Unit Surveying Concepts

Module 1 – Introduction to Surveying and

Measurement of Distance
Learning After finishing this module, you are expected to:
Objectives
1. Define surveying and differentiate its two major
categories
2. Explain the different kinds of surveys.
3. Be familiar with the different methods of measuring
horizontal distances and the instruments and
accessories used.

Topics 1.1 DEFINITION OF SURVEYING

1.2 PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING
1.3 KINDS OF SURVEYS
1.4 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
1.5 METHODS OF MEASURING DISTANCE
1.6 MEASURING TAPES
1.7 TAPING ACCESSORIES
1.8 PACING

Surveying, Besavilla
Elementary Surveying, Instructional Manual, J.P. La Putt
https://theconstructor.org/surveying/types-tapes-used-surveying/34973/

1.1 DEFINITION OF SURVEYING

Surveying is the art and science of determining angular and linear

measurements to establish form, extent and relative position of points, lines
and surfaces on or near the earth and on other extra-terrestrial bodies such
as the moon, mars and soon other planets, stars, and other heavenly bodies
in the universe.

1.2 PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING

Plane Surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the
earth is considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All
triangles formed by survey lines are considered plane triangles. The level
line is considered straight and all plumb lines are considered parallel.

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Geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth
is taken into account. All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the
triangles are spherical triangles. It therefore, involves spherical trigonometry.
All Geodetic surveys include work of larger magnitude and high degree of
precision. The object of geodetic survey is to determine the precise position
on the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which form
control stations to which surveys of less precision may be referred.

1.3 KINDS OF SURVEYS

Topographic Surveys are surveys made for the purpose of securing field
data from which may be made a map representing the three-dimensional
relations of the earth’s surface. These are surveys where the physical
features on the earth are measured and maps/plans prepared to show their
relative positions both horizontally and vertically. The relative positions and
shape of natural and man –made features over an area are established
usually for the purpose of producing a map of the area of for establishing
geographical information system.

Hydrographic Surveying refers to surveying lakes, streams, reservoirs and

other bodies of water. They are of general importance in connection with
navigation, and the development of water resources for power, flood control,
domestic consumption, irrigation and recreation. These surveys are made to
gather data to chart the shore lines of bodies of water; to chart the bottom
areas of the streams, lakes, harbors, and coastal waters; and to measure
the flow of streams and rivers.

Land Surveys are undertaken to establish boundaries, calculate land areas

and to provide records and maps which show the proper location and
subdivision of lands. Such surveys may also be required in the transfer of
real property from one owner to another.

Route Surveying are surveys which supply data necessary to determine

alignment, grades and earthwork quantities in connection with the location
and construction of engineering projects. These include highways, railways,
pipe lines, drainage canals, transmission lines, and other projects which do
not close upon the point of beginning.

Cadastral Surveying are urban and rural surveys which are undertaken for
the purpose of locating property lines and improvements in detail, primarily
for use in connection with the ownership, extent, value and transfer of land.

Mine Surveying are surveys which are necessary to fix surface boundaries
of mining claims, to establish the position of all underground excavations and

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surface structures of mines, to fix the positions and directions of shafts,

tunnels and drifts.

Photogrammetric Surveying are surveys in which photographs, either

terrestrial or aerial, are used in connection with any of the kinds of surveys
earlier mentioned. The results are in the form of oblique photographs of the
terrain, mosaics assembled from vertical photographs and topographic maps
drawn from the details shown in the photographs.

City Surveying are surveys of the areas in or near a city for the purpose of
planning city improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, and determining the physical features and configuration of the
land.

Construction Surveys are surveys which are undertaken to provide data

regarding locations and elevations of structures which are of concern to
engineers, architects and builders. Examples of such surveys are route
surveys for transmission lines, railways, highways, etc.; site surveys for
dams, reservoirs, buildings, bridges, etc.

Industrial Surveying sometimes known as Optical Tooling. It refers to the

use of surveying techniques in aircraft and other industries where very
accurate dimensional layouts are required. Other indirect applications
include site locations, plant layouts and construction.

1.4 MEASUREMENT OF A DISTANCE

Measurement of Distance. The accurate determination of the horizontal

distance between two points on any surface is the basis for plane surveying.
Horizontal distance is the distance between two plumb bob lines suspended
over the points. The distances are either measures on the horizontal or sufficient
data is gathered so that the horizontal projection can be computed.

Two ways of Measurement:

a. Direct Measurement. This is made by applying a graduated instrument

directly to the quantity to be measured. The following are examples:
• Measuring the length of a line with a tape
• Measuring the value of an angle with a protractor
• Measuring the difference in elevation between two points by a level and
rod.

b. Indirect Measurement. When it is not practicable or feasible to directly to

compare the measuring instrument with the quantity to be measured, an

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indirect measurement can be performed. In this method of measurement,

the value of a quantity is determined by its relationship to some other
measurable quantity or quantities. Examples are:
• Determining by computation the length of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle from the measured lengths of two other sides.
• Determining the difference in elevation between two points by
measuring the horizontal distance by taping and the vertical angle by
clinometer or transit.
• Determining the lengths of the sides of a triangulation system from
the measured base line and interior angles.

1.5 METHODS OF MEASURING DISTANCES

In surveying, linear measurements are obtained by any of the following methods:

a. Pacing. For approximate measurements of distance, pacing is sufficiently

accurate and most expeditious. It is used in reconnaissance surveys and in
small scale mapping for locating details and traversing with the plane table.

b. Taping. The most common method of determining distance by the use of

the graduated tape. This is often referred to as direct measurement, since
the tape is actually stretched along the line being measured and the number
of tape lengths is recorded.

c. Tachymetry. This term, meaning fast measurement, is sometimes used to

designate the procedure of measuring distance by sighting a graduated rod
and noting the intercept on it by a pair of cross hairs which are placed within
the telescope of surveying instrument. The most common type of
measurement are the Stadia Method and the Subtense Bar Method.

d. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM). In recent years, electronic

devices for accurately measuring distance have been developed. These
devices are generally simple in their principle of operation. These
instruments transmit beams of microwaves or visible light beams from one
end of the line to be measured to a receiver or reflector at the other end, from
which the beam returns to the originating unit. The time for the beam to travel
to the reflector and back is measured by the instrument. Knowing the speed
of the beam and the time required for it to make the round trip from one end
of the line to the other and back, the distance between the two stations can
be determined. In most instruments, this is computed automatically, the
instrument reading directly in feet or meters. Electronic devices are capable
of accurate measurement over long distances, depending upon the system
employed.

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e. Graphical/Mathematical Methods. Graphical solutions relate known and

unknown distances geometrically. This is basically what is done in plane
table work. Scaling distances form aerial photographs also could provide
sufficiently accurate results. This method finds practical use when long
distances must be found or when distances must be found or when distances
over inaccessible terrain are involved.

f. Use of Mechanical Devices. The pedometer is a small instrument which

when trapped to the pacer will automatically record the approximate distance
covered, after it has been adjusted to the pace of the wearer. The odometer
is an instrument attached to the wheel of the vehicle to measure its
revolutions, which, when multiplied by the circumference, hives slope lengths
of distance covered. Distance measured by these mechanical devices are
suitable for some preliminary surveys in route-location work.

1.6 MEASURING TAPES

Tapes are graduated several ways, and a tape should be carefully examined
before using to determine the units and pattern of the graduations. The
graduation marks are in feet and decimals; in feet, inches, and fractions; or
in metric units.

The following are some of the common types of measuring tapes:

a. Linen Tape

Linen tape, also known as cloth tape is a varnished strip made of

closely woven linen. The width of the strip is about 12 to 16 mm. It is
available in different lengths such as 10m, 20m, 30m, and 50m. Both
ends of the linen tape are provided with metallic handles and the whole
tape is wounded in leather or metal case.

Linen tapes are light in weight and easy to handle. These tapes may
shrink when exposed to water and also elongate when pulled. Hence,
these tapes are not suitable for accurate surveying measurements.
These are generally used for measuring offsets and for ordinary works.

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b. Woven Metallic Tape

The metallic woven tape is an improved version of linen tape. Brass or

copper made wires are used as reinforcement for the linen material.
Hence, it is more durable than normal linen tape. A brass ring is
provided at the end of the tape which is included in the length of the
tape

These tapes are available in different lengths of 2m, 10m, 15m, 20m,
30m, and 50m. These are used for survey works such as topographical
survey works where minor errors are not taken into consideration.

c. Steel Tape

A steel tape is made of steel or stainless steel. It consists of a steel

strip of 6mm to 16mm wide. It is available in lengths of 1m, 5m, 8m,
10m, 20m, 30m and 50m. Meters, decimeters, and centimeters are
graduated in the steel strip. Steel tapes generally came up with the
metal case with automatic winding device. The tape is withdrawn from
the case by using a hand during measuring and it is rewound into the
case by just pressing button provided on the case.

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Steel tapes are not flexible and are suitable for measuring levelled
surfaces only. They may corrode easily when exposed to moisture and
to prevent this tape, it should be cleaned and oiled after every use.
These tapes are generally used for standardizing chains,
measurements of constriction works, etc.

d. Synthetic Tape

Synthetic tapes are made of glass fibers coated with PVC. These are
light in weight and flexible. They are available in lengths of 5m, 10m,
20m, 30m, and 50m. Synthetic tapes may stretch when subjected to
tension. Hence, these are not suitable for accurate surveying works.
However, synthetic tapes are recommended in place of steel tapes
where it is essential to take measurements in the vicinity of electric
fences and railway lines, etc.

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e. Invar Tape

Invar tapes are made of an alloy which consists of 36% of nickel and
64% of steel. Invar tape contains a 6mm wide strip and is available in
different lengths of 30m, 50m, 100m.

The coefficient of thermal expansion of invar alloy is very low. It is not

affected by changes in temperature. Hence, these tapes are used for
high precision works in surveying such as baseline measurement,
triangulation surveys, etc. Invar tapes are expensive than all the other
types of tapes. These tapes should be handled with care otherwise
bends or kinks may be formed.

1.7 TAPING ACCESSORIES

The following are the different accessories used in taping work.

a. Chain and Tape

Chains or tapes are used to measure distances on the field.

A chain is made up of connected steel segments, or links, which each measure 20

cm. Sometimes a special joint or a tally marker is attached every 5 metres.
Usually, a chain has a total length of 20 metres, including one handle at each end.

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Measuring tapes are made of steel, coated linen, or synthetic material. They are
available in lengths of 20, 30 and 50 m. Centimetres, decimetres and metres are
usually indicated on the tape.

b. Measuring Rod

A measuring rod is a straight lath with a length varying from 2 m to 5 m. The rod is
usually marked in the same way as a measuring tape, indicating centimetres,
decimetres and metres.

c. Plumb Bob
A plumb bob is used to check if objects are vertical. A plumb bob consists of a piece
of metal (called a bob) pointing downwards, which is attached to a cord. When the
plumb bob is hanging free and not moving, the cord is vertical.

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A plumb bob

c. Carpenter Level

A carpenter level is used to check if objects are horizontal or vertical. Within a

carpenter level there are one or more curved glass tubes, called level tubes.

Each tube is sealed and partially filled with a liquid (water, oil or paraffin). The
remaining space is air, visible as a bubble. On the glass tube there are two marks.
Only when the carpenter level is horizontal (or vertical) is the air bubble exactly
between these two marks.

Using a Carpenter Level

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e. Range Poles

Range poles are used to mark areas and to set out straight lines on the field. They
are also used to mark points which must be seen from a distance, in which case a
flag may be attached to improve the visibility.

Range poles are straight round stalks, 3 to 4 cm thick and about 2 m long. They are
made of wood or metal. Ranging poles can also be home made from strong straight
bamboo or tree branches.

REMEMBER: Ranging poles may never be curved.

Ranging poles are usually painted with alternate red-white or black-white bands. If
possible, wooden ranging poles are reinforced at the bottom end by metal points.

Range poles

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f. Pegs

Pegs are used when certain points on the field require more permanent marking.
Pegs are generally made of wood; sometimes pieces of tree-branches, properly
sharpened, are good enough. The size of the pegs (40 to 60 cm) depends on the
type of survey work they are used for and the type of soil they have to be driven in.
The pegs should be driven vertically into the soil and the top should be clearly
visible.

Pegs

1.8 Pacing

The method of measuring distance with the help of pace length is known as
pacing. This type of method is used where approximate results are required.
The length of the pace (generally vary from person to person) is multiplied
by the number of paces to measure the total distance.

Pace is the length of a step in walking; maybe measured from toe to toe or
from heel to heel.

Stride is equivalent to two paces or double step.

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔

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Problem No. 1

A student recorded the following number of paces after walking a distance of 50m
repeatedly as 71.5, 72, 70 and 69.5. He wanted to measure the distance between
two points C and D. He recorded the following number of paces from C to D and
back as 465, 468, 463 and 460. what is the distance from C to D?

Solution:

a. Determine the pace factor

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔

Where : D = 50 m

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔

𝟕𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟕𝟐 + 𝟕𝟎 + 𝟔𝟗. 𝟓
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 = = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟕𝟓
𝟒

𝟓𝟎
𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝒎/𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝟕𝟎. 𝟕𝟓

b. Solve for distance CD

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝑫 = 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒙 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝟒𝟔𝟓 + 𝟒𝟔𝟖 + 𝟒𝟔𝟑 + 𝟒𝟔𝟎

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 = = 𝟒𝟔𝟒
𝟒

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝑫 = 𝟒𝟔𝟒 𝒙 𝟎, 𝟕𝟎𝟕 = 𝟑𝟐𝟖. 𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝒎

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Activity No. 1

Solve the problem below.

A surveyor has a unit pace of 0.9 m/pace. a.) She counts 37 paces while walking
from point C to point D. What is the distance between C and D? b.) How many
paces should the same surveyor count to lay out a line roughly 122m long?

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