Fuel Geology

What is coal??
• Coal is a combustible (ignitable) carbonaceous sedimentary rock, which
originates through the accumulation and partial decomposition of plants
material in specialized environment of deposition. (it consist 50% by
weight and 70% by volume of carbonaceous material).
• Main constituent of coal is Carbon ( 60-90%).
• Other constituents of coal are: Hydrogen (1-12%), Oxygen (2-20%),
Nitrogen (1-3%) and slight amount of sulphur and phosphorous.
• It is also called as black gold.
Specialized environments of deposit:
• Swamps, bogs, delta, coastal plain areas, on broad interior basin low
lands that have been base levelled, mires.
Occurrence of coal in world:

• Most of the world’s coal was formed in Carboniferous age [350

million years ago][Best quality coal].
• Carboniferous age: In terms of absolute time, the Carboniferous
Period began approximately 358.9 million years ago and ended 298.9
million years ago. Its duration is approximately 60 million years.
• The name Carboniferous refers to coal-bearing strata.
• Gondwana coal: Permian (270 millions years ago)
• Tertiary coal
Origin of coal:
• Coal originates in climates that promotes plant growth under
depositional conditions that favors preservation of organic matter.
• For example: wetlands and swamps.

Formation of coal:
Necessary conditions for formation of coal are as follows:
• Abundance of plant materials.
• For accumulation, swamps type of environment.
• Accumulation must exceed the rate of decay of the debris
contd.

• Anaerobic conditions.
• Mild temperate to sub-tropical climate, with moderate to heavy
rainfall, well distributed throughout the year.

How was coal formed??

Coal was formed by two processes:
• Biochemical /Humification: plants material- peat- lignite.
• Geochemical /Coalification: lignite- bituminous coal- anthracite.
contd.
• The formation of the coal begins in a waterlogged (swamps and bogs)
where plant debris accumulated.
• In such an environment, the accumulation of plant debris exceeds the
rate of burial of bacterial decay of debris.
• The bacterial decay rate is reduced because the available oxygen in
organic water is completely used up by decaying process.
• This process then gave rise the formation of a porous, fibrous and a
friable mass called ‘ Peat’.
• For peat to become coal, it must be buried by sediments.
contd.
Phase 1 : (Aerobic decay)
• In the first few inches of peat, aerobic (oxygen needing) bacterial decay
reduces the volume by as much as 50%.
• Because water is stagnant and the peat is almost impermeable, the bacteria
soon use up all the available oxygen and die, the ending the first stage of
decay.
Phase 2: (Anaerobic decay)
• A second type of bacteria exists in the swamps that requires no oxygen.
These anaerobic bacteria continue the decay process reducing the volume
still further.
• Anaerobic decay produces more acids and when the acidity gets too high,
it kills off the remaining bacteria ending all decay.
(contd.)

• After the bacterial decay stages, the peat must be buried under the thousands of feet of
sediments that provides an insulating blanket trapping the natural heat rising to the
surface.
• Temperature reaches 100˚ c, the bituminization process begins.
• Chemical reaction drive off water, oxygen and hydrogen which raises the percentage of
Carbon.
• This process of conversion of peat- lignite- bituminous- anthracite is called coalification.
(being dependent upon the effects of heat and pressure acting over periods of time).

Commonly two theories of accumulation of peat have been recognized, they explain the
formation of coal seams:
• Drift theory
• In situ theory
Chemical properties of coal:
The quality and commercial value of coal is determined through two
methods: Ultimate analysis and Proximate analysis of coal

• Ultimate analysis: it is the determination of the chemical elements in

the coal, i.e. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.

• Proximate analysis: it is a broad analysis that determines the amounts

of moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash content, fuel
ratio and calorific value (combustion property).
Classification of coal:

 Common method of classifying coal is by Rank, which is based on

the degree of coalification (increase of carbon content).
There are four main type of coal which are as follows:
• Peat
• Lignite
• Bituminous
• Anthracite
Peat:
• Carbon is between 30-35 %, hydrogen about 5 – 7 % and other traces of
constituents like, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus. It contains approximately 35%
moisture, about 10% volatile matter.
• Calorific value is about 3500 B.Th.U (2000 K.Cal/kg)
• It is friable in nature and does not have any definite structure. It is light, porous
and fibrous substance light grayish brown to dark brown color.

Lignite:
• carbon content varies from 40-55 %. Comparatively oxygen and moisture are
much less than peat.
• It contains about 25-35% of moisture. Calorific value ranges between 6000-
7000 B.Th.U (3300-3900 K.Cal/kg).
• Brown coal, consist of woody tissues.
Bituminous:
• It has been formed due to slow application of heat and static pressure.
• It contains approx. 80- 85% and hydrogen from 4-6%.
• Volatile matter varies from 15-45% and moisture from 1-10%
• Excellent heating quality.
• Calorific value ranges between 11000- 15000 B.TH.U (6100-8300 K.cal/kg)

Anthracite:
• Carbon content is 90- 98%, volatile matter is hardly 4-5%, moisture less 1%,
hydrogen <2%.
• It is hard coal with iron black colour and sub-metallic to brilliant luster.
• C.V. ranges between 14000- 15000 B.Th.U (7700-8300 K. cal/kg)
a. peat b. lignite

c. Bituminous d. anthracite
Macroscopic description of coal:

The term lithotype is applied to the different macroscopically identifiable

layers in coal seams. Stopes (1919) proposed four lithological types
(lithotypes) for describing humic coals.
• Lithotypes (observed with the unaided eye):
• vitrain, clarain, durain and fusain (bright, half bright, dull and black
(gray-black) and porous and friable)
• Microlithotypes (observable with the microscope)
Lithotypes and their description:
For humic coal:
• Vitrain: brilliant, glossy, vitreous, bands 3-5mm thick, very bright
lustre; thick layers breaks with conchoidal fracture
• Clarain: bright with a silky lustre between vitrain and durain; occurs in
fine laminations; comprises alternating thin layers often 1 mm.
• Durain: grey to black with a dull lustre and fractures into rough
surfaced fragments; Only lenses thicker than 3–10mm are referred to as
durain
• Fusain: black, soft, friable and easily disintegrates into a black fibrous
powder; it occurs in coals as lenses, usually several millimetres thick,
often concentrating in discrete layers in the coal
Contd.

For Sapropelic coal:

• Cannel coal: Black, dull, lustre ‘greasy’, breaks with conchoidal
fracture
• Boghead coal: Black or brown, dull, homogeneous, breaks with
conchoidal fracture, lustre may be ‘greasy’
Microscopic description of coal:

Macerals: The organic units or macerals that comprise the coal mass can
be identified in all ranks of coal. Essentially macerals are divided into
three groups:
• huminite/vitrinite – woody materials;
• exinite (liptinite) – spores, resins and cuticles;
• inertinite – oxidized plant material.

However, coals may be made up largely of a single maceral or, more

usually, associations of macerals.These associations when studied
microscopically are called microlithotypes.
Coal maceral are identified on the
basis of the several
characteristics:

• Reflectivity
• Degree of anisotropy
• The intensity of fluorescence
• Morphology (shape)
• Size
• Relief
Macerals and their description:
Maceral Macerals Morphology Origin
Groups
Vitrinite Telinite Cellular structure Cell walls of trunks, branches,
roots, leaves
collinite Structureless Reprecipitation of dissolved
organic matter in a gel

Liptinite/ Sportinite Fossil form Mega- microspores (commonly

exinite flattened parallel to bedding)
Cutinite Bands which may have appendages Cuticles- the outer layer of leaves,
shoot and thin sheets
Resinite Cell filling layers or dispersed Plant resins, waxes and other
secretions
Alginate Fossil forms Algae

Inertinite Fusunite Empty or mineral filled cellular Oxidized plant material- mostly
structure; cell structure usually well charcoal from burning of
preserved vegetation
Semifusinite Cellular structure Partly oxidized plant material
Schlerotinite Fossil Form Mainly fungal remains
Macrinite Amorphous ‘cement’ Oxidized gel material
Inertodetrinite Small patches of fusinite, semi fusinite Redeposited inertinites
or macrinite
Microlithotypes:

Microlithotypes are classified into three groups based on number of

maceral they contain:
• Monomecaral- type consist of one maceral group. For eg. Vitrite
(over 95% vitrinite) and Inertite (over 95% inertinite)

• Bimaceral- consist of two maceral groups. Examples are clarite,

durite and vitrinertite

• Trimaceral: consist of 3 maceral group. Examples are duroclarite,

clarodurite and vitrinertoliptite
Underground coal gasification:
• UCG is an industrial process through which coal is converted into
product gas. It is an in-situ gasification process, carried out in non-
mined coal seams using injection of oxidants and steam by injection
wells.
• The product gas (syngas) is brought to the surface through production
wells drilled from the surface.
• The product gases are hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide.
• The concept of the underground gasification of coal was first
envisaged by Sir William Siemens (1868) and Mendelev (1888).
UCG Processing model:
Coal Seem Preparation:
• Enhancement of permeability between boreholes
 Reverse combustion linking
Directionally drilled linking
 By Both
Coal gasification reactions:
• The primary oxidation reaction: C + ½ O2 = CO
• The steam char reaction: H2O + C = CO + H2 (endothermic reaction)
• The CO2 reduction reaction (Reverse Boudard reaction): CO2 + C =
CO
• The water gas shift reaction: CO + H2O= H2 + CO2
• The methane synthesis reaction: C + 2 H2 = CH4
• Pyrolysis: when coal + heat produces CH4+ CO +H2+ light
hydrocarbons.
UCG processing:
UCG site characteristics:
• Variety of coals are amenable to the UCG process.
• Coal grades from lignite through to bituminous may be successfully gasified.
• For UCG, the factors which are considered for selecting appropriate locations
includes: surface conditions, hydrogeology, lithology, coal quantity, and quality.
• Other imp. Criteria are:
Depth of 100-600 m
Thickness more than 5 m
Ash content less than 60%
Minimal discontinuities
Isolation from acquifers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of UCG:
Advantages
• conventional coal mining is eliminated with
UCG
• coals that are unmineable (too deep, low
quality, too thin) are exploitable by UCG
• surface transportation of coal at the surface is
eliminated
• no surface gasification facilities are required
• ash in coal remains underground
• produces less greenhouse gas compared with
conventional mining and surface combustion
• UCG extracts more than 80% of the coal’s
energy.
Disadvantages
• UCG can have serious environmental
implications, in particular, aquifer
contamination and ground subsidence – site
selection and operation need to be carefully
assessed
• capital input is greater than deep mining
• even when UCG may be technically feasible,
the selection of a number of coal deposits may
be limited due to geological and
hydrogeological factors that increase
environmental risks to unacceptable levels
• UCG is inherently an unsteady-state process,
and both the flow rate and heating value of the
product gas will vary over time
Coking and Non coking coal:
• Coking or metallurgical coal: is simply a coal, impurities of which are
already burned out of it. This coal burns much cleaner and probably
hotter.
• It is made by taking (preferably) bituminous or anthracite.
• Coking Coal is used in metallurgical process such as in smelting of
Iron to make steel.
• All other coals are non coking type and are used in boiler for thermal
generation of electricity hence they are called as thermal coal.
• COKE: is a grey, hard and porous fuel with a high carbon content and
few impurities, made by heating coal in the absence of air.
Distribution of coal in India:
• Lower Gondwana coal fields ( most of coal are non coking Bituminous
type)
• Tertiary coal fields (lignite type)
Lower Gondwana coal fields:
• Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per cent of the total reserves and 99 per
cent of the production of coal in India.
• The lower Gondwana coal field chiefly occurs in the valleys of certain
rivers viz.,
• The Damodar (Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi(Chhattisgarh-
Odisha); the Son (Madhya Pradesh-Jharkhand); the Godavari and the
Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh)
Contd.
The Damodar valley region
• West Bengal: Raniganj coal field
• Jharkhand: Jharia, Girdih, Bokaro, Karanpura, and Daltonganj coal fields

Mahanadi valley region

• Orissa: Talchir coal field, Rampur-Himgir coal field
• Chattisgarh: Korba, Birampur

Son valley region

• Madhya Pradesh: Umaria, Singrauli, Korba, Chirmiri, Sohagpur, Bisrampur, Mohpani and Pench-
Kanhan valley coal fields

Wardha and Godavari valley region:

• Andhra Pradesh: Singareni coal fields
• Maharashtra: Wardha valley coal fields
Contd.
• Tertiary coal fields are 15 to 60 million years old, carbon content is very low.
• Tertiary coal field of Assam (Makum coalfield)
• Tertiary coal field of Arunanchal Pradesh (Namchick-Namrup coalfield)
• Tertiary Coalfields in Meghalaya (Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills)
• Tertiary Coalfields in Jammu and Kashmir (Kalakot and surrounding regions
in Jammu, south of Pirpanjal), Himachal Pradesh (Chamba district)
• Coal fields of Tamil Nadu (Neyvalli lignites), Gujarat (Kachchh district and
Dharuch district), Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan (Palana in Bikaner
district), West Bengal and Puducherry.