Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: The Meaning of Oxidation Oxidation Numbers

20.
3 Describing Redox Equations >
Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions
❖ The Meaning of Oxidation
and Reduction
❖ Oxidation Numbers
❖ Describing Redox
Equations
1 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION (redox)
Redox reaction
- electrons are transferred from one
substance to another.
LEO GER
Loss of Electrons is Oxidation
Gain of Electrons is Reduction

In general,
METALS lose e- to form positive ions (cations)
NONMETALS gain e- to form negative ions (anions)
In terms of REDOX,
- atoms of a METAL are OXIDIZED
- atoms of a NONMETAL are REDUCED
Ex. Ionic Compound: CaS (Calcium Sulfide)
Ca(s) + S(s)→ CaS(s)
metal nonmetal Ionic Compound
❖ Calcium atom loses 2e to form Ca ion (Ca+2)
-
Ca is oxidized
Ca → Ca+2+ 2e- Oxidation: loss of e- by Ca
❖ Sulfur atom gains 2e- to form Sulfide ion (S -2)

S is reduced
S + 2e- → S-2 Reduction: gain of e- by S
Ex. Ionic Compound: CaS (Calcium Sulfide)
Ca(s) + S(s)→ CaS(s)
metal nonmetal Ionic Compound
Therefore, the formation of CaS involves 2

reactions that occur simultaneously, one an
Oxidation and the other is a Reduction.
Ca(s) + S(s) → Ca+2 + S -2 = CaS(s)
Every time a reaction involves a REDOX, the

no. of e- lost is equal to the number of e- gained.
For Single Replacement Reactions
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
In this reaction,
❖ Zn atoms undergo oxidation to form Zn+2 ions
by losing 2e-
Zn(s) → Zn+2(aq) + 2 e- Oxidation of Zn
❖ Cu+2 ions undergo reduction to Cu atoms
by gaining 2e-
Cu(aq)+2 + 2e- → Cu(s) Reduction of Cu
❖ the SO4 -2 ions are spectator ions and don’t change

20.3 Describing Redox Equations > CHEMISTRY & YOU
Why does cut fruit turn brown?

You have probably
noticed that the flesh
of an apple turns
brown after you
remove the skin. The
apple is still safe to
eat; it just doesn’t
look as appetizing.
20.3 Describing Redox Equations > Identifying Redox
Reactions
Identifying Redox Reactions

What are the two classes of chemical
reactions?

Reactions
All chemical reactions can be assigned to

one of two classes.
One class of chemical reactions is
oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, in
which electrons are transferred from one
reacting species to another.
The other class includes all other reactions, in
which no electron transfer occurs.

Reactions
Many single-replacement reactions,

combination reactions, decomposition
reactions, and combustion reactions are
redox reactions.
• Potassium metal
reacts violently
with water to
produce hydrogen
gas (which ignites)
and potassium
hydroxide.
Reactions
Many single-replacement reactions,

combination reactions, decomposition
reactions, and combustion reactions are
redox reactions.
• Zinc metal reacts
vigorously with
hydrochloric acid
to produce
hydrogen gas and
zinc chloride.

Reactions
Examples of reactions that are not redox

reactions include double-replacement
reactions and acid-base reactions.

Reactions
During an electrical
storm, oxygen
molecules and
nitrogen molecules in
air react to form
nitrogen monoxide.
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)
How can you tell if this is a redox reaction?
Reactions
During an electrical storm,
oxygen molecules and
nitrogen molecules in air
react to form nitrogen
monoxide.
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)
How can you tell if this is a redox reaction?
• The oxidation number of nitrogen increases from 0 to +2.
• The oxidation number of oxygen decreases from 0 to –2.
• The reaction between nitrogen and oxygen to form
nitrogen monoxide is a redox reaction.

Determining Oxidation Number of
Elements & Molecules
1. In uncombined or free elements (not ionized), each

atom has an oxidation number of 0. E.g., all of the
atoms in these molecules: H2, Na, S8, O2, P4.
2. In simple ions (i.e., charged species which contain
only one atom), the oxidation number is equal to the
charge on the ion. E.g., Na and K only form +1 ions;
thus, their oxidation numbers are +1 in all
compounds.
3. The oxidation number of oxygen is generally –2.
Exceptions: case #1, and oxygen atoms directly
bonded to other oxygen atoms (peroxides) and to
fluorine.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is generally +1.
Exceptions: case #1, and hydrogen atoms combined
with elements such as Na or Ca (hydrides).
5. Oxidation numbers must be consistent with

conservation of charge. E.g., The sum of charge
must be 0 for neutral molecules. For H2O:
H: oxid. number is +1
O : oxid. number is –2
Net charge = 2(+1) + 1(-2) = 0
6. Fractional oxidation numbers are possible. E.g., in
Na2S4O6 (sodium tetrathionate), S has an oxidation
number of +10/4:
O: 6(-2) = -12
Na: 2(+1) = 2
Residual = -10, which must be balance by S:
S: 4(+10/4) = +10
7. The oxidation number is designated by:
• Arabic number below the atom, or
• Roman numeral or arabic number after the
atom (in parentheses)
Reactions
Many reactions in which color changes

occur are redox reactions.
• An example is shown below.
MnO4–(aq) + Br–(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + Br2(aq)
Permanganate Bromide ion Manganese(III) Bromine (yellow
ion (purple) ion (brown) orange)

Some fruits, including apples, turn

brown when you cut them. What do you
think is happening on the surface of the
fruit that causes it to turn brown?

Some fruits, including apples, turn

brown when you cut them. What do you
think is happening on the surface of the
fruit that causes it to turn brown?
Oxygen in air reacts with

chemicals on the surface of the
cut fruit. The oxygen oxidizes
the chemicals in the fruit,
causing a redox reaction and
therefore the color change.
Identifying Oxidation – Reduction
using Oxidation Numbers
• Oxidation numbers can be used to identify what is

oxidized and what is reduced in a reaction
• In an oxidation, the loss of e- increases the oxidation
No. so that it is higher (more positive) in the
product than in the reactant
• In reduction, the gain of e- decreases the oxidation
no. so that it is lower (more negative) in the
product than in the reactant
•Oxidation
If the oxidation no. of the substance increases
from the reactant to the product
•Reduction
If the oxidation no. of the substance decreases
from the reactant to the product
Sample Problem
20.3 Describing Redox Equations > 20.5
Identifying Redox Reactions

Use the change in oxidation number to
identify whether each reaction is a redox
reaction or a reaction of some other type. If
a reaction is a redox reaction, identify the
element reduced, the element oxidized, the
reducing agent, and the oxidizing agent.
a. Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
b. 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Sample Problem
1 Analyze Identify the relevant concepts.

• If changes in oxidation number occur,
the reaction is a redox reaction.
• The element whose oxidation number
increases is oxidized and is the reducing
agent.
• The element whose oxidation number
decreases is reduced and is the
oxidizing agent.

Sample Problem
2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

a. Assign oxidation numbers.
0 +1 –1 +1 –1 0
Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

Sample Problem

a. Interpret the change (or lack of change) in
oxidation numbers to identify if the reaction
is a redox reaction.
0 +1 –1 +1 –1 0
Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

• This is a redox reaction.
• The chlorine is reduced.
• The bromide ion is oxidized.
• Chlorine is the oxidizing agent; the bromide ion is
the reducing agent.
Sample Problem

b. Assign oxidation numbers.
+1 –2 +1 +1 +6 –2 +1 +6 –2 +1 –2
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Sample Problem

b. Interpret the change (or lack of change) in
oxidation numbers to identify if the reaction
is a redox reaction.
+1 –2 +1 +1 +6 –2 +1 +6 –1 +1 –2
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
• None of the elements change in

oxidation number. This is an
acid-base
• This is not a redox reaction. (neutralization)
reaction.

20.3 Describing Redox Equations >
Which of the following are redox

reactions?
A. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

B. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
C. NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
D. H2S + NHO3 → H2SO4 + NO2 + H2O

Which of the following are redox

reactions?
A. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

B. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
C. NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
D. H2S + NHO3 → H2SO4 + NO2 + H2O

20.3 Describing Redox Equations > Balancing Redox
Equations
Balancing Redox Equations
What are the two different methods

for balancing a redox equation?

Equations
Two different methods for balancing

redox equations are the
oxidation-number-change method
& the
half-reaction method.

Equations
Two different methods for balancing

redox equations are the
oxidation-number-change method
and the half-reaction method.
• These two methods are based on the fact
that the total number of electrons gained
in reduction must equal the total number
of electrons lost in oxidation.

Equations
Using Oxidation-Number Changes

To use this method, start with the skeleton
equation for the redox reaction.
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g) (unbalanced)
In a blast furnace, air is blown

through a combination of iron
ore and coke. The carbon
monoxide produced from the
oxidation of coke reduces the
Fe3+ ions to metallic iron.

Equations

Step 1: Assign oxidation numbers to all the
atoms in the equation.
• Write the numbers above the atoms.
• The oxidation number is stated per
atom.
+3 –2 +2 –2 0 +4 –2
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g)

Equations

Step 2: Identify which atoms are oxidized and
which are reduced.
• Iron is reduced.
• Carbon is oxidized.
+3 –2 +2 –2 0 +4 –2
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g)

Equations

Step 3: Use one bracketing line to connect the
atoms that undergo oxidation and
another such line to connect those that
undergo reduction.
• Write the oxidation-number change at
the midpoint of each line.
+2 (oxidation)
+3 –2 +2 –2 0 +4 –2
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g)
–3 (reduction)
Equations

Step 4: Make the total increase in oxidation
number equal to the total decrease in
oxidation number by using appropriate
coefficients.
• The oxidation-number increase should be
multiplied by 3 and the decrease by 2.
3 × (+2) = +6
+3 –2 +2 –2 0 +4 –2
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
2 × (–3) = –6
Equations

Step 5: Finally, make sure the equation is
balanced for both atoms and charge.
• If necessary, finish balancing the
equation by inspection.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

Sample Problem
Balancing Redox Equations by

Oxidation-Number Change
Balance this redox equation by using the
oxidation-number-change method.
K2Cr2O7(aq) + H2O(l) + S(s) → KOH(aq) + Cr2O3(s) + SO2(g)

Sample Problem

You can balance redox equations by
determining changes in oxidation numbers
and applying the five steps.

Sample Problem

Step 1: Assign oxidation numbers.
+1 +6 –2 +1 –2 0 +1–2+1 +3 –2 +4 –2

Sample Problem

Step 2: Identify the atoms that are oxidized
and reduced.
+1 +6 –2 +1 –2 0 +1–2+1 +3 –2 +4 –2
• Cr is reduced.
• S is oxidized.
Sample Problem

Step 3: Connect the atoms that change in
oxidation number. Indicate the signs
and magnitudes of the changes.
–3
+6 0 +3 +4
+4

Sample Problem

Step 4: Balance the increase and decrease in
oxidation numbers.
(4)(–3) = –12
+6 0 +3 +4
2K2Cr2O7(aq) + H2O(l) + 3S(s) → KOH(aq) + 2Cr2O3(s) + 3SO2(g)
(3)(+4) = +12
Four chromium atoms must be reduced (4 × (–3) = –12 decrease) for
every three sulfur atoms that are oxidized (3 × (+4) = +12 increase).
Put the coefficient 3 in front of S and SO2, and the coefficient 2 in front
of K2Cr2O7 and Cr2O3.
Sample Problem

Step 5: Check the equation and balance by
inspection if necessary.
2K2Cr2O7(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 3S(s) →

4KOH(aq) + 2Cr2O3(s) + 3SO2(g)
The coefficient 4 in front of KOH balances

potassium. The coefficient 2 in front of
H2O balances hydrogen and oxygen.

Equations
Using Half-Reactions
A half-reaction is an equation showing just
the oxidation or just the reduction that takes
place in a redox reaction.

Equations
In the half-reaction method, you write and
balance the oxidation and reduction
half-reactions separately before combining
them into a balanced redox equation.
• The procedure is different, but the outcome is
the same as with the oxidation-number-change
method.

Equations
Using Half-Reactions Oxidation Numbers of

Sulfur in Different
Sulfur is an element that can Substances
have several different oxidation Substance
Oxidation
number
numbers. SO3 +6
• The oxidation of sulfur by nitric SO2 +4
acid in aqueous solution is one Na2S2O3 +2

example of a redox reaction that S2Cl2 +1
can be balanced by following the S 0
steps of the half-reaction method. H 2S –2
S(s) + HNO3(aq) → SO2(g) + NO(g) + H2O(l)

(unbalanced)
Equations
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation in ionic
form.
• Only HNO3 is ionized.
• The products are covalent compounds.
S(s) + H+(aq) + NO3–(aq) → SO2(g) + NO(g) + H2O(l)

Equations
Step 2: Write separate half-reactions for the
oxidation and reduction processes.
• Sulfur is oxidized.
• Nitrogen is reduced.
• H+ ions and H2O are not included because
they are neither oxidized nor reduced.
0 +4
Oxidation half-reaction:S(s) → SO2(g)
+5 +2
Reduction half-reaction: NO3–(aq) → NO(g)
Equations
Step 3: Balance the atoms in the
half-reactions.
The half-reaction method is very useful

in balancing equations for reactions that
take place in acidic or basic solutions.
• In acidic solutions, H2O and H+(aq) can be
used to balance oxygen and hydrogen as
needed.
• In basic solution, H2O and OH– are used to
balance these species.
Equations
half-reactions.
a. Balance the oxidation half-reaction.
• Sulfur is already balanced, but oxygen is not.
• This reaction takes place in acid solution, so
H2O and H+(aq) are present and can be used
to balance oxygen and hydrogen as needed.
2H2O(l) + S(s) → SO2(g) + 4H+(aq)

Equations
half-reactions.
b. Balance the reduction half-reaction.
• Nitrogen is already balanced.
• Add two molecules of H2O on the right to
balance the oxygen.
• Four hydrogen ions must be added to the left
to balance hydrogen.
4H+(aq) + NO3–(aq) → NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

Equations
Step 4: Add enough electrons to one side of
each half-reaction to balance the
charges.
• Neither half-reaction is balanced for
charge.
• Four electrons are needed on the right
side in the oxidation half-reaction.
Oxidation: 2H2O(l) + S(s) → SO2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e–

Equations
Step 4: Add enough electrons to one side of
each half-reaction to balance the
charges.
• Neither half-reaction is balanced for
charge.
• Three electrons are needed on the left
side in the reduction half-reaction.
Reduction: 4H+(aq) + NO3–(aq) + 3e– → NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

Equations
Step 5: Multiply each half-reaction by an
appropriate number to make the
numbers of electrons equal in both.
• The number of electrons lost in
oxidation must equal the number of
electrons gained in reduction.
Oxidation: 6H2O(l) + 3S(s) → 3SO2(g) + 12H+(aq) + 12e–

Reduction: 16H+(aq) + 4NO3–(aq) + 12e– →
4NO(g) + 8H2O(l)
Equations
Step 6: Add the balanced half-reactions to
show an overall equation.
6H2O(l) + 3S(s) + 16H+(aq) + 4NO3–(aq) + 12e– →

3SO2(g) + 12H+(aq) + 12e– + 4NO(g) + 8H2O(l)

Equations
Step 6: Add the balanced half-reactions to
show an overall equation.
• Then subtract terms that appear on
both sides of the equation.
3S(s) + 4H+(aq) + 4NO3–(aq) →

3SO2(g) + 4NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

Equations
Step 7: Add the spectator ions and balance the
equation.
• Recall that spectator ions are present
but do not participate in or change
during a reaction.
• There are no spectator ions in this
particular example.
3S(s) + 4HNO3(aq) → 3SO2(g) + 4NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

Sample Problem
Balancing Redox Equations by

Half-Reactions
Balance this redox equation
using the half-reaction method.
KMnO4(aq) + HCl(l) → MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + KCl(aq)

Sample Problem
You can use the seven steps of the

half-reaction method.

Sample Problem
2 Solve Apply concepts to this problem.
Step 1:Write the equation in ionic form.
K+(aq) + MnO4–(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) →

Mn2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2O(l) + K+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

Sample Problem
Step 2:Write half-reactions. Determine

the oxidation and reduction
process.
–1 0
Oxidation half-reaction: Cl– → Cl2
+7 +2
Reduction half-reaction: MnO4– → Mn2+

Sample Problem
Step 3:Balance the atoms in each

half-reaction.
• The solution is acidic, so use H2O and H+ to
balance the oxygen and hydrogen.
Oxidation: 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) (atoms balanced)
Reduction: MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) →

Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) (atoms balanced)

Sample Problem
Step 4:Balance the charges by adding

electrons.
Oxidation: 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e– (charges balanced)
Reduction: MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– →

Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) (charges balanced)

Sample Problem
Step 5:Make the numbers of electrons

equal.
• Multiply the oxidation half-reaction by 5
and the reduction half-reaction by 2.
Oxidation: 10Cl–(aq) → 5Cl2(g) + 10e–
Reduction: 2MnO4–(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 10e– →

2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l)

Sample Problem
Step 6:Add the half-reactions. Then,

subtract the terms that appear on
both sides.
10Cl–(aq) + 2MnO4–(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 10e– →

5Cl2(g) + 10e– + 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l)

Sample Problem
Step 7:Add the spectator ions, making sure

the charges and atoms are
balanced.
10Cl– + 2MnO4– + 2K+ + 16H+ + 6Cl– →

5Cl2 + 2Mn2+ + 4Cl– + 8H2O + 2K+ + 2Cl–

Sample Problem
Combine the spectator and nonspectator

Cl– on each side.
16Cl–(aq) + 2MnO4–(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 16H+(aq) →

5Cl2(g) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 6Cl–(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 2K+(aq)

Sample Problem
Show the balanced equation for the

substances given in the question (rather
than for ions).
2KMnO4(aq) + 16HCl(aq) →
2MnCl2(aq) + 5Cl2(g) + 8H2O(l) + 2KCl(aq)

Use the half-reaction method to

balance the following redox equation.
FeCl3 + H2S → FeCl2 + HCl + S

Use the half-reaction method to

balance the following redox equation.
FeCl3 + H2S → FeCl2 + HCl + S
Oxidation: H2S → 2H+ + S + 2e–

Reduction: 2Fe3+ + 2e– → 2Fe2+
2FeCl3 + H2S → 2FeCl2 + 2HCl + S

20.3 Describing Redox Equations > Key Concepts
One class of chemical reactions is

oxidation reduction (redox) reactions, in
which electrons are transferred from one
reacting species to another. The other
class includes all other reactions, in which
no electron transfer occurs.
To balance a redox equation using the
oxidation-number-change method, the total
increase in oxidation number of the
species oxidized must be balanced by the
total decrease in the oxidation number of
the species reduced.
20.3 Describing Redox Equations > Key Concepts
To balance a redox reaction using

half-reactions, write separate half-reactions
for the oxidation and the reduction. After
you balance atoms in each half-reaction,
balance electrons gained in the reduction
with electrons lost in the oxidation.

20.3 Describing Redox Equations > Glossary Terms
• oxidation-number-change method: a method

of balancing a redox equation by comparing the
increases and decreases in oxidation numbers
• half-reaction: an equation showing either the
oxidation or the reduction that takes place in a
redox reaction
• half-reaction method: a method of balancing a
redox equation by balancing the oxidation and
reduction half-reactions separately before
combining them into a balanced redox equation
20.3 Describing Redox Equations > BIG IDEA
Reactions
Redox equations can be balanced by two
methods, the oxidation-number-change
method and balancing the oxidation and
reduction half-reactions.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: The Meaning of Oxidation Oxidation Numbers

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20.

3 Describing Redox Equations >

1 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Gain of Electrons is Reduction

❖ Sulfur atom gains 2e- to form Sulfide ion (S -2)

Therefore, the formation of CaS involves 2

Ca(s) + S(s) → Ca+2 + S -2 = CaS(s)

Every time a reaction involves a REDOX, the

❖ the SO4 -2 ions are spectator ions and don’t change

Why does cut fruit turn brown?

Identifying Redox Reactions

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All chemical reactions can be assigned to

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Many single-replacement reactions,

Many single-replacement reactions,

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Examples of reactions that are not redox

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1. In uncombined or free elements (not ionized), each

5. Oxidation numbers must be consistent with

Many reactions in which color changes

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Some fruits, including apples, turn

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Some fruits, including apples, turn

Oxygen in air reacts with

• Oxidation numbers can be used to identify what is

Identifying Redox Reactions

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1 Analyze Identify the relevant concepts.

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2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

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2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

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2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

• None of the elements change in

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Which of the following are redox

A. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

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Which of the following are redox

A. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

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Balancing Redox Equations

What are the two different methods

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Two different methods for balancing

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Two different methods for balancing

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Using Oxidation-Number Changes

In a blast furnace, air is blown

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Using Oxidation-Number Changes

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