INTRODUCTION

One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest times it
has always been necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land. Through
the centuries the uses of surveying have expanded such that today it is difficult to
undertake any type of engineering construction that does not involve some type of
surveying. Planning and design are based on the results of surveys, and construction
is controlled by surveying. Professionals in the different fields of engineering as well as
geologists, architects, foresters, agriculturists, and geographers are concerned with
surveying as a means of planning and executing their respective projects.

Surveys cover a wide range in scope and complexity, from the staking out of
simple structures or the surveying of small parcels of land to the extensive and
difficult surveys required in the construction of subdivisions, bridges, highways,
canals, dams, railroads, wharves, missile and rocket launching sites, drainage and
irrigation systems, or the survey of relatively large portions of the earth’s surface.
Surveying is also required for the laying out of industrial equipment, preparing forestry
and geological maps, positioning massive and complex machinery, in the
construction of ships and airplanes, as well as in the survey and exploration of
extraterrestrial bodies such as the moon and the planets.

In the training of a technical student the study of surveying is an important

part even though he may never actually use it later in practice. It is one course
which trains students to visualize and think logically, to plan, to work carefully and
accurately, and to arrange the product of these efforts in a neat and orderly
manner for record or presentation. A surveying course will provide the student a
worthwhile general experience and also develop desirable traits and habits
because the nature of the subject with its related field measurements is such that it
will develop habits of accuracy, industry, and reliability.

In addition, the student will learn a great deal about the relative importance
of measurements. He is trained to decide on how accurate and precise
measurements should be made, and acquire essential habits of checking numerical
calculations, measurements, and observations. All these attributes are expected to
add the stature and technical competence of a future professional.

Definition of surveying

All surveying operations have the same basic characteristics that of

delineating a portion of the earth’s surface or subsurface or of establishing the
position or boundaries of some object upon it. A host of definitions have been made
by different authors, and the following are listed:

1. “Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near the

earth’s surface by means of measurements in the three elements of space;
namely, distance, direction, and elevation.” Rayner and Schmidt

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 2. “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between
objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of
lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements.” Davis, Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail

3. “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions

of points on the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural
and artificial features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical
relationships.” Clarke

4. “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of

determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and
directions of the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of
accurately delineating the whole on paper.” Webster

5. “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are

necessary to determine the relative position of points above, on, or
beneath the surface of the earth, or to establish such points.” Breed,
Hosmer, and Bone

6. “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points

above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.”
Brinker and Wolf

From the different definitions given above, it is obvious that surveying activities
during the earlier part of the decade have only been limited to surveys on or near
the surface of the earth. Times, however, have change and modern surveying
techniques are now applied to space exploration and in the mapping of
extraterrestrial bodies such as the moon, mars, and in the near future the other
planets, stars, and other heavenly bodies in the universe.

General classification of surveying:

1. Plane surveying

It is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be flat surface,

and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the exact
shape of the earth is disregarded. With regard to horizontal distances and
directions, a level line is considered as mathematically straight, the direction
of the plumb line is assumed to be the same at all points within the limits of
the survey, and all angles are considered to be plane angles.

Plane surveying is of wide scope and application. The different methods of

plane surveying are employed in various surveys undertaken in engineering,
scientific, commercial, architectural, geographic, navigational, and
exploratory work. Since it is the required degree of accuracy which forms the
controlling factor in most surveys, no definite limit can be assigned for the
area up to which a survey may be considered as plane. Unless extreme
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accuracy is required, plane surveying is applicable to areas of some
thousands of square kilometres in extent.

2. Geodetic surveying

These are surveys of wide extent which taken into account the spheroidal
shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of high
precision, and the related calculations involve the solving of equations
derived from advanced mathematics particularly spherical trigonometry,
calculus, and some applications of the theory of least squares.

Geodetic surveys, which are usually of a national character, are mostly

undertaken by government agencies to serve as a basis for the production
of accurate base and topographic maps. The most refined instruments and
methods of observation are employed since these surveys provide a
reference framework covering a large area of the earth’s surface. A number
of points of known location and elevation are established to serve as
controls for subordinate surveys of lesser extent which are performed as
plane surveys. Elevations of selected vertical control points are expressed in
terms of vertical distances above or below a reference curves surface
usually mean sea level.

The field measurements for most geodetic surveys are primarily observed by
the use of theodolites, tapes, and electronic distance measuring devices.
Recently, newly devised equipment have been employed such as Doppler
and inertial surveying systems. These sophisticated systems are capable of
achieving high degrees of accuracy in shorter time spans.

Types of surveying:

1. Based on Instrument Used

a. Chain Survey
Measurements are done with chain and tape. This is a type of surveys
which consists of linear measurements only.

b. Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM)

Instruments rely on propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of
either light or radio waves and displays in some form of the result of the
measurement.

c. Global Positioning System (GPS)

This was invented by the U.S. Department of Defense (D.O.D). It utilizes a
constellation of at least 24 medium Earth orbit satellites that transmit
precise microwave signals, the system enables a GPS receiver to
determine its location, speed, direction, and time.

d. Leveling
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This method of surveying in which the relative vertical heights or elevations
of points are determined by employing a level and a level rod.

e. Plane Tabling
It is a graphical method of surveying in which fieldwork and plotting are
done simultaneously with the use of plane table.

f. Traverse Survey
After the linear measurements are done with the chain and tape, the
directions or angles are measured with a compass a transit, and this
survey is called traverse survey.

g. Tacheometry
This method of surveying in which both the horizontal and vertical
distances are determined by observing a stadia or level rod with an
instrument equipped with a telescope having stadia wires.

2. Based on Purpose of Survey

a. Archeological Survey
These surveys are done to unearth or excavate the relics of civilizations,
towns, etc. that were buried due to earthquakes or other calamities. This
will lead us to the remains, which reflect the history, culture and
development of the era that will provide vital links on understanding of
the present civilization.

b. Cadastral Surveys
These are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and rural
locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and
boundaries, corners and areas.

c. City Surveys
These are surveys of areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and configuring of land
and preparing maps.

d. Construction Surveys
These surveys are undertaken at a construction site to provide data
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, and the location and
elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers, architects and
builders. It is also known as engineering surveys.

e. Defense Survey
These are surveys that provide important and critical application in the
military. It provides strategic information that can decide the cause of
war. The information gathered may be used for preparing tactical and
strategic plans both for defense and attack.
 f. Forestry Survey

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A type of survey executed in connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.

g. Geological Survey
Both surface and sub-surface surveying is required to determine location,
extent and reserves of different minerals and rock types. Different types of
geological structures like folds and faults may help to locate the possibility
of the occurrence of minerals, oils, etc.

h. Geographical Surveys
These are conducted to provide data for the preparation of
geographical maps that depicts the land use efficiency, sources, intensity
of irrigation, slope profile and contours.

i. Industrial Survey
It is sometimes known as optical tooling and it refers to the use of
surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of
aircraft, lay-out and installation of heavy machineries and in other
industries where very accurate dimensional lay-outs are required.

j. Mine Surveys
These are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all
underground excavation and surface mine structures, to fix surface
boundaries of mining claims, to calculate excavated volumes, and
establish lines and grades for other related mining work.

k. Route Surveys
It involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork quantities,
location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning,
design and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals,
transmission lines and other linear projects.

l. Topographic Survey
These are those surveys made for determining the shape of the ground,
and the location of natural and artificial features upon it.

3. Based on Place of Survey

a. Aerial Survey
It is a survey which is carried out by taking photographs with a camera
fitted in an airplane. It is also known as Photogrammetric Survey.

b. Land Survey
These are surveys that consists of re-running old land lines to determine
their lengths and directions, subdividing the land into predetermined sizes
and shapes and calculating their areas and setting monuments and
locations their positions.
 c. Hydrographic Survey
These are surveys that deals with bodies of water and consists in acquiring
data to chart the shorelines of water bodies. It will also determine the

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shape of the underlying water surface to assess the factors affecting
navigation.

d. Underground Survey
This is referred to as preparation to underground plans that consists in
transferring bearings and coordinates from the surface baseline to the
underground baseline.

Surveying measurement

A measurement is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of

a particular quantity in comparison to a given standard. In surveying, measurements
are usually concentrated on angles, elevations, times, lines, areas and volumes.
Making measurements and the subsequent computations utilizing them are basic
and essential tasks of surveyor. The surveyor’s role is primarily to design survey, then
plan out and execute the required field operations. In so doing, he designates the
type, extent, and procedure of measurements to be undertaken. The measurements
obtained are then evaluated and adjusted to obtain the desired results.

Any surveying measurement is always subject to the imperfections of the

instrument used and the different errors inherent in the process of obtaining the
measurement. There is no such thing as a perfect measuring instrument nor is there a
surveyor whose senses are sufficiently perfect to measure any quantity exactly. The
first thing a student of surveying must learn about measurement is that no exact or
true measurement is ever possible and the true value of a measured quantity is
never known. Measurements are never exact and they will always be imperfect no
matter how carefully made. The physical measurements acquired are correct only
within certain limits because errors cannot be totally eliminated.

In surveying, measurements may be made directly or indirectly. Direct

measurement is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard measuring
unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind. Some common
examples of direct measurements are applying a wire or tape to a line, determining
a horizontal or vertical angle with a transit, or fitting a protractor between two
intersecting lines to determine the intersection angle. When it is not possible to apply
a measuring instrument directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect
measurement is made. In this type of measurement, the observed value is
determined by its relationship to some other known values. For example, the total
length of a line would be an indirectly observed distance if it is determined by a
summation of a series of directly measured short segments. In the stadia and
subtense bar method, horizontal and vertical distances are indirectly obtained since
it makes use of optical systems for relating a short known length to the angle it
subtends at the distance to be determined.
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