Defining positions of Celestial bodies.

Concepts of position definition.

• To define positions of objects exactly, we adopt a reference
system based on which we can assign unique pair of values
to each position.
• The unique pair of values we assign to each position are
called its coordinates.

• On the globe, we use the reference system based on

latitudes and longitudes to show positions.
• These are angular measurements defined as follows:
• The latitude of any point is the angle which a normal line drawn
through the surface at that point makes with the equatorial plane.

• The locus of all places on the surface that have the same latitude
(makes same angle with the equatorial plane) are joined with a line to
form a circle on the surface parallel to the equator and this circle (which
joins places of equal latitudes) is often referred to ‘erroneously’ as the
latitude.

• On this system, the equator (equatorial plane) is chosen as a reference

and all other latitudes are then measured to the north (+ve) or the south
(-ve) of it from 0° to 90° .
Longitudes are defined from the Meridians thus:
• First, recall that, Meridians are all those great circles
that pass through the North and South poles.
• The Meridian circle that pass through Greenwich in
England is accepted as the reference Meridian so that
all others are either to the East or West of it.
• Then the angle each meridian circle makes with the
Greenwich Meridian at the centre is called its
longitude.
• Longitudes are thus measured east (+ve) or west (-ve) of
Greenwich from 0° to 180°.

• By this definition, if we now wish to find the coordinates of any

place on earth, we draw a meridian through the point and the
angle along the equator between the Greenwich meridian and the
meridian of the place is measured to obtain the value of its
longitude.

• To find the latitude or distance north or south of the equator for

the place with known longitude, we measure the angle along the
meridian of the place from the equator to the normal through the
place.
• Then, to describe the coordinates of any point un-
ambiguously, it is sufficient to quote the value of its latitude
and longitude.

• By drawing latitude lines and longitude lines over the

earth’s surface, we will form a graticule system.

• The coordinate system defined by the system of latitudes

and longitudes is called a geographic or more specifically, a
geodetic coordinate system.
• To similarly define the position of stars and other heavenly bodies
on the celestial sphere, we equally define suitable coordinate
systems for them.

• Four common types of coordinate systems used for this purpose

are:

1. The Altitude and Azimuth system.

2. The Declination and Hour angle system.
3. The Declination and the Right Ascension system.
4. The Celestial latitude and celestial longitude system.
 1. The altitude and azimuth system
• The altitude and azimuth or the alt-azimuth system, is based
on the local horizon.
• The altitude is the height of a celestial body above the horizon.
• It shows how high a star or the Sun is above the horizon.
• If we draw a vertical circle through the star position, then the
arc distance along this vertical circle from the horizon to the
star position gives the altitude h of the star.
Note:
1. Altitudes are always measured along a vertical circle.
2. The primary plane of reference for altitude measurements is the
horizon
In Diagram, we draw a Vertical
circle ZSS’ through the Star
position S.
The arc along this circle from S’
on the horizon and the star S
shows how high above the
horizon the star is.
This is the altitude of the star
ho.
Notice the angle Ao at Z.
This angle is the angle made by
the vertical circle with the
observer’s Meridian.
It is called the azimuth angle.
Notice it is also equivalent to
the arc distance NS subtended
along equator
• In order to define how high above the horizon
(altitude) the body S is, we draw the vertical circle
that passes through S.
– (Remember this passes through the zenith and Nadir and
in addition through the body).
• The arc along the vertical circle between the
horizon and S is the altitude, ho.
• The Altitude ho is the vertical angular distance of
the heavenly body above the horizon measured
along the vertical circle through the body.
• The altitude can be measured directly with a
theodolite according to the following field
procedure:
1. Set up a theodolite and level it so as to establish a
horizontal plane (our horizon).
2. Then by tilting the theodolite to look at a star, we could
obtain the vertical inclination of the star to our horizon.
3. In this case, the horizon is the primary plane of reference
and the altitude shows how high above the horizon the
celestial body (star) is.
4. Of course the altitude alone cannot uniquely define the
position of the body (why?)
5. so in addition, we need to specify the angle that
particular vertical circle makes with the observer’s
meridian.
6. This is defined through the quantity called the azimuth.
 The Azimuth
• The Azimuth (A) of the star S is the angle between
the Observers’ Meridian (at the elevated pole side)
and the vertical circle that pass through the star.
• This is the angle at the zenith.
• If we consider projections on the horizon, the
Azimuth is the angular distance from the north or
south point of the horizon to the foot of the vertical
circle through a heavenly body.
• By convention the Azimuth is measured from 0° to
360° clockwise starting from the section of the
meridian which contains the pole.
• For an East star then, the Azimuth A is the same as the
angle Z at the zenith but for a West star, the Azimuth is
given by A = 360° - Z.
• It is trivial to see that, the azimuth of the star is really the
same as its true bearing on the horizon.
• The altitude and azimuth system defines the position of a
celestial body in relation to the observer’s position on the
earth.
• This system is useful for making observations on the earth
since it is related to the observer’s position on the earth.
• The Altitude and Azimuth system gives us one type of
coordinate system we can use to describe the position of
Celestial bodies making use of two measurable quantities -
the Altitude and the Azimuth.
• Notice from figure that, the arc of the
vertical circle between the horizon and the
zenith is 90°.
• Therefore since the altitude is h, the
distance ZS = 90° -h.
• This distance is called the zenith distance
or the co-altitude.
• Usually, the construction of the theodolite
is such that the graduation of the vertical
circle readings, give the zenith distance
directly.
• Recall that we have earlier defined the latitude
of the observer φ as the altitude of the elevated
pole and so the distance ZP is 90° - φ.
• We can complete the spherical triangle by
drawing the Meridian circle through S.
• This Meridian circle passing through S is also
called the Declination circle or Hour circle.
• By joining the Pole, Zenith and any Star on the
sphere by arcs of great circles, we obtain the
astronomical triangle or the ZPS triangle which
we can use for calculating the azimuth as well
as for most other astronomical calculations.
 The Azimuth as the true bearings.

• Recall that we have defined the azimuth of a celestial body as the

angle between the Observer’s Meridian and the vertical circle that
pass through the celestial body.
• This is indicated on the celestial sphere below as the angle Ao.
• If this were defined on the horizontal plane, the azimuth
will be the horizontal angle between the North point and
the foot of the vertical circle through the celestial body on
the horizon.
• Indicating this in a cardinal diagram gives the figure below
for an eastern star:
• In the above, N is the true north direction
because it is the projection of the North
Pole on the horizontal plane.
• The true bearing of a line is the horizontal
angle between the North meridian and
the given line measured clockwise.
• And we see from definition that the
azimuth is the same as the true bearing
of the celestial body on the horizontal
plane.
 Determination of the azimuth of a reference line Ro from that of the
star.
• Suppose the horizontal angle between a reference
line called Ro and the star is measured, then to
obtain the azimuth of the reference line Ro from that
of the star, consider the following two situations:
• a) East star
Let the required azimuth
of the line Ro be βo. Then
βo = A – α, where A is the
Azimuth of the star, and α
is the included horizontal
angle between Ro and the
star.
 • (b) For a star in West (Western Star)

In this case, the azimuth angle Z obtained from the

astronomical triangle must be subtracted from 360o to obtain
the Azimuth of the star.
i.e. for west star, Azimuth = 360o- Z.
Then Azimuth of Ro= Azimuth of star –α.
In general, the azimuth of line Ro is always obtained by
subtracting the observed horizontal angle from the azimuth of
the star noting that for an eastern star, azimuth of star is the
same as that obtained from the solution of the astronomical
 2 The declination and the hour angle coordinate system
The declination
• One very important concept we introduced was the
Declination.
• The Declination (δ) of a star is defined as the arc of
the Declination circle between the celestial equator
and the star.
• It is measured in angular units ie. in degrees from
the celestial equator north (positive) or south
(negative) along the great circle passing through
the celestial poles and the body.
• The equator itself is 0° and the north and south
celestial poles have declination of +90° and -90°
respectively.
• The primary reference plane for declination
measurement is the celestial equator.
• Notice also that, the Declination corresponds to
how we define latitude on the earth’s surface
(measured above or below the terrestrial equator),
but declination is relative to the celestial equator.
• Circles of constant declination are all parallel to the
celestial equator.
• The value of the declination can possibly vary from
0° to 90° for a body on the equator to the poles.
 Questions
• What is the declination of a star when it
is on the celestial equator?
• What is the declination of the north
celestial pole?
• What is the declination of the south
celestial pole?
• What is the value of the sun’s declination
when it is on the tropic of cancer?
Q. Can the sun have a declination value larger
than 23.5 degrees?
Q. the Autumnal equinox also sometimes called
the First Point of Libra occurs on what date of
the year?
 Solving the astronomical triangle for Azimuths.

Using the astronomical (ZPS) triangle, the cosine formula for spherical triangles given
by:
,
into which we substitute the values of the sides and the angle Z to obtain;

This simplified to which yields: 

Q. An observation taken at latitude 5°
54′ 23″ N on a Western star with a
theodolite gave an altitude of 36° 44′
35″. The value of star’s declination
has been given as +15° 13’ 50”. Find
the azimuth of the star and also the
zenith distance.
 Field Observations required for azimuth calculations
by altitude method.
• A theodolite is used to measure accurately the
altitude of a star.
• The measurements of altitudes are used to calculate
the azimuth of the stars and then for survey lines.
• The following measurements must be made on the
field to enable calculation of azimuths by altitude
method:
1. The altitude of the star
2. The horizontal angle between some reference
object Ro and the star
3. The exact time at the instance of observation.
• These measurements are recorded in an angle
book.
• For the sun, equal number of observations
must be taken to alternate limbs to eliminate
the error due to the semi-diameter of the Sun.
• The following sequence of field procedure is
adopted.
1. The theodolite is first set up and adjusted to
create a horizontal plane.
2. The thermometer and barometer readings as
well as other necessary data such as place,
the date, star are also booked.
3.The observer then targets and gets the sun or
star in the field of the telescope telling the
booker to be ready and as soon as the sun’s
limb is in contact with the cross hairs, the
observer says ‘on’ and the booker notes the
time.
4.The observer then reads the vertical circle
and the horizontal circle.
5.The observer changes face and repeats the
observations.
6.The results are recorded in a field book as
below:
7. Scale the latitude and longitude of the theodolite’s station from a toposheet or from
from a mobile app.

8. Using the star almanac, determine the values of the sun’s

declination (δ) and the correction for refraction.
9. Solve for the azimuth of the star using the ZPS triangle.
10.Deduce the azimuth of the line from the azimuth of the star
• Using the astronomical (ZPS) triangle, the cosine
formula for spherical triangles given by:
• ,
• into which we substitute the values of the sides and
the angle Z to obtain;
•
• This simplified to which yields:
• For an East star the Azimuth A is the
same as the angle Z but for a West
star, the Azimuth is given by A =
360° - Z.
• The altitude h must be corrected for
refraction and parallax before it is
used in the calculation for azimuth
• As discussed in the earlier section, the calculation of
azimuth from the astronomical triangle using
observed values of altitude enables us to determine
the true bearing of survey lines.
• However, for accurate results, the errors that may be
inherent in the observations must be corrected for.
• Such errors would be introduced in observed
altitudes and measured horizontal angles.
• The main sources of these errors would be due to:
– Instrument used.
– Refraction.
– Parallax.
– Semi-Diameter correction for Sun observations.
 Instrumental corrections
• Most instrumental errors such as
collimation and vertical index errors are
eliminated by adopting proper field
procedures such as:
– making sure that the instrument is properly
leveled
– the theodolite bubble is in the center of its
run before observations are taken
– taking observations on both faces of the
theodolite.
 Refraction correction
• A ray of light passing from a medium to a denser
one is refracted towards the normal at the surface
boundary where the ray crosses from one of the
media to the other.
• Considering that for space, the density of air in the
atmosphere is denser than the vacuum above it, a
ray of light from a heavenly body will pass from a
rarer medium to a denser one as it comes into the
earth’s atmosphere.
• To an observer, on earth, the body therefore
appears to be at a higher altitude than its actual
position.
• Let be the refractive indices of the two media
respectively.

• Then we know from Snell’s law that if i were the angle

of incidence and r that of refraction, then

• From the diagram, the observed altitude is h o instead of

the correct altitude hc.

• Where angle r (see diagram), is the correction due to

refraction.
• With the notation of the diagram, the
zenith distance Zo is 90o -ho.
• Put the angle of incidence i = Zo + r, and
the angle of refraction r = Zo where Zo is
the observed zenith distance 90o – ho.
• Then, μ1Sin(Zo + r) = μ2SinZo which we
may write as Sin(Zo + r) = μoSinZo
• since medium (1) is vacuum and μo is the
relative refractive index of air.
• Expanding the above yields,

When r is small, then Cos r =1 and Sin r = r in

radians.
So we can simplify the expression as,

Here r is the angular correction to apply because of

refraction.
If we now put Zo = 90o – h, r = (μo – 1) tan (90o – h).
• Now tan (90o – h) = cot h
• Therefore r = (μo – 1) Cot h.
• The relative refractive index of air at
standard temperature and pressure
(273.16K, 760mm.Hg) is 1.00029.
• Converting r from radians to seconds,
using the relation that
• We obtain on substitution, correction r’’=
59.8’’ Cot h.
• For conditions different from standard, the
correction must be modified by multiplying by f
where the factor

• where pressure is measured in mm Hg.

• The factor f can be obtained from the ideal
equation of state P= nRT.

• The star almanac documents values for both the

quantity ro and the corrections f.
• So when the star almanac is used, the refraction
correction is r = - rof.
 Parallax Correction to Altitudes
• Parallax refers to the apparent change in the observed position
of an object as seen against a background because the position
of the observer has changed.
• In astronomical observations the celestial sphere is the
background against which observations are made.
• The position of the sun as seen on this background will depend
on the observer’s position on the earth because the earth’s
radius is not altogether negligible as compared to the distance
to the sun.

• In the fig. below, ho is the observed altitude on the surface

instead of the centre of the earth.
• But the required altitude since positions of the sun as tabulated
in the star almanac are referred to the centre of the earth is h.
• This correction must be added to our
observed altitudes.
• From parallax correction

• If D >>R, then correction is zero.

• For the stars, D>>R, so parallax correction is
zero, hence we need not apply parallax
correction in the case of the stars.
 Correction for Semi-diameter of the sun.
• The sun appears as a bright disc and bisecting its
center is difficult due to its motion.
• The observational procedure adopted therefore is to
observe the sun with its limbs in alternate quadrants,
e.g. first and third quadrants or second and fourth
quadrants so that the errors cancel out.

• If however, an observation is done only to one limb,

corrections must be applied to reduce the observation
to the center of the sun.
• This correction is called Semi-diameter correction
and varies from 16’.3 to 15’.7.
 Solar or Stellar Observations?
•We have seen from the correction for parallax
that, for the stars, parallax is negligible since
D>>R, so observations with the stars would yield
more accurate results than the sun.
•Furthermore, stellar observations have the
following advantages over solar observations:
–The center of the stars can easily be bisected
than getting the tangency to the limbs of the sun.
–There is a range of stars available and so those in
the most favorable positions can be selected for
convenience of observation.
 – We do not need a dark glass for the observations so the
difficulty of causing shifts when the glass is being
tilted on the eyepiece each time is avoided.
– East and West stars can be observed at the same time.
– Because temperatures remain quite constant during
the nights, refraction variations are avoided.
• However, the disadvantages of using the star are:
– We need to have an illuminated Ro and light to enable
us to read the circle of the theodolite.
– Accurate identification of the stars used in the
observation is necessary with the help of star charts.
 Convergence of Meridians
•We are already aware that in reality,
Meridian lines are not parallel as
portrayed on Grids but converge at the
Poles.
•The convergence angle γ at a point on the
projection is defined by the angle
measured from the projected meridian,
which defines true north, to a grid line of
constant distance also defining grid north.
• Convergence must be added to a grid
bearing to obtain true Bearings.
• We can compute the grid bearing from
the true or geodetic azimuth of the line.
• The true azimuth can be determined
from astronomical observations, for
example. We use the grid convergence as
follows:

•
• The Grid convergence depends upon the distance of the
point from the central meridian, which is a function of
longitude (actually difference in longitude from the
central meridian), adjusted by the latitude.
• For longer lines, the grid convergence will change from
one end of the line to the other, so we must compute
a correction for this.
• This correction is called the arc-to-chord or T-t
correction as the geodetic line appears as a curve
on the projection.
• For the secant transverse Mercator the convergence
may be expressed either in terms of the geographical
coordinates as:
• where
 The Hour angle:
• The Hour Angle, is the angle between an observer’s
meridian (a great circle passing over his head and through
the celestial poles) and the hour circle (any other great
circle passing through the poles) on which some celestial
body lies.
• This is also the angular distance, measured westward
along the celestial equator, between the celestial meridian
of the observer and the hour circle passing through a
celestial body.
• The hour angle is between the declination circle and the
observer’s meridian and is the angle at P of the
astronomical triangle.
• The declination circle is therefore also called the hour
Circle.
• The hour angle is expressed in hours, minutes, and
seconds (one hour equals 15 degrees).
• A celestial object's hour angle is measured relative
to the observer's Meridian;
• A star on the observer’s celestial meridian at a
given moment in time has zero hour angle.
• The hour angle is used in measuring astronomical
time because the angle, when expressed in time
units, is the time elapsed since the celestial body’s
last transit of the observer’s meridian (for a positive
hour angle), or the time until the next transit (for a
negative hour angle).
• The hour angle varies from 0 to 24
hrs.
• The reference for measuring hour
angle is the observer’s meridian
at upper transit.
• By this convention, if the star is
east, then its hour angle is 24hrs
–H but for a west star, the hour
angle is the angle H.
 The position of each star is uniquely
specified when both the declination and
hour angles are given so this pair
constitutes a coordinate system for
specifying positions of celestial bodies.
In this system, the fundamental circle
used for measurement is the equator.
Declination values are published in a star
almanac for land Surveyors annually.
 The Declination and Right Ascension systems
• The declination of a star does not change with
the observer’s position, but the hour angle
does.
• Hence the hour angles cannot be a suitable
coordinate for cataloguing.
• This problem is overcome by selecting a fixed
meridian instead of the observer’s meridian in
a manner analogous to the way in which the
Greenwich meridian has been selected as the
zero point for the measurement of longitudes.
• The zero point chosen on the celestial sphere
is the first point of Aries, γ.
• So in this case the reference Celestial
Meridian is the Meridian which passes through
the first point of Aries (vernal Equinox).
• The angular distance between this meridian
and the hour circle through the star is
measured instead along the celestial equator.
• This new quantity which depends entirely on
the star position instead of the observer is
called the Right Ascension.
 The Right Ascension
• The Right Ascension is the angular distance of a celestial body or
point on the celestial sphere, measured eastward from the vernal
equinox along the celestial equator to the hour circle of the body
or point and expressed in hours.
• Technically speaking, it is the angular distance of a celestial
object east of the vernal equinox.
• It is usually expressed in units of time rather than degrees of arc.
• Right ascension and declination define the position of a celestial
object exactly.
• Right ascension (RA) is like longitude.
• To find the right ascension of a star follow the hour circle from
the star to the celestial equator.
• Then the angle from the vernal equinox eastward to the foot of
that hour circle expressed in time units is the star's right
ascension.
• The Hour Angle is used in measuring
astronomical time.
• The hour angle of the vernal equinox
is called the Local Sidereal time.
• There are three types of Hour Angles:
1.Sidereal Hour Angle
2.Greenwich Hour Angle
3.The Local Hour Angle.
• The sidereal hour angle is the angle at the
celestial pole between the celestial meridian
of the first point of the Aries and the
observers Meridian.
• The Greenwich hour angle is the arc of the
equator measured westward from the
celestial meridian of Greenwich to the
observer’s meridian.
• The local hour angle is the angle at the
celestial pole measured westward from the
observer’s meridian to the celestial meridian
of the body.
• Relation of Hour Angle with the Right Ascension
• It can be seen readily from fig. above that, the Local
Sidereal Hour angle is equal to the sum of the Right
Ascension α and the hour angle (HA) of an object.
• This is also referred to as the Sidereal Time.

  ST  HA  
Q1. To what position on Earth is the vernal equinox
analogous?
Q2. What is the Value of the Hour angle of the first
point of Aries in terms of the Hour angle of the star
and the right Ascension?