 Off-set survey

 Traverse survey
 Tacheometry survey
 Triangulation
 Trilateration
 Air survey or photogrammetry
 Theodolite survey
 Compass survey
 Chain survey
 Tapes survey
 GPS survey
 Plane table survey
 Line ties Off-set
A
A

D
C
C

Traverse Intersection & Resection

A A

C
B C
θ

B
 Sources of errors
i. Natural or nature eg. Temperature, air pressure, humidity,
winds
ii. Instrumental eg. Chain used is not standard whether longer
or shorter than the standard
iii. Personal or human being eg. Wrong reading 88 instead of
58, wrong writing, wrong calculation
 Mistakes (blunders or gross errors)
-cause by human being or surveyor
-mistakes can happen at early stage, middle or at the end of
the survey
-anybody can do mistakes, boys or girls, young or old,
professional or not professional.
-to overcome mistakes, check the reading, read more than
one time, read by another person
 Systematic or cumulative error
-due to the instrument used not standard
-consistent characteristic
-value of the error can be determined
-these error can be eliminated by applying correction
 Random or accidental error
-cause by different capabilities of the instrument used and
the surveyor
-the remaining error after all mistakes and systematic errors
eliminated is call random
-these error are small, and they cannot be eliminated