Maps

• Maps are two-dimensional representation of

the earth’s surface.
• The earth is curved surface
 Distortion in Map

• Every flat map misrepresents the surface of the

earth in some way, because no map is better
than a globe at showing the earth’s surface.
• A map can show some of these features
• True direction or azimuth
• True angle
• True distance
• True area
• True shape
 Errors in map making are due to:

• Flattening of the Earth between the poles

• Inability to exactly measure locations
• Inability to correctly interpret features
• Inaccuracy of tracing features and width of
pen
• Inability of digitizing tables to record data
 Coordinate Systems

• allow GIS to perform calculations and

relate one feature to another
• to specify position in terms of distances
and directions from fixed points, lines,
and surfaces
 Coordinate Systems

• The use of digital maps requires a good

understanding of coordinate systems and
map projections
• to plot geographic features on maps means
that points on features must use a common
frame of reference
• That frame of reference allows us to index
spatial data
 Coordinate Systems

• A coordinate system is a reference system used

to define the unique location of a point in space
and to a reference point, line, and area
information by defining its geographic location.
• A coordinate system is usually defined by a
projection, an ellipsoid definition, a datum
definition, one or more standard parallels, and
a central meridian.
 Coordinate System

• A coordinate system converts angular

spherical coordinates (Lat/Long) to
Cartesian coordinates
• Each coordinate system uses a different
model to map the Earth’s surface to a
plane
• Each country has its own coordinate
system and origin.
 Coordinate Systems

• Cartesian coordinate systems are defined

by perpendicular distances and
directions from fixed axes
• Polar coordinate systems allow distances
from a point of origin and an angle to
define positions
Spherical Coordinates
 Latitude

• All points of a particular angle of latitude

describe a circle
• The plane of these points is a parallel to
the equator
 Parallels of Latitude

Equator

Slicing the Earth into pieces

Measuring Parallels

Give the slices values

 Spherical Coordinates

• Any point on a surface that has a given

radius can be uniquely defined by angles
passing through the center of the sphere

Meridian


Equator

 Latitude and Longitude

• Angles measured in a vertical direction

constitute longitude
• Longitude is called the lamdba  angle
• Angles measured in the horizontal
direction constitute latitude
• Latitude is also called the phi  angle
 Latitude - Longitude

• The latitude/longitude coordinate system

is a global coordinate system in which
locations are expressed by geographical
coordinates that depict angular
measurements relative to the Earth’s
ellipsoid.
• Coordinates are expressed in decimal
degrees or degrees º minutes ' seconds".
 Lines of Longitude
Anti-meridian A
Meridian A

Establish a way of slicing the Earth from pole to pole

 Decimal Degrees

• Decimal degrees are the mathematical

representation of degrees.
• For example, in decimal degrees, 30º 30'
0" is 30.5º.

• What is 35º 45' 15 "?

 Prime Meridian

• Greenwich England
• Capital cities of certain countries

• Anti-meridians are the arcs in the same

plane extending in the opposite direction
 Prime Meridian

Establishes an orthogonal way of slicing the earth

 Longitude

Values of pole-to-pole slices

 Earth Grid

Comparing the parallels and the lines

 Sphere-Ellipsoid
Globe versus the Earth
 Spherical Coordinate System
(Geographic Coordinate Systems)

• Defined by degrees of latitude and longitude

• Is a form of spherical polar coordinate
system
• In which two angles are measured relative
to planes passing through the center of the
earth
• Distance is not specified, is implicit
 Cartesian Coordinate System
(The Graticule or Rectangular Coordinate System )

• Map grid is a 2D planar coordinate system

representing the 3D earth
• Map grids are projections that transform
the earth’s surface to a plane, cylinder or
cone that is unfolded to a flat surface
• The lines of latitude and longitude plotted
on a map constitute a graticule (grid
pattern)
 The Earth

• Can be approximated by an
ellipsoid NP
• Obtained by rotating an ellipse
about its minor axis = earth’s b
axis of rotation a
• Semi-major axis a = 6378 km
• Semi-minor axis b = 6356 km
SP
 Why projection?

• Earth is a 3D body
• Only less than half of it can be seen
• Cumbersome to handle
• Difficult to store
• Expensive to reproduce
• It is difficult to measure on 3D surface
 What is a projection?

Method of transforming spherical

representation of earth surface into non-
spherical surface, usually a plane
 Purpose of Map projection

The purpose of understanding map

projections and coordinate systems is to
know, which map projection to use in a
certain situation and to select the one
that best fits your need at the time
 Families of Projections

Map projections are representations of

a curved earth on a flat map surface.
A map projection defines the units and
characteristics of a coordinate system.

Three basic types are

• Azimuthal
• Conical
• Cylindrical
 Map Projections

• A projection system is like wrapping a

flat sheet of paper around the earth.
• Data are then projected from the earth’s
surface to the paper.
• Select a map projection based on the size
of the area that you need to show.
• Base your selection on the shape of the
area.
 Map Projections

• All map projections distort the earth’s

surface to some extent. They all stretch
and compress the earth in some
direction.
• No projection is best overall.
Projection Families
Types of Projection Families
Map Projections
Standard Point/Line for Projection
Regular Azimuthal
Azimuthal Projections
 Azimuthal Projections

• Shapes are distorted everywhere except at the

center
• Distortion increases from center
• Area distortion increases outward from the
center point
• True directions exist from the center outward
• Distances are accurate from the center point
 Polyconic Projections

• Consists of a series of conic projections

stacked together
• Have curved rather than straight
meridians
• Not good choice for tiles across large
areas
 UTM Coordinates

• Flat Grid extending from 84N to 80S

• Each zone is numbered Eastward starting at
180°W (6° wide from 180°W to 174°E)
• Coordinates are read east then north
• Many map products from
foreign countries use UTMs
• Most often used on large
scale maps and charts
 Universal Tranverse Mercator
The UTM graticule coverage
Each zone is 6O in longitude wide
84o N

0 meters N
Equator 10,000,000m N

80o S
180o 0o 180o
1 30 60
 UTM
UTM Grid
Grid Overlay
Overlay
60 Zones, and 20 Latitude Bands
Zones
1 21 60
84º N X
W
V
U
T
S
Latitude Bands

R
Q 21 T
P
N
M
L
K
J
H
G
F
E
D
C
80º S
 UTM Zones - Side by Side
840 N

60 60 60 60 60 60

Equator

800 S
 UTM
UTM Zone
Zone Grid Overlay
Overlay

Meridian
Central

6º of Longitude

Zero East 500,000m E <1,000,000 m E

 UTM Coordinates
UTM Zone Number
Easting Coordinate

11T 0541450
4789650
UTM Latitude
Band Letter
Northing Coordinate
 UTM Coordinates

4791

1,000 m

4790

9 5
5

4789
541 542 543
9

Red house coordinates = 0541450mE

4789650mN
 UTM
UTM Principle
Principle Digits
Digits

4790
350m

650m
4789

Map Corner
(Neatline)

541 542

Principle Digits
Using
Using UTM
UTM to
to Determine
Determine Direction
Direction
N
“You are at
564900E,
4500200N”

W increasing E
+
300m

decreasing
“I am at
+ 565400E,
500m
4500500N”

S
 Determining
Determining Latitude
Latitude
L
A 440 17’ 30”

LONGITUDE
T
I
T

Latitude of U

2.5 min
D
red square = E

7.5 min. scale 1:24,000

44º 17’ 30”

44º 15’ 00”

Parallel
Lines
 Determining Longitude
Longitude

LO

L
N

A
GI
TU

T
DE

I
T
Longitude of

U
D
7.
red square =

E
5
m
in.
sc
ale
115º 19’ 00” 1:
24
,0
00

Meridian
2.5 min
Lines 1150 15’ 115º 17’ 30”
 Project Coordinate System
Rules for selecting a coordinate system

• Use the same coordinate system as others in

your organization or your colleagues
• Use the same coordinate system as your
most common data source
• Use the coordinate system used by people
who share data with you
• Use the same coordinate system as your city
or county—for small areas
 Project Coordinate System

• Use the same coordinate as state agencies

— for large areas
• Ask surveyors, cartographers,
consultants, USGS for advice
• Use the coordinate system that best suits
your requirements
 Project Coordinate System

• For the minimum distortion

• Consider the longitude at the center of your
study area
• Consider the longitude closest to the center
of your study area
• Consider the longitude commonly used in
the area
 Sinusoidal Equal Area Projection
• Sinusoidal equal-area maps have straight parallels at right angles
to a central meridian. Other meridians are sinusoidal curves.
• Scale is true only on the central meridian and the parallels. Often
used in countries with a larger north-south than east-west extent.
• On this projection, the central meridian is a straight line, half the
length of the Equator.
• Other meridians are curved lines, equally spaced along all
parallels. The result is an equivalent projection.
• Distortion on this projection is minimal at the intersection of the
central meridian and the Equator and generally increases with
distance from this point.
• This makes the projection well-suited to maps of a single
continent such as Africa or South America.
Sinusoidal Equal Area Projection
Sinusoidal Equal Area Projection
 Interrupted Sinusoidal Projection
• To minimize distortion of shapes near the edges of the map, an
interrupted Sinusoidal projection can be used.
• This is a composite projection, created by piecing together
several Sinusoidal projections based on different central
meridians. For example, if the main interest is in the land areas,
central meridians are centered in North America, Eurasia,
South America, Africa and Australasia might be used.
• Alternatively, if interest is on the oceans, central meridians
might be chosen centered on the world's oceans.
• Sections of the resulting projections can be pieced together to
obtain an interrupted projection of the entire world. The
resulting map is still an equivalent projection, but has less
distortion of shapes and angles because all regions are relatively
close to a central meridian.
Sinusoidal Equal Area Projection
 Mollweide Projection
• Mollweide projection is an attempt to moderate the
behaviour of the equal-area sinusoidal projection.
• This projection is also an equal-area projection
• The Mollweide projection, used for world maps.
• The 90th meridians are circular arcs. Parallels are
straight, but unequally spaced. Scale is true only along the
standard parallels of 40:44 N and 40:44 S.
• On this projection, the entire Earth is represented within
an ellipse. Parallels of latitude are straight lines parallel to
the Equator.
• Like the Sinusoidal projection, distortion is minimal near
the intersection of the Equator and the central meridian
and increases toward the edges of the map.
Mollweide Equal Area Projection

This projection is also equal-area

Mollweide Projection
Mollweide Projection
 Hammer-aitoff Projection

• This projection is an equal-area map

projection which displays the world on an
ellipse.
Hammer-aitoff Projection
Miller's Cylindrical Projection
Gall Projection
Mercator Projection
 Cylindrical Equal-area Projection

• Although this projection is not particularly attractive

in appearance, it has sometimes been seriously
proposed for actual use, particularly in versions where
the map is stretched vertically to a considerable extent.
• it doesn't look too bad within about 30 degrees of the
Equator, and so it can be used in the transverse case
for areas very narrow in longitudinal extent as well.
Cylindrical Equal-area Projection