Lab Manual: Surveying 2

Branch : Mining
Submitted By:

1.Waqar Anwar Siddquee

Roll No. 3073915021

2.Vijendra Ekka

Roll No. 3073915020

 Experiment No:1

Aim:
To determine the additive and multiplication constant of Tacheometer by Stadia
Tacheometry.

Instruments Required:
Tacheometer with stand, Levelling Staff, Ranging rods, tape.

General:
An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with stadia hair is known as Tacheometer.
This method completely eliminated the use of tape or chain and is vary rapid
and convenient.

Procedure:
1. Setup the instrument at A.
2. Measure a line AB, 120metres long on a fairly level ground and fix arrows at
30m intervals.
3. Note down the stadia hair readings (top, middle, bottom) by placing the staff
over the arrow stations (PQRS).
4. Keep the vertical circle to read zero during observations.
5. Calculate the other staff intercepts in the manner.

Calculation:
Stadia intercept:
S = Difference of top and bottom hair readings.
Let S1 is the staff intercept corresponding to distance D1 and S2 corresponding to
D2.
By using tacheometric equation.
D= f/i S + ( f + d ), since vertical angle is zero.
Where, f/i = Multiplying constant denoted by K
and, ( f + d ) = additive constant denoted by C
then, D = KS + C

Now we have,
D1 = KS1 + C
D2 = KS2 + C
Solving the above two equations to get the values for K and C.
Similarly find out the values for K and C, by other set of readings.
The average values of the K and C will be the tacheometric Constants.

Tabulation:- (Tacheometric constant)

Inst. Staff Horizontal Stadia hair readings Stadia

at station Distance Top Middle Bottom intercept
A P 30m
Q 60m
R 90m
S 120m

Result:
Tacheometric Multiplying constant K =
Tacheometric additive constant C=
 Experiment No: 2

Aim: Study of Planimeter

Theory: A planimeter, also known as a platometer, is a measuring

instrument used to determine the area of an arbitrary two-dimensional shape

Principle

Principle of the linear planimeter

The working of the linear planimeter may be explained by measuring the area
of a rectangle ABCD (see image). Moving with the pointer from A to B the arm
EM moves through the yellow parallelogram, with area equal to PQ×EM. This
area is also equal to the area of the parallelogram A"ABB". The measuring
wheel measures the distance PQ (perpendicular to EM). Moving from C to D
the arm EM moves through the green parallelogram, with area equal to the
area of the rectangle D"DCC". The measuring wheel now moves in the opposite
direction, subtracting this reading from the former. The movements along BC
and DA are the same but opposite, so they cancel each other with no net effect
on the reading of the wheel. The net result is the measuring of the difference
of the yellow and green areas, which is the area of ABCD.

Construction[edit]
There are several kinds of planimeters, but all operate in a similar way. The
precise way in which they are constructed varies, with the main types of
mechanical planimeter being polar, linear and Prytz or "hatchet" planimeters.
The Swiss mathematician Jakob Amsler-Laffon built the first modern
planimeter in 1854, the concept having been pioneered by Johann Martin
Hermann in 1814. Many developments followed Amsler's famous planimeter,
including electronic versions.
various types of planimeters

Polar planimeter

A planimeter (1908) measuring the indicated area by tracing its perimeter

•
Amsler polar planimeter

A linear planimeter. Wheels permit measurement of long areas without

restriction.

Three planimeters: digital, Prytz's (hatchet) and Amsler's (polar)

•

Prytz planimeter with wheel at the left

The Amsler (polar) type consists of a two-bar linkage. At the end of one link is a
pointer, used to trace around the boundary of the shape to be measured. The
other end of the linkage pivots freely on a weight that keeps it from moving.
Near the junction of the two links is a measuring wheel of calibrated diameter,
with a scale to show fine rotation, and worm gearing for an auxiliary turns
counter scale. As the area outline is traced, this wheel rolls on the surface of
the drawing. The operator sets the wheel, turns the counter to zero, and then
traces the pointer around the perimeter of the shape. When the tracing is
complete, the scales at the measuring wheel show the shape's area.
When the planimeter's measuring wheel moves perpendicular to its axis, it
rolls, and this movement is recorded. When the measuring wheel moves
parallel to its axis, the wheel skids without rolling, so this movement is ignored.
That means the planimeter measures the distance that its measuring wheel
travels, projected perpendicularly to the measuring wheel's axis of rotation.
The area of the shape is proportional to the number of turns through which
the measuring wheel rotates.
The polar planimeter is restricted by design to measuring areas within limits
determined by its size and geometry. However, the linear type has no
restriction in one dimension, because it can roll. Its wheels must not slip,
because the movement must be constrained to a straight line.
Developments of the planimeter can establish the position of the first moment
of area (center of mass), and even the second moment of area.
Various types of planimeters

Linear planimeter

Polar planimeter
The images show the principles of a linear and a polar planimeter. The pointer
M at one end of the planimeter follows the contour C of the surface S to be
measured. For the linear planimeter the movement of the "elbow" E is
restricted to the y-axis. For the polar planimeter the "elbow" is connected to
an arm with its other endpoint O at a fixed position. Connected to the arm ME
is the measuring wheel with its axis of rotation parallel to ME. A movement of
the arm ME can be decomposed into a movement perpendicular to ME,
causing the wheel to rotate, and a movement parallel to ME, causing the wheel
to skid, with no contribution to its reading.
 Experiment No : 3

Aim: Study of Pantograph/Eidograph

Theory: A pantograph (Greek roots παντ- "all, every" and γραφ- "to write",
from their original use for copying writing) is a mechanical linkageconnected in
a manner based on parallelograms so that the movement of one pen, in tracing
an image, produces identical movements in a second pen. If a line drawing is
traced by the first point, an identical, enlarged, or miniaturized copy will be
drawn by a pen fixed to the other. Using the same principle, different kinds of
pantographs are used for other forms of duplication in areas such as sculpture,
minting, engraving and milling.
Because of the shape of the original device, a pantograph also refers to a kind
of structure that can compress or extend like an accordion, forming a
characteristic rhomboidal pattern. This can be found in extension arms for
wall-mounted mirrors, temporary fences, scissor lifts, and other scissor
mechanisms such as the pantograph used on electric locomotives and trams

Uses
Drafting
The original use of the pantograph was for copying and scaling line drawings.
Modern versions are sold as toys.[citation needed]
Sculpture and minting
Sculptors use a three-dimensional version of the pantograph, usually a large
boom connected to a fixed point at one end, bearing two rotating pointing
needles at arbitrary points along this boom. By adjusting the needles different
enlargement or reduction ratios can be achieved. This device, now largely
overtaken by computer guided router systems that scana model and can
produce it in a variety of materials and in any desired size, was invented by
inventor and steam pioneer James Watt (1736–1819) and perfected
by Benjamin Cheverton (1796–1876) in 1836. Cheverton's machine was fitted
with a rotating cutting bit to carve reduced versions of well-known sculptures.
Of course a three-dimensional pantograph can also be used to enlarge
sculpture by interchanging the position of the model and the copy.
Another version is still very much in use to reduce the size of
large relief designs for coins down to the required size of the coin
Experiment No:4
 Experiment No: 5

Aim: Setting out circular curve by chord and offset method

Result :Here chain and tape are used for setting out of curve.This method was
used because curve was short and degree of high accuracy not required.
 Experiment No:6

Aim : Distance and elevation determination by tacheometry

Result:-
Horizontal distance AB =

Level difference between A & B =

 Experiment No- 7

Aim: Measurement of height of accessible and inaccessible point by

trigonometric surveying.

Instruments used: Theodolite with tripod, plumb bob, ranging rod, staff peg
etc.

Theory:
In this method , the horizontal and vertical distances from the instrument to
the staff station
are computed from the observed vertical angles to the vanes fixed at a
constant distance apart
upon the staff. The stadia hairs are therefore not used and the vane is bisected
every time with
the axial hair. Thus the two vertical angles are to be measured –one
corresponding to each
vane.
There may be three cases of the vertical angles:-
(i) Both angles are angles of elevation.
(ii) Both angles are angles of depression.

(iii) One angle of elevation and the other of depression.

Result:-
Horizontal distance between the two inaccessible points P and Q = __________

Level Difference between P and Q =__________

 Experiment No- 8

Aim: - To measure the horizontal angles by reiteration method.

Instruments used:-Theodolite, ranging rods and arrows.

Theory:-
Reiteration is a method of measuring horizontal angles with high precision. It is
less
tedious and is generally preferred when there are several angles to be
measured at a station.
Several angles are measured successively and finally the horizon is closed.
Closing the
horizon is the process of measuring the angles around a point to obtain a check
on their sum
which should be equal to 3600.

Procedure:-
1. Select a station point O.
2. Set the theodolite at O and do the temporary adjustments. The telescope is
adjusted
for right face right swing.
3. Set the vernier A to zero using upper clamp. Loosen the lower clamp, direct
the
telescope to the station point A and bisect A exactly by using the lower clamp
and
lower tangent screw.
4. Note the vernier readings (A and B).
5. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise until the point B is
exactly
bisected.
6. Note the vernier readings (A and B).
7. The mean of the two vernier readings gives the value of <AOB.
8. Bisect all the points successively and note the readings of both verniers at
each
bisection.
9. Finally close the horizon by sighting the station point A. The A vernier should
be
3600. If not, note the closing error.
10. Adjust the telescope for left face left swing.
11. Repeat the whole process by turning the telescope in anticlockwise
direction.
12. Distribute the closing error proportionately the several observed angles.
13. Take the average of face left and face right observations to give the
corresponding
horizontal angles.

Result:- The following horizontal angles are measured :

 Experiment No- 9

Aim: - To measure the horizontal angle AOB by repetition method.

Instruments used:- Theodolite, ranging rods and arrows.

Theory:-
The method of repetition is used to measure a horizontal angle to a finer
degree of
accuracy. By this method, an angle is measured two or more times by allowing
the vernier to
remain clamped each time at the end of each measurement instead of setting
it back at zero
when sighting at the previous station. Thus an angle reading is mechanically
added several
times depending upon the number of repetitions. The average horizontal angle
is then
obtained by dividing the final reading by the number of repetitions. For very
accurate work
the method of repetition is used.

Procedure:-
1. Select a station point O.
2. Set the theodolite at O and do the temporary adjustments. The telescope is
adjusted
for right face right swing.
3. Set the vernier A to zero using upper clamp. Loosen the lower clamp, direct
the
telescope to the station point A and bisect A exactly by using the lower clamp
and
lower tangent screw.
4. Note the vernier readings (A and B).
5. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise until the point B is
exactly
bisected.
6. Note the vernier readings (A and B).
7. The mean of the two vernier readings gives the value of <AOB.
8. Loosen the lower clamp and turn the telescope to station point A and
bisected A by
using the lower clamp and lower tangent screw.
9. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise until the point B is
exactly
bisected. Now the vernier reading is twice the value of the angle.
10. Repeat the process for the required number of times (usually 3).
11. The correct value of the angle AOB is obtained by dividing the final reading
by the
number of repetition.
12. Adjust the telescope for left face left swing.
1. Repeat the whole process by turning the telescope in anticlockwise
direction.
2. Take the average of face left and face right observation to give the
horizontal angle
AOB.

Result:-
The horizontal angle AOB =
 Experiment No: 10

Aim: Study of Vernier Thedolite

DESCRIPTION:
The theodolite is the precise instrument designed for the measurement of
horizontal angle and
vertical angle and has a wide applicability in surveying such as laying of
horizontal angle,
locating points on line, prolonging survey lines, establishing grades,
determining difference in
elevation, setting out curves etc.

PARTS OF A TRANSIT THEODOLITE:

The telescope can be revolved through a complete revolution about its
horizontal axis in a vertical plane.

A. Levelling head:
1. A Levelling head consists of two parallel triangular plates known as tribrach
plates.
2. The upper tribrach has three arms each carrying a Levelling screw.
3. The main functions of the Levelling head is,
(a) To support the main part of the instruments.
(b) To attach the theodolite to the tripod.
(c) To provide a mean for leveling the theodolite.
B. Telescope:
1. It is mounted on a spindle known as horizontal axis or trunnion axis
C. Vertical circle:
1. It is a circular arc attached to the trunnion axis.
2. By means of vertical clamp screw and tangent screw the telescope can be
accurately set at any desired position in vertical plane.
3. The graduation in each quadrant is numbered from 0 to 90 in opposite
directions.
D. Index Frame:
1. At the two extremities, two Vernier are fitted to read the vertical axis.
2. When the telescope is moved in a vertical plane, the Vertical circle moves
relative to the Vernier with the help of which reading can be taken.
3. A long sensitive bubble tube is placed on the top of the index frame.
 E. Standards (or) A – Frame:
1. This stands upon the Vernier plate to support the horizontal axis.
F. Two Spindles:
1. The two axes have a common axis, which forms the vertical axis of the
instruments.
G. Lower plate:
1. It carries a horizontal circle graduated from 0 to 360 in a clockwise direction
as silvered, beveled edge.
2. By means of clamp screw and tangent screw this can be fixed at any desired
position.
 H. Upper plate:
1. It also carries clamp and tangent screw to accurately with the lower plate.
2. On clamping the upper clamp and unclamped lower clamp, the instrument can
rotates on its outer axis without any relative motion between the two plates.
3. If the lower clamp is clamped and upper clamp unclamped, the upper plate
and the instrument can rotate on the inner axis with a relative motion between
the Vernier and the scale.
4. For using any tangent screw, its corresponding clamp screw, its corresponding
clamp screw must be tightened.
I. Level tubes:
1. This upper plate carries two level tubes placed at right angles to each other in
which one is kept parallel to the trunnion axis.
2. Theses can be centered with the help of foot screws.
J. Plumb Bob:
1. This is suspended from the hook fitted to the bottom of the inner axis to canter
the instruments exactly over the station mark.

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS:
A. Setting over the station:
1. Centre the instruments over the station marked by a plumb bob.
2. Level approximately with the help of tripod leg.
B. Levelling Up:
1. Do these using three-foot screws similar to that of Levelling instrument.

C. Elimination of Parallax:
1. By focusing the eyepiece for distinct vision of the cross hairs.
2. By focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross
hairs.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
1. Vertical Axis:- The axis about which the theodolite may be rotated in a
horizontal plane.
2. Horizontal Axis:- The axis about which the telescope along with the vertical
circle of a theodolite may be rotated in a vertical plane.
3. Axis of telescope:- The axis about which the telescope may be rotated is called
axis of telescope.
4. Axis of the level tube:- The straight line that is tangential to longitudinal curve
of the level at its centre is called axis of the level tube.
5. Centering:- The process of setting up theodolite exactly over the groundwork
station is called known as centering.
6. Transiting:- The process of turning the telescope in vertical plane through
180 about its horizontal axis is called transiting.
7. Swing:- A continuous motion of the telescope about the vertical axis in
horizontal plane is called swing the swing may be either in face left or right.
8. Face left observation:- The observation of angles when the vertical circle is on
the left side of scope.
9. Face right observation:- The observations of angles when the vertical circle is
on the right of the telescope.
10. Changing the face:- The operation of changing the face of telescope from right
to left and vice-versa.
11. A set:- A set of horizontal observations of any angle consists of two horizontal
measures one on the left face and other on the right face.
12. Telescope normal:- A telescope is said to be normal when its vertical circles is
to its left and bubble of the telescope is up.

13. Telescope inverted:- A telescope is said to be inverted or reversed when its

vertical circle is to its right and the bubble of the telescope is down.
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