Surveying Prelims

Contents
 Definition
 Classification
 Types
 Importance
 What do we measure in surveying
 Important matters regarding measurements
 Errors
 Brief history of surveying

Background
Surveying is one of the oldest arts practiced by man.
DIOPTRA
http://www.anbls.nb.ca/generic_pages/history.html http://surveyingeospatial.blogspot.com/
2009/05/historythe-dioptra.html
Background
Planning and design are based on the results of Construction is controlled by surveying.
surveys.
http://www.brasierfreeth.com/BC_planning_design_services.php http://www.plumbersurplus.com/Prod/DeWalt-
DW082K-Laser-Plumb-Bob/73955/Cat/1020
Did you know?
http://gph.is/1P7tqX8
Importance of Surveying
 It trains the students to visualize and think logically, to plan, to work carefully and
accurately, and to arrange the product of these efforts in a neat and orderly manner for
record or presentation.
 It will develop habits of accuracy, industry and reliability.
 It also trains the students to decide on how accurate and precise measurements should
be made, and acquire essential habits of checking numerical calculations,
measurements and observations.
 All these attributes are expected to add the stature and technical competence of a future
professional.
Definition
Is the art and science of measuring distances, angles and positions of points, lines, areas on or near
the surface of the earth or other extra-terrestrial bodies through applied mathematics with the use of
specialized equipment and techniques.
http://gph.is/1BHQMvK
Definition
Elev. B = 87.5 m
B
N

W E
A
Elev. A = 45.5 m
S
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/surveyor-job-duties-salary-requirements-4146978
General Classification
PLANE SURVEYING:
It is the type of surveying in which the earth is considered a flat surface, and where distances and
areas involved are of limited extent that the exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
http://gph.is/1qEvnSe https://engineeringbasic.com/surveying-and-different-types-
of-surveying/
General Classification
GEODETIC SURVEYING:
Are surveys of wide extent, which take into account the spherical shape of the earth.
http://gph.is/1flGXFM
http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/ess/geodetic_surveying.htm
https://gph.is/g/a9p7lWo
Types of Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY Surveying may be classified on the

CITY SURVEY following basis:
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY a) Nature of the survey field
ROUTE SURVEY
b) Object of survey
c) Instruments used and
MINE SURVEY
d) The methods employed
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY
Types of Survey Cadastral Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  is the means by which private and
public land is defined, divided, traced,
CITY SURVEY and recorded.
 The term derives from the French
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
cadastre, a register of the survey of
ROUTE SURVEY lands and is, in effect, the public record
of the extent, value, and ownership of
MINE SURVEY land for purposes of taxation. https://plansur.com.au/our-
services/cadastral-surveys/
FORESTRY SURVEY
Cadastral Survey in the Philippines
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY  The Cadastral Survey in the Philippines is a survey made of
extensive areas covering an entire municipality or city
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY consisting of several or many parcels of land undertaken for
the purpose of title clearance and land registration. The
primary objective of the cadastral survey is land titling.
http://www.fig.net/cadastraltemplate/countrydata/ph.htm
Types of Survey City Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  These are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the
purpose of planning expansions or improvements, locating
CITY SURVEY property lines, fixing reference monuments, determining the
physical features and configuration of the land, and preparing
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
maps.
ROUTE SURVEY
MINE SURVEY
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY
Types of Survey Construction Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  otherwise known as "lay-out" or
"setting-out"
CITY SURVEY
 is to stake out reference points and
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY markers that will guide the
construction of new structures such
ROUTE SURVEY as roads or buildings. These markers
are usually staked out according to a
MINE SURVEY suitable coordinate system selected
for the project.
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY
Types of Survey Route Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  Used in the determination of the location of the natural and
artificial objects along a proposed route for a highway,
CITY SURVEY railroad, canal, pipeline and etc.
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
ROUTE SURVEY
MINE SURVEY
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY
http://saddlebacksurveys.com/boundary-design-route-surveys/
Types of Survey Mine Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  These are made to obtain the relative positions and elevations
of underground shafts, geological formations and so on.
CITY SURVEY
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
ROUTE SURVEY
MINE SURVEY
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
http://www.upandundergroup.com/inspections-and-
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY https://www.denada.net.au/service/mine-surveying.html
surveys/surveys/
Types of Survey Forestry Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  A type of survey executed in connection with forest
management and mensuration, and the production and
CITY SURVEY conservation of forest lands.
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
ROUTE SURVEY
MINE SURVEY
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY
https://www.uwsp.edu/forestry/Pages/default.aspx
Types of Survey Hydrographic Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  is the science of measurement
and description of features
CITY SURVEY which affect maritime
navigation, marine construction,
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
dredging, offshore oil
ROUTE SURVEY
exploration/drilling and related
disciplines.
MINE SURVEY
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/hydrographic-survey-
20299319388.html
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY
https://geomaksurvey.com/hydro.html
Types of Survey Industrial Survey
CADASTRAL SURVEY  Sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of
surveying techniques in ship building, construction and
CITY SURVEY assembly of aircraft, laying out and installation of heavy and
complex machinery, and in other industries where very
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
accurate dimensional layouts are required.
ROUTE SURVEY
MINE SURVEY
FORESTRY SURVEY
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
INDUSTRIAL SURVEY
https://www.alignsurvey.co.za/industrial/
Measurement
Measurement is the process of determining the extent , size or dimensions of a particular quantity in
comparison to a given standard. It is the principal concern of a surveyor.
 There is no such thing a perfect measuring instrument nor is there a surveyor whose
senses are sufficiently perfect to measure any quantity exactly.
 No exact or true measurement is ever possible, and the true value of a measured quantity
is never known.
 Errors cannot be totally eliminated
 The best surveyor is one who is able to choose and apply the required appropriate degree
of precision.
History of Meter
Meter – international unit of linear measurement.
The metre was originally defined in 1790-1793 as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to
the North Pole.
A platinum bar with length approximately equal to their calculated metre was placed in the French
National Archives in 1799.
In 1889, it was replaced by a new X-shaped 90%platinum-10%iridium bar. However, this new standard
(like all the redefinitions since) was intended to be as close to the original bar as possible.
Since 1983 the metre has been defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in
1/299,792,458 second.
In 1960 the metre was thus defined in the SI system as equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the
orange-red line in the spectrum of the krypton-86 atom in a vacuum.
https://www.britannica.com/science/measurement-system/The-metric-system-of-measurement
https://scientificgems.wordpress.com/2013/06/03/dunkerque-to-barcelona-in-metres-a-review-of-the-measure-of-all-things/
History of Meter
Meter – international unit of linear measurement.
1790-1793 1889 1983
The metre was originally It was replaced by a new X- The metre has been defined as
defined as one ten-millionth of shaped 90%platinum- the distance travelled by light
the distance from the equator 10%iridium bar. However, this in a vacuum in
to the North Pole. new standard was intended to 1/299,792,458 second.
be as close to the original bar
as possible.
The metre was thus defined in

A platinum bar with length the SI system as equal to
approximately equal to their 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of
calculated metre was placed in the orange-red line in the
the French National Archives in spectrum of the krypton-86
1799. atom in a vacuum.
1799 1960
https://www.britannica.com/science/measurement-system/The-metric-system-of-measurement
https://scientificgems.wordpress.com/2013/06/03/dunkerque-to-barcelona-in-metres-a-review-of-the-measure-of-all-things/
Surveying History
December 1978
 metric conversion or change-over was signed into law by Pres. F.E. Marcos
January 01, 1983

 The English system was officially phased out in the Philippines
Commonly Used Prefixes In S.I.
Mega = 1,000,000
Kilo = 1,000
Hecto = 100
Deca = 10
Deci = 0.1
Centi = 0.01
milli = 0.001
micro = 0.000001
nano = 0.000000001
Units of Measurement
Significant Figures
General Rules:
Rule 1 : Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.
Ex. 4 SF: 12.03 35.06 4009
Rule 2 : For any value less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal are not significant.
Ex 3 SF: 0.00325 0.000826 0.0589
Rule 3 : Zeroes placed at the end of the decimal numbers are significant.
Ex. 5 SF: 739.80 190.00 38.000
NOTE: When computations are to be made with values obtained from measurements, it is
important that enough figures be retained to insure that the significant figures in the final result
are consistent with the precision of the measurement.
Rounding off Numbers
Procedures:
1.Digits less than 5.
When the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the number is written without the digit.
2. Digit is equal to 5.
When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number is used for the
preceding digit. Ex : 26.175 → 26.18; 156.285 → 156.28
3. Digit is greater than 5.
When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the number is written with the
preceding digit increased by one. Ex : 226.276 → 226.28
Types of Measurement
Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement
A direct measurement is obtained An indirect measurement is
by applying a tape to a line, or by secured when it is not possible to
applying a protractor to an angle, apply the unit of measure directly
or turning an angle with a transit. to the distance or angle to be
measured. The quantity is,
therefore, determined by its
relation to some other measured
quantity.
Accuracy vs Precision
Accuracy
–degree of perfection obtained
in measurements. It denotes
how close a given
measurement is to the true
value of the quantity
measured.
Precision (Apparent Accuracy)

–the degree of refinement with
which a given quantity is
measured. It is the closeness of
one measurement to another.
Errors and Mistakes
Mistakes (or blunder) are inaccuracies in Error is the difference between the true
measurements which occur because value and the measured value of the
some aspect of a surveying operation is quantity caused by the imperfection of a
performed by the surveyor with person’s senses, by the imperfection of
carelessness, inattention, poor judgment the equipment, or by weather effects.
and improper execution.
http://gph.is/23glWWS https://gph.is/2GD6TSx
Sources of Errors
 Natural Errors – these are caused by vibrations in wind, temperature,
humidity, gravity, and magnetic declination.
Ex. Temperature correction – expansion and contraction
 Instrumental Errors – these result from any imperfection in the

construction or adjustment of instruments and from the movement of
individual parts.
Ex. Painted graduations on a rod may not be perfectly spaced or the rod may be warped.
 Personal Errors – these arise from limitations of the human senses of

sight, touch and hearing.
Types of Errors
 Systematic Errors (Cumulative Error) – is one that, for constant
conditions, remains the same as to sign and magnitude. This is a type of
error that can be eliminated by applying corrections.
 Accidental Errors (Compensating/Random Error) – is one whose

magnitude and direction is just an accident and beyond the control of the
surveyor/observer and obey the law of probability. These are the errors,
which remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated.
How to eliminate errors
 by repeating the measurements
 by casting out the doubtful value
 by rectifying(adjusting) the questionable value
Theory of Probability
 Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably
occur over the range of possible occurrences.
https://gph.is/2h6Q4nQ https://gph.is/1UP69rV
1. Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.
2. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; large ones may
be mistakes rather than accidental errors.
3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is,
they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.
I. Most Probable Value (Mean)
For example
A B
DISTANCE = 835.82±0.06 ft.
True Distance lies between 835.76 and 835.88 ft and most probable value is 835.82 ft.
∑𝑿
𝑴𝑷𝑽 = 𝑿 = 𝒏
Where: X – individual measurements

n – total number of observations made
Illustrative problem#1
A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance between two points
marked on the ground. The students came up with the following six different values: 250.25,
250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50 and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable
and that the variations result from accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the
distance measured.
ANS: 250.51 meters

Illustrative problem#2
The angles about a point Q have the following observed values: 130°15’20”, 142°37’30”, and
87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
𝑆𝑈𝑀 = ⊖ + ⊖ + ⊖
𝑆𝑈𝑀 = 360°00’30”
𝐷𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑅𝐸𝑃𝐴𝑁𝐶𝑌 = 360° − SUM

130°15’20
87°07’40”
” 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑅𝐸𝑃𝐴𝑁𝐶𝑌 = -30”
Q
𝐶𝑂𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 = = −30"/3 = −10"
142°37’30 MOST PROBABLE VALUES:

”
⊖ = ⊖ ± 𝐶𝑂𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 = 130°15’10”
⊖ = ⊖ ± 𝐶𝑂𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 = 142°37’20”
⊖ = ⊖ ± 𝐶𝑂𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 = 87°07’30”
II. Residual
The residual, which is sometimes referred to as deviation, is defined as
the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most
probable value or
where:
v – residual/deviation
x – measurement made
- most probable value of the quantity measured
III. Standard Deviation
Also called as the mean square error, it provides a practical means of indicating the reliability of a
set of repeated measurements by quantifying the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of
data values.
∑𝒗𝟐
𝝈= ± (single observation)
𝒏 𝟏
∑𝒗𝟐
𝝈= ± (series of observation)
𝒏(𝒏 𝟏)
IV. Probable Error
Is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the mpv, defines a range within
which there is a 50% chance that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside)
the limits.
𝑷𝑬𝑺 = 𝑪𝒑𝝈𝒔
𝑷𝑬𝑴 = 𝑪𝒑𝝈𝑴
For 50% probability, Cp = 0.6745. Hence,
∑
𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745 (single observation)
∑
𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745 (series of observation)
( )
V. Relative (Error) Precision
It is the ratio of the error to the measured quantity and is used to define the degree of
refinement obtained. Usually expressed in fraction having 1 as the numerator.
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
𝑹𝑷 =
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚
Example:
𝑃𝐸 = 0.10 𝑚 and MPV = 235.50.
0.10 1
RP = =
235.50 2355
VI. Weighted Observations
Because it is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability, many surveying
measurements have different degrees of reliability. In this case, it is necessary to estimate the
weight (degree of reliability) for each measurement before they are combined and the most
probable values are determined.
𝟏
𝑾=
𝑬𝟐
Where:
w – weight being assigned
E – probable error
VII. Interrelationship of Errors
1. Summation of Errors (Perimeter)
𝑷𝑬𝑺𝑼𝑴 = ± 𝑷𝑬𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟑 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝑬𝒏 𝟐
2. Product of Errors (Area)
𝑷𝑬𝑷𝑹𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑪𝑻 = ± (𝑸𝟏 × 𝑷𝑬𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 × 𝑷𝑬𝟏 )𝟐
where:
𝑃𝐸 , 𝑃𝐸 – probable error of each measurement
𝑄 , 𝑄 – measured quantities
Illustrative problems
1. The ff values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40,
1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40 and 1000.46.
Determine the ff:
A. MPV of the measured length (Ans. 1000.45 m)
B. PE of single measurement and mean (Ans. ±0.05 m and ±0.02m)
C. Final expression of the most probable length (MPL) (Ans. 1000.45±0.02 m)
D. Relative precision of the measurement (Ans. 1/20,000 m (single) and 1/50,000

(mean))
2. The three sides of a triangular shaped tract of land is given by the following measurements and
corresponding probable errors:
a = 162.54 ± 0.03m
b = 234.26 ± 0.05m
c = 195.70 ± 0.04m
Determine the error of the perimeter. (Ans. ± 0.07m)

3. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable error as
follows:
W = 253.36 ± 0.06m
L = 624.15 ± 0.08m
Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculation.
(Ans. 158134.64 ± 42.58 sq.m)

4. Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different routes. The
observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given below. Determine the most
probable value of elevation of the point
LINE OBSERVED ELEVATION (m) PROBABLE ERROR (m)
1 219.832 +- 0.006
2 219.930 +- 0.012
3 219.701 +- 0.018
4 220.021 +- 0.024
(Ans. 219.847m)
5. The following interior angles of a triangle traverse were measured with the same precision.
Determine the most probable value of the interior angles.
STATION OBSERVED ANGLES (deg) NO. OF MEASUREMENTS

A 39 3
B 65 4
C 75 2
(Ans. 39˚ 18.46’;65˚ 13.85’;75˚ 27.69’)

Measurement of
Horizontal Distances
the distance between two points means
the horizontal distance
Distance is a numerical description of how far
apart objects are.
In physics or everyday usage, distance may

refer to a physical length, or an estimation
based on other criteria (e.g. "two counties
over").
In most cases, "distance from A to B" is

interchangeable with "distance from B to A".
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance
DEFINITION
In Math
 The distance between two points is the

length of a straight line segment that links
them.
 The distance of a point from a line is the

length of the shortest line segment from
the point to the line.
http://www.mathopenref.com/distance.html
DEFINITION
 Pacing
 Graphical/Mathematical Method
 Mechanical Devices
 Taping*
 Tachymetry
 Photogrammetry*
 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)*
 GPS
Methods of Linear Measurements

Distance by Pacing
In surveying, pacing means moving with
measured steps; and if the steps are counted,
distances can be determined if the length of a
step is known.
◦ Consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a
required distance
 Length of a pace varies with different persons
1 Stride
(2 Paces or Double Step)
1 Pace
(Heel to Heel)
1 Pace
(Toe to Toe)
1 Stride Counting strides instead

(2 Paces or Double Step) of pace is sometimes
preferred by surveyors.
Distance by Pacing A stride is equivalent to

two paces or a double
step.
Pacing furnishes a rapid means of checking
measurements taken by other methods.
It is suitable in determining approximate

distances in situations where a low
precision of measurement is sufficient.
Advantage of Pacing
FORMULA:
M=
𝑠 𝐿 𝑇𝐷 𝐿 ∙ 𝑛
𝑛 𝑃𝐹 = = =
𝑀 𝑆 𝑆
where:
S = summation of all the no. of paces for each
trial
n = number of trials taken
L = Length of the line paced
M = mean number of paces
TD = total distance
PF = pace factor of surveyor
Pace factor is expressed in either feet per pace or

meter per pace.
PACE FACTOR FORMULA
Graphical solutions relate known and
unknown distances geometrically. This is
basically what is done in plane table
survey.
The determination of lengths of the

sides of the triangulation system
involves geometric and trigonometric
relationships.
This method finds practical use when

long distances must be found or when
distances over inaccessible terrain are
involved.
Distance by Graphical / Mathematical

Method
 This method can often be used to advantage on
preliminary surveys where precise distances are
not necessary
 For low precision surveys or for quick measurements
 Measuring Wheel &

Odometer
 converts the number of revolutions
of a wheel of known circumference
to a distance.
Distance by Mechanical Devices

not necessary

preliminary surveys where precise distances are not
necessary
 Pedometer
 a device, usually portable and
electronic or
electromechanical, that
counts each step a person
takes by detecting the motion
of the person's hands or hips.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/

not necessary
 Odometer (or odograph)

 instrument used for
measuring the distance
traveled by a vehicle, such as
a bicycle or car.

not necessary
 Optical Rangefinder
 A monocular devices with
built-in scales. The height
of the pin in the eyepiece
is measured and then
converted to a distance
reading using preloaded
conversion charts.

 Photogrammetry
◦ Measurement of images on a photograph
◦ Photographs taken from an aircraft with the
axis of the camera pointed vertically towards
the terrain photographed
Distance by Photogrammetric
 Photogrammetry
◦ Photographs taken from an aircraft with the
axis of the camera pointed vertically towards
the terrain photographed
Distance by Photogrammetric
Source:https://www.aboutcivil.org/Principal-method-of-Terrestrial-Photogrammetry.html
 Capable of accurate measurements over
long distances, depending upon the
system employed.
 In most instruments, distance is

computed automatically, the instrument
reading directly in feet or in meters.
Distance by EDM
 These devices send out a beam of light or high-frequency
microwaves from one end of a line to be measured, and
directs it toward the far end of the line.
 A reflector or transmitter-receiver at the far end reflects

the light of microwave back to the instrument where they
are analyzed electronically to give the distance between
the two points.
Distance by EDM
 Laser-distometer
Distance by EDM
 In surveying, tacheometry is defined as the
procedure of obtaining horizontal distances and
differences in elevation based on the optical
geometry of the instrument employed.
Uses
 Used on surveys that require only low relative
accuracy whose data are to be obtained
immediately.
 Advantageously employed in reconnaissance and
preliminary survey for obtaining required data.
 Used on topographic survey for obtaining the
configuration of the terrain involved.
Distance by Tachymetry
 Based on the optical geometry of the
instruments employed; indirect method of
measurement
1. Stadia Method
 provides a rapid means of determining
horizontal distances
 was introduced in 1771 by James Watt of
Scotland
 referred to as a micrometer for measuring
distances.
Distance by Tachymetric
1. Stadia Method
Because of its low precision, it is mostly used

in topographic or reconnaissance surveys. It is
also employed for checking measurements
obtained by more precise methods.
In this method the distance is obtained by
sighting the telescope of an instrument on a
graduated rod held at the other end of the line
and observing the interval on the rod included
between two special horizontal cross hairs set in
the telescope. From the observed interval, the
distance from the instrument to the rod is readily
computed.
1. Stadia Method
 The word stadia is the plural of stadium. It comes from the Greek
word for a unit of length originally applied in measuring distances
for athletic contests.
 A stadia denoted 600 Greek units, or 184 m 93 cm (606 ft 9 in)
by present-day international standards. The word stadia, as it is
used now in surveying, was derived from the latter.
 The term is now applied to the cross hairs and rod used in
making measurements, as well as to the method itself.
1. Stadia Method
Definitions
 Stadia Hair are lines etched on the telescope glass in
addition to the central one equally spaced one above and
one below the middle wire.
 Stadia Constant (C) is the distance between the center of

the telescope to the focal point.
 Stadia Interval Factor (K) is the nominal value of focal

distance divided by the distance between the stadia hair.
 Line of collimation is an imaginary line connecting the true

position of the intersection of the cross hair and the optical
center of the objective lens.
Types of Stadia Hair
• Disappearing
• Fixed
1. Stadia Method
◦ Factors:
 Refinement with which the instrument was manufactured
 Skill of observer
 Length of measurement
 Effects of refraction
1. Stadia Method 𝐷 = d + (f+c)
= (f/i)s + C
= 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶
D = horizontal distance
K = stadia interval factor of
the instrument
s = difference between the
upper and lower stadia hair
reading
C = stadia constant
= 0.30m for external
focusing telescope
= 0 for internal focusing
telescope
Horizontal Line
of Sight
Inclined
Line of Sight
2. Subtense Bar Method
The subtense bar is a convenient and

practical device used for quick and accurate
measurement of horizontal distances. The
procedure for determining the distance between
two points consists of setting up the subtense bar
at the distant station, and measuring the
horizontal angle subtended by the distance
between the two targets.
Subtense Bar
Subtense Bar
2. Subtense Bar Method 2-m Long Subtense Bar
Left Target Mark
Theodolite or
Transit S/2
α/2
α S
S/2
Right Target Mark

D
(Horizontal Distance)
S /2 Since S=2.00m
Tan( / 2) =
D 1
D= = Cot ( / 2)
S /2 Tan( / 2)
D=
Tan( / 2) D = horizontal distance
α = angle subtended by the targets
1. A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an
instrument set-up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair
readings were observed as 1.50m and 0.80m, respectively. If
the stadia interval factor is 100, and the instrument constant
is 0, determine the length on line AB.
A B
Illustrative Problem
1. A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set-up
at A. The upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.50m and
0.80m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor is 100, and the instrument
constant is 0, determine the length on line AB.
Given:
u = 1.50m
l = 0.80m
K = 100
C=0
Required:
Distance from A to B
Solution:
𝐷 = d + (f+c)
= (f/i)s + C
= 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶
B 𝐷 = 100(1.50-0.80) +0
D = 70m
2. A transit is set up on a building 50
meters above a street. A horizontal 3-
meter bar is placed at street level at right
angle to the line joining its center to the
transit and the angle subtended by its
two ends is measured by a transit. The
angle is found to be 3° 24’ 15”. What is
the horizontal distance between the
transit and the center of the bar?
2. A transit is set up on a building 50 meters above a street.
A horizontal 3-meter bar is placed at street level at right
angle to the line joining its center to the transit and the angle
subtended by its two ends is measured by a transit. The
angle is found to be 3° 24’ 15”. What is the horizontal
distance between the transit and the center of the bar?
2. A transit is set up on a building 50 meters above a street. A horizontal 3-
meter bar is placed at street level at right angle to the line joining its center
to the transit and the angle subtended by its two ends is measured by a
transit. The angle is found to be 3° 24’ 15”. What is the horizontal distance
between the transit and the center of the bar?
S /2
Tan( / 2) =
D
S /2
D=
Tan( / 2)
3/2
𝐷=
3° 24’ 15”
𝑇𝑎𝑛
2
D = 50.478m
3. The following subtended angles were read on a 2m long
subtense bar using a transit: 0°55’45”, and 0°10’50”.
Compute the horizontal distance from the transit to each
position of the bar.
Plate 2: Measurement of Horizontal Distance

 Most common method of measuring or laying out
horizontal distances
 Consists of stretching a calibrated tape between
two points and reading the distance indicated on
the tape
a. Steel Tape
b. Meter
c. Marking
Pins/Wooden
hub
d. Clamp Handles
e. Range Pole
f. Plumb bobs
Distance by Taping
Hand level and clinometer
Tension Handle
Distance by Taping
 Often referred to as direct measurement
 Calibrated ropes, cords, and lines were

used by surveyors for many centuries.
 The use of steel tape only came about

during the beginning of the twentieth
century.
Distance by Taping
Distance by Taping
 Meter Rule
Distance by Taping
Before the advent of the
steel tape, the chain was
used for marking linear
measurements.
The procedure was known

as “chaining” and the
members of a chaining
party were called
“chainmen”.
Two types of chains were

used, the Gunter’s or
surveyor’s chain and the
engineer’s chain.
Distance by Taping
Gunter’s Chain
From 1839 to 1880, land surveyors in the colony of
Queensland used Gunter’s chain to measure the boundaries
of town allotments and country selections (farms).
Gunter’s Chain
20-METER CHAIN
• A 100 ft chain of 100 links each of 1 foot
• Brass tags are fastened at every 100 links
• Used to measure length in feet and area in square yards
Engineer’s Chain
• Incorrect Tape Length
• Slope
• Temperature
• Pull (Tension)
• Sag
• Alignment
• Wind
Taping Corrections
• Adding or dropping a Full-length
• Adding a centimeter or decimeter
• Reading numbers incorrectly
• Calling numbers incorrectly
• Reading wrong meter mark
Mistakes in Taping
Incorrect Tape Length
Taping Corrections
 A systematic error occurs
when incorrect length of a
tape is used.
 The true length of a tape
can be obtained by
comparing it with a
standard tape or distance.
 An error caused by
incorrect length of a tape
occurs each time the tape
is used.

When measuring,
•If the tape is long, add the correction.
•If the tape is short, subtract the correction.

Measured Distance
A 100m B
AB is measured using 2 tape lengths

But, the tape length is actually 50.02m (Tape is too long)
So AB is actually: 2(50.02) = 100.04m
Must add a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m

Measured Distance
A 100m B
AB is measured using 2 tape lengths

But, the tape length is actually 49.98m (Tape is too short)
So AB is actually: 2(49.98) = 99.96m
Must subtract a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m

When laying out,
•If the tape is long, subtract the correction.
•If the tape is short, add the correction.

Layout Distance (construction surveys)
A 100m B
The distance between A and B must be 100m.

But the tape length is actually 50.02m (Tape is too long)
2 tape applications: 2(50.02) = 100.04m
Must subtract a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m

Layout Distance (construction surveys)
A 100m B
The distance between A and B must be 100m.

But the tape length is actually 49.98m (Tape is too short)
2 tape applications: 2(49.98) = 99.96m
Must add a correction of 2(0.02) = 0.04m

GENERAL RULES IN APPLYING CORRECTIONS
Too long (+) Too short (-)
Measuring + -
Laying out - +
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑁𝐿
𝑀𝐿
𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 ⋅ TL = actual length of tape
𝑁𝐿
Cl = total correction to be applied to
the measured length or length to
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑙 be laid out
CL = corrected length of the line to be

measured or laid out (L’)
ML = measured length or length to be

laid out
NL = nominal length of tape

1. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m steel tape
which was found to be 0.025m too short. If the recorded
length and width of the lot are 180.455m and 127.062m,
respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimension of the lot.
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length
of tape.
Given: 180.455m
127.062m
NL=50m
MLL=180.455m
MLW=127.062m
Corr=0.025m per tape length (too short)
Required: Solution:
a. Actual dimension of the lot 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑁𝐿
b. Error in area
» TL = NL – Corr
TL = 50m -0.025m
TL =49.975m (∴ too short)
1. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m steel tape which was found to be 0.025m too
short. If the recorded length and width of the lot are 180.455m and 127.062m, respectively,
determine the following:
a. Actual dimension of the lot.
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of tape.
Solution:
Length: MLL=180.455m Width: MLW=127.062m
𝑀𝐿 180.455𝑚 𝑀𝐿 127.062𝑚
𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.025𝑚 ∙ 𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.025𝑚 ∙
𝑁𝐿 50𝑚 𝑁𝐿 50𝑚
𝐶𝑙 = 0.0902𝑚 𝐶𝑙 = 0.0635m
CL = ML±𝐶𝑙 CL = ML±𝐶𝑙
CL = 180.455m-0.090m CL = 127.062m-0.0635m
CLL = 180.365m CLW = 126.998m
a. 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝐶𝐿𝑊 𝐴𝑀𝐿 = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑊

ACL = 180.365m(126.998m) AML = 180.455m(127.062m)
ACL = 22,905.994m2 AML = 22,928.973m2
b. 𝐴𝐸𝑅𝑅𝑂𝑅 = 𝐴𝑀𝐿 − 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = 22,928.973𝑚2 − 22,905.994𝑚2 = 22.979𝑚2
Due to Slope
Taping Corrections
B
Gentle Slope
(s < 20%, Ɵ <11.31°)
h2
Ch =
2s
Steep Slope
(20% < s < 30%)
h2 h4
Ch = + A
2s 8s 3
Very Steep Slope
(s > 30%, Ɵ>16.699°) d = s − Ch
C h = s (1 − cos  )
s = measured slope distance between points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
Ch = slope correction
Due to Slope
2. Slope distance AB and BC measures 300.50m and
650.01m, respectively. The differences in elevation are
15.00m for point A and B, and 20.05m for point B and C.
using the approximate slope correction formula for gentle
slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC.
Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling
slope.
B
15.00m
20.05m
A dAB
C
dBC
2. Slope distance AB and BC measures 300.50m and 650.01m, respectively. The differences in
elevation are 15.00m for point A and B, and 20.05m for point B and C. using the approximate
slope correction formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC. Assume
that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling slope. B
Given:
15.00m
sAB = 300.50m
sBC = 650.01m
hAB = 15.00m
20.05m
A
hBC = 20.05m dAB
gentle slope C
dBC
Required:
dABC
ℎ2
Solution: Gentle Slope (s < 20%, Ɵ <11.31°) 𝐶ℎ =
2𝑠
Line AB Line BC
15.00𝑚2 20.05𝑚2
𝐶ℎ = =0.374m 𝐶ℎ = =0.309m
2(300.50𝑚) 2(650.01𝑚)
𝑑 = 𝑠 − 𝐶ℎ 𝑑 = 𝑠 − 𝐶ℎ
𝑑 = 300.50𝑚 − 0.374𝑚 𝑑 = 650.01𝑚 − 0.309𝑚
𝑑 = 300.126𝑚 𝑑 = 649.701𝑚
Illustrative Problem dABC = dAB+ dBC = 949.827m

Due to Poor Alignment
Taping Corrections
Both chainmen are required to be constantly aware of the condition of the tape
as they move along the line. The instrument operator also helps ensure
that the tape is on line over the entire length from point to point. Poor
alignment results from sloppy or lazy habits developed by the chainmen. A
variable systematic error is produced which may be reduced almost
completely if care is exercised in aligning the tape. This is probably the
least important of the chaining errors because in 100 ft the error amounts
only to 0.005 ft if one end is off line one foot.
𝐴𝑑 = 𝐴𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑑 2
Due to Poor Alignment

Due to Sag
Taping Corrections
• A steel tape not supported along its entire length
sags in the form of a catenary curve
• Because of sag the horizontal distance is less
than the graduated distance between tape ends
• Sag can be reduced by applying great tension,
but not eliminated unless the tape is supported
throughout
Due to Sag
Cs= correction due to sag or the difference
between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports
𝑤 2 𝐿3 (m)
𝐶𝑠 =
24𝑃2 w = weight tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports

(kg)
𝑊2𝐿
𝐶𝑠 = L = interval between supports or the
24𝑃2 unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)
Due to Sag
3. A 50-m steel tape weighing 0.035kg/m is constantly
supported at mid-length and its end points and is used to
measure a line AB with a steady pull of 6.5kg. If the
measured length of AB is 1200.00m, determine the following:
a. Correction due to sag between supports and for the
whole tape length
b. Total sag correction for the whole length measured
c. Correct length of line AB
3. A 50-m steel tape weighing 0.035kg/m is constantly supported at mid-length and its end points and
is used to measure a line AB with a steady pull of 6.5kg. If the measured length of AB is 1200.00m,
a. Correction due to sag between supports and for the whole tape length
0 50 100 150 200

Given:
NL=50m 25m 25m 25m 25m
ML=1200m 𝑤 2 𝐿3
w=0.035kg/m Solution: 𝐶𝑆 = 24𝑃2
Support at mid & end
P=6.5kg
Support at every 25m (mid & end)
Required: (0.035𝑘𝑔/𝑚)2 (25𝑚)3
a. Correction due to sag 𝐶𝑆 = = 0.0189𝑚
24(6.5𝑘𝑔)2
between support
b. Total sag correction
Correction for the whole tape length
c. Correct length of AB
0.035𝑘𝑔 2 3
25𝑚
𝑚
𝐶𝑆 = (2) = 0.0378𝑚
24 6.5𝑘𝑔 2
3. A 50-m steel tape weighing 0.035kg/m is constantly supported at mid-length and its end points and
is used to measure a line AB with a steady pull of 6.5kg. If the measured length of AB is 1200.00m,
a. Correction due to sag between supports and for the whole tape length
Total sag correction

𝑀𝐿 1200𝑚
𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.0189𝑚 = 0.907𝑚
𝑁𝐿 25𝑚
always too short
1200𝑚
OR 0.0378𝑚 50𝑚
Correct length of AB
CL = ML ± 𝐶𝑙
CL=1200m-0.907m
CL=1,199.093m
Due to Temperature
Taping Corrections
k= coefficient of linear expansion or
the amount of change on length per
unit length per degree change in
temperature
𝐶𝑡 = 𝑘𝐿(𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 ) L = length of the tape or length of

line measured
Tm = observed temperature of the

For steel: tape at the time of measurement
k = 0.0000116/°C
Ts = temperature at which the tape
Standard Temperature = 20 °C was standardized
A temperature higher or lower than the standard

temperature causes a change in length
If Tm > Ts, +Ct (too long);

otherwise, - Ct
Due to Temperature
4. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of
0.0000116/°C is known to be 50m long at 20°C. The tape
was used to measure a line which was found to be 656.29m
long when the temperature was 40°C. Determine the
following:
a. Temperature correction per tape length
b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line
Given: Solution:
NL=50m 𝐶𝑡 = 𝑘𝐿 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠
ML=656.29m
k=0.0000116/°C 𝑎. 𝐶𝑡 = (0.0000116/℃)(50𝑚)(40℃ − 20℃)=+0.0116m
Ts=20°C
Tm=40°C 𝑏. 𝐶𝑡 = (0.0000116/℃)(656.29𝑚)(40℃ − 20℃)=+0.152m
𝑀𝐿 656.29𝑚
Or 𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 ∙ 𝑁𝐿 = 0.0116𝑚( 50𝑚
)
𝑐. 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑡 = 656.29𝑚 + 0.152𝑚 = 656.442𝑚
Due to Pull/Tension
Taping Corrections
Cp= total elongation in tape due to
pull or the correction due to
incorrect pull applied on the
(𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 )𝐿 tape (m)
𝐶𝑝 = Pm = pull applied to tape the during
𝐴𝐸 measurement (kg)
Ps = standard pull (kg)
𝑊 L = measured length of line
𝐴= A = cross-sectional area of the tape
𝛾𝐿 (sq. cm)
E = modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2)
for steel E=200,000 N/mm2
𝐿′ = 𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑝 L’= corrected length of the measured
line (m)
W = weight of the tape (kg)
У = unit weight of the tape (kg/cm3)
L = nominal length (m)
If Pm > Ps, too long;
otherwise, too short
Due to Pull / Tension

5. A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of
0.05cm2 has been standardized at a tension of 6.0kg. If
E=2.10x106 kg/cm2, determine the elongation of the tape if a
pull of 15kg is applied.
Given: Solution:
NL=50m (𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 )𝐿
A=0.05cm 2 𝐶𝑝 =
𝐴𝐸
Ps=6.0kg
Pm=15kg (15𝑘𝑔 − 6𝑘𝑔)(50𝑚)
E=2.10x10 kg/cm
6 2 𝐶 𝑝 =
(0.05cm2)(2.10x106 kg/cm2)
Required:
Cp
𝐶𝑝 = +0.00428𝑚
Let’s say, ML=656.29m

656.29𝑚
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑝 = 656.29𝑚 + 0.00428𝑚
50𝑚
𝐶𝐿 = 656.346𝑚
6. A 30 m tape weighing 0.50 kg and with a cross–sectional area of
0.025 cm2 was standardized and found to be 30.006 m at 18o C, with
5-kg tension and supported at the 0 and 30 m points. The tape was
used to measure a distance of about 120 m over terrain of a uniform 3
percent slope. The average temperature during measurement was
25o C, the tape was fully supported throughout, and tension of 4 kg
was applied to each tape length. The observed distances were 30.0 m.
30.0 m and 30 m. Calculate the horizontal distance between the
points.
Given: TL= 30.006 m s=3%

k= 1.16 x 10-5/°C Ts= 18oC Tm= 25oC
NL= 30 m Ps= 5kg Pm= 4kg
W= 0.50 kg Support= 0m, 30m
A= 0.025 cm2 ML= 120m
Required: Horizontal distance
6. A 30 m tape weighing 0.50 kg and with a cross–sectional area of 0.025 cm2 was standardized and found to be
30.006 m at 18o C, with 5-kg tension and supported at the 0 and 30 m points. The tape was used to measure a
distance of about 120 m over terrain of a uniform 3 percent slope. The average temperature during measurement was
25o C, the tape was fully supported throughout, and tension of 4 kg was applied to each tape length. The observed
distances were 30.0 m. 30.0 m and 30 m. Calculate the horizontal distance between the points.
Solution:
• Slope, temperature and standardization are in direct proportion to the
length and can be calculated for the total distance.
• On the other, the sag correction must be calculated for each segment.
𝑑 = 𝑠 2 − ℎ2 𝐶𝑡 = 𝑘𝐿(𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑= 120 2 − 0.03 ∙ 120 2 𝐶𝑡 = (1.16 x 10-5)(120)(25-18)
𝑑 = 119.946𝑚 𝐶𝑡 = 9.744𝑥10−3 𝑚
𝑊 2𝐿 𝑀𝐿
𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 ⋅
24𝑃2 𝑁𝐿
0.50 2 (30) 120
𝐶𝑠 = 24(4)2 (3) 𝐶𝑙 = 30.006 − 30 ⋅ = 0.024𝑚
30
𝐶𝑠 = 0.0195𝑚 3
𝐶𝑠 = 0.0586𝑚
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑑 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐶𝑡 + 𝐶𝑙 = 120.038𝑚
1. MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE.
A rectangular lot was laid out using a 50m
steel tape which was found to be 0.05m
too short. If the recorded length and
width of the lot are 185.50m and
172.07m, respectively, determine the
following:
a. Actual dimension of the lot

b. Error in area introduced due to the
erroneous length of tape.

2. CORRECTION DUE TO PULL.
A 30m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of

standard length under a pull of 5kg
supported for full length. The tape was
used in measuring a line 938.55m long on
a smooth level ground under a steady pull
of 10kg. Assuming E=2x10^6kg/cm^2
and the unit weight of steel to be
7.9x10^-3kg/cm^3.
a. Cross-sectional area of the tape
b. Correction for increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured

3. TAPE CORRECTION.
A line measured in the field and found to be

1,219.00m, with a steel tape with length of
50m, and weight of 0.70kg. The cross-
sectional area of the tape is 0.03cm^2, and
was standardized at a temperature of 20°C
under a tension of 5kg. Find the correction of
the line due to tension, temperature and sag.
Find the corrected length of the line, if the
distance measured in the field under tension
force of 10kg and at a temperature of 35°C.
The modulus of elasticity, E, is 2.10 x 10^7
kg/cm^2. K = 0.0000116 m/m°C.

Vertical Distance
• or vertical separation is the distance between
two vertical positions.
• Many vertical coordinates exist for expressing
vertical position: depth, height, altitude,
elevation, etc.
Elevation is the vertical distance of a point or a

level, on or affixed to the surface of the earth,
measured from mean sea level.
Source: Wikipedia
Leveling
Process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to determine the
elevation of point/s or the difference in height between two or more points
Elevation is a vertical distance above or below a reference Datum.

Leveling results are used:
❖To establish new vertical control (BM or TBM)
❖To determine the heights of discrete points
❖To design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems etc,
having grade lines that best conform the existing topography;
❖To lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
❖To provide data for road cross-sections and calculate volume of
earthworks and other materials;
❖To investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
❖To provide spot heights or develop contour maps showing general ground
configuration; production of topographic maps
Terms
Datum
◦ Any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea level to which
elevations of a particular area are referred
◦ May be arbitrary or a national height datum
◦ The surface which defines the national height datum is (approximately) Mean
Sea Level (MSL)
Mean Sea Level (MSL)

◦ An imaginary surface of the sea which is midway between high and low tides
◦ It is taken as the reference surface to which most ground elevations are referred
◦ Zero elevation
Terms
Level Surface
◦ A curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the direction of gravity
or the plumb line
◦ It is almost ellipsoidal in shape.
◦ Mean sea level is a level surface.
◦ All points on a level surface have equal elevations.
◦ Level surfaces are not parallel due to ellipsoidal earth shape.
Level Line
◦ A curved line in a level surface, all points of which are normal to the direction of
gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth
Horizontal Surface
◦ A plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular point. It is also
perpendicular to the plumb line at the same point
◦ A plane normal to the direction of gravity
Terms
Horizontal Line
◦ A line in a horizontal plane.
◦ A straight line which is tangent to a level line at one point
◦ This line is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the
point of tangency
Vertical Line
◦ A line parallel to the direction of gravity
Vertical Control
◦ A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation
established throughout precise leveling.
Terms
Elevation
◦ The vertical distance above or below mean sea level or any other selected datum
Difference in Elevation
◦ The vertical distance between the two-level surfaces in which the points lie
Geoid
◦ Serves as datum for elevations and astronomical observations
Benchmark (BM)
◦ A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point whose
elevation is known or assumed.
Leveling Method
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling
2. Reciprocal Leveling
3. Profile Leveling
4. Trigonometric Leveling
5. Stadia Leveling
6. Barometric Leveling
7. Cross-Section Leveling
8. Borrow-Pit Leveling
Leveling Theory
To perform the leveling we need a horizontal plane, we get it by using the
level
We need also a vertical scale to measure the vertical distance from the
earth surface to the horizontal plane. The scale is known as staff
Leveling Theory
Horizontal line
o The line that path through the centres of the object lens and the eyepiece.
Line of sight
o The line that path through the center of the object lens and intersection of
the crosshairs.
Line of collimation
o The line of sight when it coincides
with the horizontal line.
Direct or Spirit Leveling
Commonly employed method of determining the
elevation of points some distance apart by a
series of set ups of leveling instrument along a
selected route
Vertical distances are measured above or below
a level line and these values are used to
compute the elevation of points or their
differences in elevation
Direct or Spirit Leveling
•Most precise method of leveling
•Used when a high degree of
accuracy is required
•Forms of direct leveling:
• Differential Leveling
• Double-Rodded Leveling
• Three-wire Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
The process of accurately determining the
difference in elevation between two intervisible
points located at a considerable distance apart
and between which points leveling could not be
performed in the usual manner
Commonly employed when leveling across
canyons and gullies where it would be difficult or
impossible to maintain a foresight and a
backsight distance of nearly equal lengths
Profile Leveling
Used to determine differences in
elevation between points at
designated short measured
intervals along an established line
to provide data from which a
vertical section of the ground
surface can be plotted
Best suits the requirements
needed in the design of roads,
railroads, canals, drainage systems
and transmission lines
Trigonometric Leveling
Employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the
difference in elevation between two
points from measurements of its
horizontal or slope distance and the
vertical angle between the points
Its degree of precision may be
improved by using precise
measurements such as optical
theodolites and total geodetic stations
which measure angles to seconds
Stadia Leveling
Combines features of direct leveling with those of
trigonometric leveling.
Any surveying instrument may be employed in stadia
leveling as long as it has telescope to read vertical angles
and is equipped with stadia hairs in addition to the
standard cross hairs.
Provide reasonable accuracy for preliminary surveys,
mapping and rough leveling where quick measurements are
needed
 Differences in elevation between points are computed
from observed vertical angles and the 3-intercepts on a
rod held at each point backsighted or foresighted
Barometric Leveling
Involves the determination of differences in elevation between points by
measuring the variation in atmospheric pressure at each point by means of
a barometer
Depends on the basic principle that differences in elevation are proportional
to the differences in atmospheric pressure
Cross-Section Leveling
Method of leveling wherein short profiles at right angles to the line of work
are usually plotted at regular intervals for the purpose of obtaining a
representation of the ground surface which is necessary in highway or
railroad construction
Borrow-Pit Leveling
Method of leveling wherein short
profiles at right angles to the line of
work are usually plotted at regular
intervals for the purpose of
obtaining a representation of the
ground surface which is necessary
in highway or railroad construction
Leveling Instruments
Wye Level Dumpy Level Builder’s Level
Automatic Level Tilting Level Digital Level

Geodetic Level
Transit
Laser Level Hand Level

Common components: Telescope
• A telescope to create a line of sight

and enable a reading to be taken on a
graduated rod, and
• A system to orient the line of sight in a

horizontal plane
• Level vials
• Automatic compensators
Level Vials
Leveling Rod / Staff

•A graduated rod which is used for
measuring the vertical distance between
the line of sight through a leveling
instrument and the point whose
elevation is either required or known
•Made of wood, fiberglass, metal
Tripod
• Leveling instruments are all
mounted on tripods
• Serve as a base to prevent
movement of the instrument
after it is set up
• Two types of tripods: fixed-leg
tripod (STILT-LEG or RIGID tripod)
and extension-leg tripod (JACK-
LEG tripod).
Leveling Errors
1. Instrumental Errors
Instrument Out of Adjustment
When the line of sight of the telescope is not parallel to the

axis of the level vial
When reading is taken on a rod, the result is an error
consistently either plus or minus, and with a magnitude which
is proportional to the distance between the instrument and
the rod
The error will also be greatly minimized or eliminated if the
backsight and foresight distances are kept nearly equal
Leveling Errors
Rod Not Standard Length
Usually due to imperfections in their manufacture.

A rod of incorrect length will introduce a systematic error in
leveling work.
It is important that rod lengths are compared periodically with
a standardized steel tape.
Leveling Errors
Defective Tripod
The movement of the level due to settling of the tripod legs

can cause possible errors in leveling work.
The tripod usually settles in soft ground or due to vibrations
caused by vehicular traffic.
Smooth surfaces such as concrete pavements and steel plates
should be avoided.
Leveling Errors
2. Personal Errors
Bubble Not Centered
Rod readings will be in error when the bubble is not centered in the level vial.
Various conditions: tripod settling in soft ground; and factors which could all
be attributed to carelessness on the part of the instrumentman.
Parallax
Causing relative displacement between the image of the cross hairs and the
image formed by the focusing lens.
Leveling Errors
2. Personal Errors
Faulty Rod Readings
Usually the result of the length of sight, poor weather conditions, and the skill
of the instrumentman and the rodman.
Rod Held Not Plumb
It is easy to determine if the rod is held plumb or not since it can be checked if
it is held parallel to the vertical cross hair.
This type of error can e avoided either by waving the rod or attaching a rod
level to it to facilitate holding it plumb.
Leveling Errors
2. Personal Errors
Incorrect Setting of Target
Target may slip downward because it is not clamped firmly at the exact
position signalled by the instrumentman.
Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances
It is sufficient to approximate only by eye foresight and backsight distances in

ordinary leveling work.
Leveling Errors
3. Natural Errors
•Curvature of the Earth

• The effect of the curvature of the Earth is to increase the rod reading
•Atmospheric Refraction
• Makes the rod appear unsteady when a sight is taken it.
•Temperature Variations
•Wind
•Settlement of the Instrument
•Faulty Turning Points
Leveling Mistakes
➢ Misreading the Rod
➢ Incorrect Recording
➢ Erroneous Computations
➢ Rod Not Fully Extended
➢ Moving Turning Points
IMPORTANCE OF VERTICAL POSITIONS
A vertical position is the height of a point relative to some
reference surface, such as mean sea level, a geoid, or an
ellipsoid.
Surveyors extended the control network inland using a

surveying technique called leveling.
Differential Leveling
Process of determining the difference in elevation between two or more
points some distant apart
Definition
Benchmark (BM)
A fixed point of reference where
elevation is either known or assumed
Turning Point (TP)

Intervening point between two bench
marks upon which point foresight and
backsight rod readings are taken to
enable a leveling operation to
continue from a new instrument
position
Definition
Backsight (BS)
Reading taken on a rod held on a
point of known or assumed
elevation
Foresight (FS)
Reading taken on a rod held on a
point whose elevation is to be
determined
Definition
Backsight Distance (BSD) Height of Instrument (HI)
Measured from the center of the Elevation of the line of sight of an
instrument to the rod on which a instrument above or below a
backsight is taken selected reference datum
Foresight Distance (FSD)

Horizontal distance from the center
of the instrument to the rod on
which a foresight is taken
Leveling
HI = Elev BM + BS
Elev TP = HI - FS
Prepare and complete the differential level notes for the information shown.
A. Compute for the HI’s and elevation of each station
B. Arithmetic check
BMb
BMa TP3
(Elev 125.45m)
TP1
TP2
STA BS, m HI, m FS, m ELEV, m
BMa 0.68 126.13 125.45m
TP1 0.98 123.36 3.75 122.38
TP2 3.73 123.57 3.52 119.84
TP3 3.90 125.83 1.64 121.93
BMb 0.35 125.48
BMb
BMa TP3
(Elev 125.45m)
TP1
TP2
STA BS, m HI, m FS, m ELEV, m
BMa 0.68 126.13 125.45m
TP1 0.98 123.36 3.75 122.38
TP2 3.73 123.57 3.52 119.84
TP3 3.90 125.83 1.64 121.93
BMb 0.35 125.48
Ʃ
Arithmetic Check:
Elev BMb = BMa + ΣBS – ΣFS
The initial backsight (BS) is taken to a point of known elevation.
The backsight reading is added to the elevation of the known point to

compute the height of the instrument (HI).
The level may be moved to a temporary point called a turning point (TP).
The elevation of a point is the height of the instrument (HI) minus the
foresight (FS).
Double-Rodded Leveling
A method of determining the differences in elevation between points by employing two level
routes simultaneously
Two turning points are established such that at each set up of the leveling instrument, two
sets of independent backsights and foresights are taken
Advantages:
➢Provide a continuous check on the process of determining ground elevations while the work
is in progress
➢Useful when there is an urgent need to undertake differential leveling in a short period of
time where no established benchmarks are available for checking results.
Complete the following differential level notes for a double-rodded line from
BM1 to BM2. Show the customary arithmetic check.
STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM1 1.86 207.46 205.60m
1.86 207.46
TP1 H 2.15 208.51 1.10 206.36
L 2.52 208.40 1.58 205.88
TP2 H 1.40 208.12 1.79 206.72
L 1.76 207.89 2.27 206.13
TP3 H 0.33 205.46 2.99 205.13
L 0.74 205.22 3.41 204.48
BM2 2.63 202.83
2.63 202.59
Arithmetic Check
◦ 1st Method
◦ 2nd Method
Mean Elev BM2 = (202.83+202.59)/2
◦ Mean Elev BM2 = BM1 + [(ΣBS-ΣFS)/2]
◦ DE1 = (ΣBS-ΣFS)/2
= (12.62- 18.4) /2
◦ DE2 = BM1 – Mean Elev BM2

Three-Wire
Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling
More precise method
Method of determining the differences in elevation wherein three horizontal hairs are read
and recorded rather than from a single horizontal hair
Any level equipped with three horizontal cross hairs can be used for three-wire leveling
a = upper stadia hair reading

b = lower stadia hair reading
c = horizontal cross hair reading
s = a-b s = stadia intercept
m = (a+b+c)/3 - difference between the upper and
lower stadia hair reading
HD = Ks + C m = mean of the three-hair readings
HD = horizontal distance from the level to the
Elev = HI - m rod
K = stadia interval factor (100)
C = instrument constant (0)
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HI HAIR MEAN ELEV
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.15
BM1 0.95 0.94 0.43 446.14 445.20
0.72
2.79 1.11
TP1 2.42 2.42 0.73 447.67 0.89 0.89 0.43 445.25
2.06 0.68
1.70 1.90
TP2 1.44 1.44 0.52 447.57 1.54 1.54 0.73 446.13
1.18 1.17
2.59 1.45
TP3 2.10 2.09 1.00 448.47 1.18 1.19 0.50 446.38
1.59 0.95
1.60
BM2 1.35 1.4 0.35 447.07
1.25
• Arithmetic
•Arithmetic Check
Check
•• 11ststMethod
Method • 2nd Method
DE11==ΣBS
• • DE ΣBSmm-ΣFS
-ΣFSmm • Elev BM2 = BM1 + ΣBS – ΣFS
• DE1 = 6.89 – 5.02 = 1.87m • Elev BM2 = 445.20 + 6.89 – 5.02
• Elev BM2 = 447.07m
DE2==Elev
• • DE ElevBM
BM1––Elev
ElevBM
BM2
2 1 2
• DE2 = 1.87m
Profile Leveling
•The process of determining differences in elevation along a fixed line
at designated short measured intervals
•Design and construction of roads, railroads, canals, culverts, bridges,
sewer lines (horizontal structures)
•Usually taken along the centerline with the level set up a convenient
distance away from it so that sights of more uniform lengths can be
obtained
Profile Leveling
•Any number of foresights can be taken
•Intermediate foresights are taken where necessary to portray accurately the
existing ground surface along the route surveyed
Profile Leveling
Profile
◦ A curved line which graphically portrays the intersection of a vertical plane with the surface of the earth
◦ Represent the ground elevations of selected critical points along a surveyed line and the horizontal distances
between these points
Stationing
◦ A numerical designation given in terms of horizontal distance any point along a profile line is away from the
starting point
Intermediate foresights (ground rod readings)

◦ Taken along the centerline of the proposed project to provide an accurate representation of the ground
surface
Full stations
◦ Points which are established along the profile level route at uniformly measured distances
Plus stations
◦ Points established along a profile level route which is not designated as a full station
◦ Points taken at breaks in the ground surface slope and at critical points (location of culverts, bridges)
A schematic arrangement of a profile level route from BM3 to BM4 are shown below.
The values indicated represent backsight, foresight, and intermediate foresight
readings taken on stations along the route. Prepare and complete profile level notes
for the portrayed information. Show the customary arithmetic check and plot the
profile.
1+00 2+00 HI2
3+00
0+00
BM4
TP1
HI1
4+50 6+70
5+50
6+00
BM3
Elev 300.50m
STA BS HI FS IFS ELEV
BM3 2.4 302.9 300.50m
0+00 1.5 301.4m
1+00 2.0 300.9m
2+00 1.3 301.6m
3+00 0.7 302.2m
TP1 2.55 302.25 3.2 299.7m
4+50 2.8 299.45m
5+50 3.5 298.75m
6+00 4.5 297.75m
6+70 3.95 298.3m
BM4 3.3 298.95m
303
302
301
ELEVATION (m)
300
299
298
0+00 1+00 2+00 3+00 4+00
STATIONINGS
Arithmetic Check
◦ Elev BM4 = BM3 + ΣBS - ΣFS

Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
•Employed to determine the difference in elevation
between two points when it is difficult or impossible
to keep backsights and foresights short and equal
•Such conditions are running a line of levels across
wide rivers, lakes, and rugged terrain (deep
canyons)
•Two sets of rod readings are observed (Method of
Reversion)
• One set taken with the instrument set up close to
one point and another instrument on the other
• Errors due to refraction by the atmosphere,
curvature of the earth and faulty adjustment of
the instrument are significantly reduced if not
eliminated
Reciprocal Leveling
DE 1= a − b
<< Instrumental errors and the effect of curvature and refraction
DE2 = a '−b' DE1 ≠ DE2,
DE 1+ DE2 (a − b) + (a '−b' ) *Note: If TDE is negative, A is higher than B;

TDE = = If TDE is positive, B is higher than A.
2 2
In leveling across a deep and wide river, reciprocal level readings were taken
between two points, X and Y as follows:
a. With instrument set up near X, the rod readings on X are 1.27 and 1.265 meters; on the distant point Y,
the rod readings are 2.50, 2.52, 2.55, and 2.49 meters.
b. With instrument set up near Y, the rod readings on Y are 3.48 and 3.47 meters; on the distant point X,
the rod readings are 2.13, 2.14, and 2.145 meters.
Determine the true difference in elevation between the two points and the elevation of Y if the known
elevation of X is 289.90meters.
Elev=289.90m
Instrument Set up near X Instrument Set up near Y

STA BSBS(a) FSFS(b) STA BSBS
(a’) FSFS
(b’)
X 1.27 X’ 2.13
1.265 2.14
Y 2.50 2.145
2.52 Y’ 3.48
2.55 3.47
2.49 SUM 6.415 6.95
SUM 2.535 10.06 MEAN a’m 2.138 b’m 3.475
MEAN am1.2675 bm 2.515
DEx = BSm – FSm Elev Y = Elev X ± TDE
DEy = BSm - FSm
𝐷𝐸𝑥 +𝐷𝐸𝑦
TDE = 2
• “Indirect Leveling”
• Determine the difference in elevation from observed vertical angle and either horizontal
or inclined distances
• Used extensively when undertaking topographic surveys over rugged or rolling terrain
since it provides a rapid means of determining vertical distances and elevation of points
• It works very well for distances up to 800 ft or 1000 ft but for greater distances it may be
necessary to consider the effect of earth’s curvature.
V = dTan DEab = dTan + HI − RR

ElevB = ElevA + DEab
V = sSin DEab = sSin + HI − RR
For horizontal distance is greater than 300 meters, effects of the earth’s curvature and
refraction must be considered in the calculation of the vertical distances.
𝑑 2
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 𝑑𝑇𝑎𝑛𝛼 + 𝐻𝐼 − 𝑅𝑅 + 0.0675( )
1000
𝑑 2
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 𝑠𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝐻𝐼 − 𝑅𝑅 + 0.0675( )
1000
A vertical angle of +13°45’ is read to a target 1.23m above point B. the measured inclined
distance, s, is 823.29m and the elevation of A is 123.65m above datum. If the HI at A is
1.35m, determine the difference in elevation between A and B and the elevation of B,
considering the effects of curvature and atmospheric refraction.
𝑉
Sin Ø = 𝑆 ;
V = s Sin Ø
D = s Cos Ø
𝑑 2
hcr = 0.0675( )
1000
DEab = HI + V – RR + hcr
Elev B = Elev A + DEab

Cross-Section Leveling
CROSS-SECTION LEVELING
• Short profiles taken perpendicular to the centerline of projects such as a highway,
railroad, irrigation canal, or sewer line
• They may also be taken for borrow pits and excavations required for buildings, structures,
and quarries.
• Roadway Cross-Sections
• Borrow-Pit Cross Sections
ROADWAY CROSS-SECTION
This type of cross-section is required for
most route projects such as roads and
railroads.
Elevations of ground points along the

section are taken at regular intervals on
either side. Where significant changes
occur in ground features, ground
elevations are also taken.
BORROW-PIT CROSS-SECTION
• Employed in the construction of structures and buildings, and in the excavation of borrow
pits.
• Borrow pit is an open area which is usually adjacent to a construction project where
suitable fill material is excavated.
The base line from which the GL are

referred should be established outside the
immediate project area so that reference
stakes and other markers will not be
obliterated or disturbed during the process
of excavation.
Similarly, any reference bench mark should

also be located outside the work area.
Barometric Leveling
Barometric Leveling
• process of determining the difference in elevation by observing the
atmospheric pressure variation following the principle that the
pressure caused by the column of air above the observer decreases
as the observer rises in altitude
Mercurial Barometers
◦ Cumersome and fragile; impractical for surveying purposes
Aneroid Barometers (Altimeters)

◦ Light and sturdy but less precise
◦ Have been manufactured with which elevations can be determined within
about 2 ft
Types of Barometers
Aneroid Barometers (Altimeters)
◦ Sufficient for preliminary and reconnaissance work

Surveying Prelims

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Surveying Prelims

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Contents

 What do we measure in surveying

 Important matters regarding measurements

 Brief history of surveying

 It will develop habits of accuracy, industry and reliability.

CADASTRAL SURVEY Surveying may be classified on the

 Errors cannot be totally eliminated

The metre was thus defined in

January 01, 1983

Rule 1 : Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.

Ex. 4 SF: 12.03 35.06 4009

Ex 3 SF: 0.00325 0.000826 0.0589

Ex. 5 SF: 739.80 190.00 38.000

1.Digits less than 5.

3. Digit is greater than 5.

Precision (Apparent Accuracy)

 Instrumental Errors – these result from any imperfection in the

 Personal Errors – these arise from limitations of the human senses of

 Accidental Errors (Compensating/Random Error) – is one whose

Where: X – individual measurements

ANS: 250.51 meters

𝐷𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑅𝐸𝑃𝐴𝑁𝐶𝑌 = 360° − SUM

142°37’30 MOST PROBABLE VALUES:

For 50% probability, Cp = 0.6745. Hence,

𝑃𝐸 = 0.10 𝑚 and MPV = 235.50.

w – weight being assigned

𝑷𝑬𝑺𝑼𝑴 = ± 𝑷𝑬𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟑 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝑬𝒏 𝟐

2. Product of Errors (Area)

𝑷𝑬𝑷𝑹𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑪𝑻 = ± (𝑸𝟏 × 𝑷𝑬𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 × 𝑷𝑬𝟏 )𝟐

𝑃𝐸 , 𝑃𝐸 – probable error of each measurement

Determine the ff:

A. MPV of the measured length (Ans. 1000.45 m)

B. PE of single measurement and mean (Ans. ±0.05 m and ±0.02m)

C. Final expression of the most probable length (MPL) (Ans. 1000.45±0.02 m)

D. Relative precision of the measurement (Ans. 1/20,000 m (single) and 1/50,000

Determine the error of the perimeter. (Ans. ± 0.07m)

(Ans. 158134.64 ± 42.58 sq.m)

STATION OBSERVED ANGLES (deg) NO. OF MEASUREMENTS

(Ans. 39˚ 18.46’;65˚ 13.85’;75˚ 27.69’)

In physics or everyday usage, distance may

In most cases, "distance from A to B" is

 The distance between two points is the

 The distance of a point from a line is the

Methods of Linear Measurements

1 Stride Counting strides instead

Distance by Pacing A stride is equivalent to

It is suitable in determining approximate

Pace factor is expressed in either feet per pace or

The determination of lengths of the

This method finds practical use when

Distance by Graphical / Mathematical

 Measuring Wheel &

Distance by Mechanical Devices

Distance by Mechanical Devices

Distance by Mechanical Devices

 Odometer (or odograph)

Distance by Mechanical Devices

Distance by Mechanical Devices

 In most instruments, distance is

 A reflector or transmitter-receiver at the far end reflects

Because of its low precision, it is mostly used

 Stadia Constant (C) is the distance between the center of

 Stadia Interval Factor (K) is the nominal value of focal