, contours are always perpendicular to the
direction of the steepest slope. Therefore, surface water always
runs downhill at right angle to the contour lines. These contour
lines form U's, pointing downhill.

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3. In case of a valley lines or streams, the contours
run roughly parallel to the valley line or stream and
form 's pointing uphill where they cross the valley
line or stream.
• Higher ground

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 Cont’d….
4. If the spacing between the contour lines is
small the slope is steep, but for gentle slopes the
spacing is large (see also figure 6).

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5. Contour lines never cross one another or branch
into two contour lines of the same elevation because
a point on the ground cannot have two elevations
(see also figure 11); they may overlap and appear to
meet only at vertical walls or cliffs.

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 Cont’d…

6. Depression contours form closed loop contours around the lowest

point.The elevations of the contours decrease from outside to
inside.

7. Summit contours form closed loop contours around the highest

point.The elevations of the contours increase from outside to inside.

8. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

9. Contours are not shown going through buildings.

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10. Contours crossing a man made horizontal
surface (roads, railway track) will be straight
parallel lines as they cross the facility.

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6.2. Interpolation of contours:
• Interpolation refers to the process of determining
intermediate values between two observed data
points. The assumption is made that the ground slope
between two adjacent points is constant (in a straight
line). The interpolation is therefore linear.
• Interpolation is necessary because the series of
points observed in the field do not necessarily lie
exactly on the contour lines shown on the map; it is
not practical to locate and measure every point on a
“round” or whole-number contour.

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• Two methods are mainly applied for linear interpolation, namely the
mathematical interpolation and the graphical interpolation.

• No matter which method is applied, the linear interpolation is always

done along the direction of the steepest slope!

• Mathematical method: Also sometimes referred to as calculation

method. The following example shows the principle:

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• Figure above illustrates a vertical section through the ground.
Point A and B are observed ground points with its elevations
125,40 m and 127,70 m respectively. The horizontal distance
between the two points is 24,0 m. Wanted is the position of the
“round-number” contour lines 126,0 m and 127,0 m along the
line AB:

• X1: (126,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30 X2: (127,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30

• X1 = 6,26 m X2 = 16,70 m

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 Cont’d…..
• Therefore, the contour line 126,0 m passes at a distance of 6,26 m
from Point A towards point B, or 17.74m from point B and the
contour line 127,0 m passes at a distance of 16,70 m from the same
point A or 7.3m from B.

• In the topographic map the two distances (X1 and X2) are set out
with a scale along the straight line AB, marked with a point and
labelled with its elevations. The same calculation, carried out in the
reverse direction (from point B to point A) serves as a check.

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• Graphical method: with this interpolation method the work is done
very quickly and also quite accurate, some practice provided.

• A sheet of tracing paper is needed on which parallel lines are drawn

to represent the desired contour interval.

• The distance between two parallel lines on the tracing paper must be
chosen that way, that the distance, perpendicular to the parallel lines
on the tracing paper, for the elevation difference between point A
and B is shorter than the distance AB itself. Figure above illustrates
the method:

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6.3. Sketching of contour lines:
• After locating the points of various contour lines as described
previously, the contours can be sketched.
• To see clearly the course of each contour, the points of same elevation
are joined with straight lines.
• Then, the points of same elevation are connected with a smooth curve.
This is best accomplished by using french curves.
• It is positioned on the paper to pass through as many points as possible
and a portion of the curve is drawn.
• The french curve is then repositioned for drawing another portion of the
contour.

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 Cont’d…

 While sketching the contours one should always remember

the characteristics of contours (see also Characteristics of
contour lines).

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6.4. Labelling of contour lines:
• Intermediate contour lines are drawn with continuous lines. The intermediate
contour lines depend upon the character of the terrain.
• In hilly or mountainous areas, the contours, divisible by 10, 20, 25, 50 or 100 m are
considered as main contour lines. However, in flat terrain a main contour line can be
divisible by 1, 2 or 5 m.
• An index contour line is a main contour line that helps the map user to quickly
interpret the height situation portrayed on the map. It is drawn with a continuous line
of thicker width.
• Most commonly every fifth contour line is an index contour. In the example,
illustrated in figure 15, those contours whose elevations are multiples of 5 m are shown
with a heavier line (120, 125, 130 etc.) and are therefore index contours. When the
contour interval is 10 m, the index contours have elevations that are multiples of 50 m.

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1. All other contour lines are drawn with a dashed line of the same
width as the intermediate contour lines. They are called
supplementary contour lines. In flat terrain the 0.5 or 0.25 m
contour lines are drawn in that manner.

2. A small gap is left for writing the elevation.

3. The elevation of a contour should be so written that the foot of the

text shows towards the lowest point.

4. The amount and the location of elevation labels should be so

selected, that the map will have a neat appearance.

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7. Map compilation

• Construction of the map frame and legend is done at the stage of Map
compilation.

• Map Editing and Map designing also applied at this stage.

• Features are depicted on the map using various combinations

of points, lines and standard symbols

a) Map frame Construction

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b) Legend Construction

• Topographic mapping is effectively done by Standard symbols of

colour coded and these Standard symbols on the map are
interpreted in legend.

• For instance The result looks very much like a finished map.
Once usually water features are blue, vegetation's are green
and for relief brown.

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c) Map designing

• Most maps are typically depicted many different types of

detail effectively by the following elements.

 Clarity-ability of map readable to the user.

 Contrast-use of different line weight.

 Order-logically designing order of elements of map.

 Balance- weight of elements: size, color, font, position.

 Harmony-interrelation between elements of map.

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D) Map editing

• After the map manuscript is compiled, several steps remain before

a map is completed.

• Working over a light table, the scriber then uses engraving

instruments to the map's lines and symbols.

• This is done by removing the soft coating from the hard plastic
guide sheet. All features to be plotted in the same color on the
map—such as blue for water features—are onto separate sheets. A
map is edited several times before final scribed sheets are
completed.

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• Type for the words on the map is selected according to standards
that will ensure consistency of type sizes and styles from map to map. Type
placement is important for map legibility,

• Careful editing takes place for content, legibility, accuracy and spelling.

• Some Mistakes in mapping

• Failure in equipment

• In instrument reading

• In recording values

• Too few control stations etc.

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 Some Errors in mapping

• Instrument index errors

• Failure in adjustment

• Controls not checked etc

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 THE END !

THANK YOU…..!!!

IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION, SUGGESTION…….!!!

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