SURVEYING

Surveying
Surveying is art of determining relative positions of objects on the surface of
the earth by taking measurements in the horizontal and vertical plane.

Levelling
The main object is surveying is to obtain a map or a plan of the area
surveyed.

Main divisions of surveying
1.Plane surveying
The surveys, where the effect of curvature of the earth is neglected assuming
the earth surface to be plane are called plane surveying.
2.Geodetic surveying
The surveys, where the curvature of earth is taken into account are called
geodetic surveying.

Measurements:
In surveying, a surveyor has to generally deal with linear and angular
measurements both in horizontal and vertical planes linear measurements taken in
the horizontal plane are known as horizontal distance, where as those taken in
vertical plane are called vertical distances.
General classification of survey
1.According to instrument used
a)chain surveying
b)compass surveying
c)Plane table surveying
d)Theodolite surveying

2.According to purpose
a)Main survey:-To explore mineral wealth such as gold, copper, coal etc
with in the earths crust
b)Geological survey:- To determine different strata in the earths crust.
c)Archeological survey:-To trace the customs or relics of the past.
d)Military survey:-To determine points of strategic importants.

According to method employed
a)Triangulation survey
b)Traverse survey

4.According to place of work
a)Land survey:-For objects on earths surface
b)Hydrographical or marine survey:-For objects under water.
c)Aerial survey:-by Aeroplane in air.

Land Survey
a.Topographical survey
This is used for determining natural feature of the country such as
lakes,rivers, hills etc and also the artifical objects such as canals,
railways,roads,towns and villages etc.

b).Cadastal survey
This survey is usually plotted to a large scale than topographical survey.
Additional details such as boundaries of fields,houses and other property are
determined.
c)City survey:
This is performed in connection with town planning schemes such as
drainage, water supply etc and for laying out plots, roads, strees etc.

d)Engineering survey.
This is carried out for determining the feasibility of an engineering project
and collection of field data as required for the design etc.
Basic principles of Surveying
(i)Determining suitable methods for locating points
(a)by drawing arcs
(b)by perpendicular offsets
(c)by one angle and length
(d)by two angles

(ii)working from whole to part
In surveying an area it is essential to establish first of all a system of control
points with great precision. Minor control points can then be established by less
precise methods and the details can be located afterwards by the method of
triangulation or traversing between the control points. This way minor errors are
automatically controlled and localise and donot accumulate. On the other hand, if
we work from part to the whole, the small errors are magnified and become
uncontrolable at the end.
Linear Measurements
1.Pacing
2.Instrumental method(speedometer)
3.Chaining
4.Steel band
5.Tapes
a)linen or cloth tape
b)Metalic tape
c)steel tape
d)Invar tape - alloy of steel and nickel.

Chain surveying
It is the method of surveying in which the area is divided into network of
triangles and the sides of the various triangles are measured directly in the field
with chain or tape and no angular measurements are taken. It is the simplest kind
of surveying and is most suitable when the area to be surveyied is small in extend
and is fairly level and open with simple details. It is unsuitable for large areas and
for areas crowded with many details and over difficult country as in such cases the
formation of triangles becomes difficult.

Principle of Chain Surveying
The principle of chain surveying is to divide the area to be surveyed into a
network of connected triangles, as a triangle is the only simple figure that can be
plotted from the length of the sides measured in the field. Since triangulation
forms the principle of chain surveying, the chain survey is also sometimes called as
chain triangulation.
Kinds of chain
1.Metric chain
The metric surveying chain is 20 or 30 metres in length. Each metre length
is divided into five links, each link being 20 cm long. To facilitate counting the no
of links, tallies are provided a every 5m length.

2.Non-metric chain
These are used in countries where foot is the unit of linear measurement

(1)Gunters chain
It is 66ft long and is divided into 100links. It is very suitable for measuring
distance is miles and furlongs and areas in acres on account of its simple relations
with the furlong and acres.
10 chain = 1 furlong
10 x chain2 = 1 acre
2.Engineers chain
It is also called 100ft chain, it is 100ft long and it is divided into 100 links.
It is commonly used on flat country where ground is fairly even and of roads,
railways, canals etc
Instruments used in chain survey
1.chain
2.Ranging rod
3.Arrows
4.Pegs
5.cross staff

Operation in chain survey
1.Ranging
2.chaining
3.offsetting

Ranging a line
The operation of establishing intermediate ranging rods in lines with the end
ranging rods of a line is called ranging a line. It is done prior to chaining a line, to
establish a straight path between its end stations. Ranging is generally done by
judgement of eye or by a line ranger.

Ranging are of 2 types
(1)Direct ranging
two methods
a)Ranging by judgement of eye
b)Ranging by line Ranger.

2)Indirect Ranging
Indirect ranging is the process of ranging between points where hill or a
depression.

Offsetting:
The operation of measureing lateral distances from the chain line to the
objects which are to be plotted is known as offsetting. Is is done to locate the
objects with the reference to the chain line. The lateral distances measured on
either side of the chain line upto the objects are known as offsets.
Compass surveying
Traverse
A series of connected survey lines of known lengths and direction is called a
traverse.

Meridian
The direction of the survey line may be expressed in terms of the angle at
which it is inclined either to its adjacent line or to a fixed reference line called a
meridian.

Compass surveying
In traversing, when compass is used for making angular measurements, it is
known as compass traversing or compass surveying. In compass surveying, the
compass is used to determine the direction of survey lines of the framework of the
traverse by measuring the angles which these lines make with magnetic meridian.
Compass
A compass is a small instrument which consist essentially of a magnetic
needle. A gradnated circle and a line of sight. When the line of sight is directed
towards aline the magnetic needle point towards the magnetic meridian and the
angle which the line makes with the magnetic meridian is read out the graduated
circle. The compass cannot measure the desired to find out angle b/w two lines,
firstly their angles with the magnetic medidian are determined seperately and then
difference of the two values is found which is equal to the angle b/w the lines
There are two types of compass
1.Prismatic compass
2.Surveyors compass

1.Prismatic compass
It is very valuable instrument and is commonly used for rough surveys
where speed and not the accurancy is main consideration.

Working of prismatic compass
This can be used while holding it in hand, but for better accuracy, it is
usually mounted on a light triped which carries a vertical spindle in the ball and
socket arrangement to which the compass is screwed.By needs of these
arrangement, the compass can be placed in position easily.
Its working involves the following 3 steps
1.centring
2.levelling
3.observing the bearing
It may be noted that with their compass, the sighting of the object and
reading of the graduated ring are done simultaneously.

2.surveyors compass
It is similar to prismatic compass except tht it has another plane sight having
a narrow vertical slit in place of the prism and that it carries an edge bar needly.

Difference between prismatic compass and surveyers compass
Prismatic compass
1.The graduated rings being attached to the magnetic needle remains stationary
when the compass box and the sight vane is rotated.

2.This can be used without a stand.
3. The graduations are marked both in the clockwise and counter clockwise
directions dividing the graduated ring into four quadrants and graduations are
numbered from 00 to 900 in each quadrant. The 00 points are marked at north and
south and 900 at east and west.

4.A object is sighted first and the bearing is then read with the naked eye by going
vertically over middle point.

Bearing of a line
It is the horizontal angle which a line make with same reference direction also
known as meridian. The reference direction may be also any of the following
1.True meridian
2.Magnetic meridian
3.Assumed meridian

1.True meridian
True meridian of a place is a direction indicated by an imaginary circle
passing round the earth through that place and the two(north and south)
geographical poles. The horizontal angle b/w a line and true meridian is called the
true bearing of the line. It is also known as azimuth.

2.Magnetic meridian
The direction indicated by a freely
suspended and properly balanced magnetic needle uneffected by local attractive
forces is called the magnetic meridian. The horizontal angle which a line makes
with this meridian is called magnetic bearing.

3.Assumed or arbitrary meridian
For small surveys any convenient direction may be taken as a meridian. It is
usually the direction of the first line of survey of the direction from a station to
some well defined permanent object. The horizontal angle between a line and this
meridian is called assumed or arbitrary bearing.
Designation of bearings
1.Whole circle Bearing
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the north direction of the
meridian measured in clockwise direction and can value upto 3600, ie the whole
circle is known as whole circle bearing of the line. The prismatic compass
measures the bearings of lines in whole circle system.

Reduced Bearing
The whole circle bearing when exceeds 90
0
may be converted or reduced
into the corresponding bearing in the quadrantal system which has the same
numerical values of the trignometrical functions. The bearing thus obtained is
known as reduced bearing (R.B)
Fore bearing (F.B)and Back Bearing (B.B)
The bearing of a line taken in the progress of the survey or in the forward
direction is the fore or forward bearing of the line, while bearing is taken in the
reverse or opposite direction is known as reverse or back bearing.
In whole circle system, the FB and BB of a line differ exactly by 180
0
use tsign is the given FB is <180
0
and - sign if it is >180
0
.
In quadrantal system, FB and BB are numerically equal but with opposite
cardinal points BB of a line may therefore be obtained by simply substituting
North for south, south for North, East for west and west for East in the F.B.

Local attraction
The magnetic needle is disturbed from its normal position if it is under the
influence of external attractive forces called the sources of local attraction such a
distrubing influence is known as local attraction.

Traverse
A series of connected survey lines of known length and directions is called a
traverse. It is of two types.

1.closed traverse
2.Open traverse




Magnetic Declination
The horizontal angle with the magnetic meridian makes with the true
meridian is known as magnetic declination or simple declination of the needle at
that place.
The line joining places of equal declination are called isogonic line. The
line joining places of zero decination are agonic line.

Dip of magnetic needle
Before magnetisation, the needle remains in horizontal plane if it is properly
balanced, but after being manetical, it cannot remain in the same plane due to the
magnetic influence of the earth. One end of the needle deflects towards the
magnetic pole. In the northern hemisphere, the north end of the needle is deflected
downward and in the southern hemisphere the south end deflect downwards. This
inclination of the needle with the horizontal is known as dip of the magnetic
needle.
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
Plane table surveying is a method of surveying in which field work and
office work are done simultaneously on a plane table. The field observation are
taken and recorded side by side on the sheet fixed upon the plane table and a map
of the area is obtained. The use of field book is all together eliminated. It is
commonly employed for small and medium scale maping of comparitively large
areas where great accuracy is not the main consideration such as for
topographical surveys.
Advantages of plane table surveys
1.It is one of the most rapid method.
2.Field notes are not required, and thus the possibility of mistake in booking is
eliminated.
3.It is particularly suitable for filling in details in hilly areas and in magnetic aras
where chain and compass survey are not suitable.
4.It is less costly than theodolite survey.

Disadvantages:
1.It is unsuitable for work in wet climate and is difficult in high wind.
2.It is not suitable for large scale surveys and accurate work
3.It is not suitable for surveying a densly wooded area.

Eqiupments in plane table surveying
1.Drawing board and tripod
2.Alidade
3.Trough compass
4.Spirit level

Setting up the plane Table
1.levelling
2.Orientation
a)orientation by magnetic needle
b)orientation by back sighting
3.Centering

Method of Plane table surveying
1.Radiation
In this method the plane table is setup at only one station and the points to be
plotted are located by radialing rays from the instrument station to the points and
plotting to scale the respective distance along the rays.
This method is suitable for the survey of small areas which can be
commanded from a single station.

2.Intersection
In this method, the position of the points are fixed on the sheet by the
intersection of rays draw from two instrument stations. The line joining the
stations is termed as base line. The only linear measurement required in the
method is that of base line.
This method is used for plotting the distant and inaccessible distant and
inaccessible objects, the broken boundaries of the river etc. It is much suitable for
surveying hilly country where it is difficult to measure the horizontal distances.
3.Traversing
This method is used for running a survey line of a closed or a open traverse.
4.Resection
This method is used for locating station points only two methods
1.Two point problem
2.Three point problem
a)By mechanical method
b)By graphical method(bessels method)
c)by trial and error method.