ABSTRACT

The coming global oil crisis implies that alternatives to the conventional distillation
plants based on fossil fuels must be developed. Solar energy can be used to distill, or
purify water. Solar distillation is an often overlooked method for providing potable water
to coastal, poverty stricken nations with abundant amounts of solar energy available. Solar
distillation is a rapidly growing field of research. A distiller is designed to take advantage of
the solar energy available in these regions.

A solar-distillation device consists of a roof of glass over a blackened pan filled with
salty or impure water. The pan rests on an insulated pad. The sun evaporates the water,
and air circulation carries the resulting water vapour to the glass roof, where it condenses.
The condensed vapour, or distilled water, runs into troughs along the edge of the pan.
Solar distillation has been used experimentally to remove salt from ocean water.

The model of solar water distillation system is fabricated and then it has been
experimented to distill water. The different water samples are taken and the distillation
process has been observed. Readings of temperature and output of distilled water is noted
at intervals of one hour. The thermal analysis of the system is carried out to calculate
various thermal losses and instantaneous efficiency of the system. The TDS and pH of
water samples are tested before and after the distillation, to know that the system has
actually distilled the water and reduced the TDS.

During this process, factors that will optimize single day productivity have been
explored.

1
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION
Today fresh water demand is increasing continuously, because of the industrial
development, intensified agriculture, improvement of standard of life and increase of the
world population. Only about 3 % of the world water is potable and this amount is not
evenly distributed on the earth. On deserts and islands where underground water is not
readily obtainable and the cost of shipping the places is high it is worthwhile to take into
consideration of producing potable water from saline water, using solar energy that is in
abundance in deserts.

Large quantities of fresh water are required in many parts of the world for
agricultural, industrial and domestic uses. Lack of fresh water is a prime factor in inhibiting
regional economic development. The oceans constitute an inexhaustible source of water
but are unfit for human consumption due to their salt content, in the range of 3 % to 5 %.
Seawater and sometimes brackish water distillation constitute an important option for
satisfying current and future demands for fresh water in arid regions. Distillation is now
successfully practiced in numerous countries in the Middle East, North Africa, southern and
western US, and southern Europe to meet industrial and domestic water requirements.

The supply of drinking water is a growing problem for most parts of the world.
More than 80 countries, which between them have 40 % of the world’s population, are
being suffered from this problem. In order to solve this problem, new drinking water
sources should be discovered and new water distillation techniques be developed. In many
countries, fossil fuel burning water distillation systems are currently used. These systems
can range up to 10 ton/day in capacity. The main water distillation or purification methods
are distillation, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis. For bigger systems, reverse osmosis
and electrodialysis are more economical, but for smaller ones, simple solar stills could be
preferred because of their low costs. These days, in a number of countries including West-
Indian Islands, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Mexico and Australia, this type of distillation units
exist.

Distillation has become increasingly important in providing an economically viable

solution to the problem of decreasing fresh water resources. There are many factors to

2
take into consideration to make a new technology sustainable. As we begin the 21st
century, we must look towards cleaner sources of energy. Fossil fuel resources will soon
be expired due to our rate of consumption. Cleaner energies such as natural gas, solar
power, and photovoltaic technology must be integrated into distillation technology.

Solar distillation is a process where solar energy is used to distill fresh water from
saline, brackish water for drinking purposes, charging of the batteries and medical
appliances, etc. In recent years distillation of water has been one of the most important
technological works undertaken in many countries. Many areas in Middle East and
elsewhere have little or no natural water supplies which can be used for human
consumption and, hence, depend heavily on water produced by distillation. Several
methods of solar water distillation are known. Many workers indicate that the utilization of
solar energy for water distillation is becoming more attractive as the cost of energy is
continuously increases. Solar distillation is particularly important for locations where solar
intensity is high and there is a scarcity of fresh water. The methods of solar water
distillation are classified according to the way in which solar energy is used; the best-
known method is the direct use of solar energy.

Small production systems as solar stills can be used if fresh water demand is low
and the land is available at low cost. High fresh water demands make industrial capacity
systems necessary. These systems consist of a conventional seawater distillation plant
coupled to a thermal solar system. This technology is known as indirect solar distillation.
Many small size systems of direct solar distillation and several pilot plants of indirect solar
distillation have been designed and implemented. Nevertheless, in 1996 solar distillation
was only 0.02 % of desalted water production.

Another advantage of distillation is that it will never run out its raw material,
because the facility is located right next to the ocean, and the ocean is so vast. Because of
this, distillation is a drought-proof resource that is constantly able to produce fresh water
regardless of the amount of rainfall. This is a great advantage if the distillation process is
located in an agricultural area.

3
 CHAPTER – 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Science of Solar Energy

Solar energy is radiant energy that is produced by the sun. Every day the sun
radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of energy. The sun radiates more energy in
one second than people have used since the beginning of time!

Where does the energy come from that constantly radiate from the sun? It comes
from within the sun itself. Like other stars, the sun is a big ball of gases—mostly hydrogen
and helium atoms. The hydrogen atoms in the sun’s core combine to form helium and
generate energy in a process called nuclear fusion.

During nuclear fusion, the sun’s extremely high pressure and temperature cause
hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei (the central cores of the atoms) to fuse or
combine. Four hydrogen nuclei fuse to become one helium atom. But the helium atom
contains less mass than the four hydrogen atoms that fused. Some matter is lost during
nuclear fusion. The lost matter is emitted into space as radiant energy.

It takes millions of years for the energy in the sun’s core to make its way to the
solar surface, and then just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93 million miles to
earth. The solar energy travels to the earth at a speed of 186,000 miles per second, the
speed of light.

Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space strikes the earth,
one part in two billion. Yet this amount of energy is enormous. Every day enough energy
strikes the United States to supply the nation’s energy needs for one and a half years!

Where does all this energy go? About 15 percent of the sun’s energy that hits the
earth is reflected back into space. Another 30 percent is used to evaporate water, which,
lifted into the atmosphere, produces rainfall. Solar energy also is absorbed by plants, the
land, and the oceans. The rest could be used to supply our energy needs.

4
2.2 Solar Energy and the Environment

Using solar energy produces no air or water pollution, and it is a free and widely
available energy source. Manufacturing the photovoltaic cells to harness that energy,
however, consumes silicon and produces some waste products. In addition, large solar
thermal farms can harm desert ecosystems if not properly managed. Most people agree,
however, that solar energy, if it can be harnessed economically, is one of the most viable
energy sources for the future.

Using solar energy has proved to offer a lot of economic and environmental
benefits which contribute to a healthy and secure future at the end of the day. Let us take
a walk down the solar path and understand its nature.

Sun light is the best natural resource that is converted into electricity. Rather than
using expensive natural gas, oil, coal or wood for meeting energy requirements, you can
save on a huge amount of money and electricity by utilizing the renewable solar energy.
Solar energy is tapped by thermal devices or various technologies so as to conserve power
and utilize it to serve a wide variety of purposes. Solar energy may be used for industrial
production, material testing, smelting, to heat up water, cook food, distill and disinfect
water for drinking purposes, and much more.

No other energy can be as environment-friendly as the Solar Energy. This natural

resource does not pollute the air when being converted into electricity by solar panels or
other thermal devices. Industrial or electric power plants which run on electricity produce
carbon emissions that pose as a hazard for the environment and all the living beings. If
you are concerned about the serious effects of Global Warming, think again. Solar energy
is the savior here as it does not produce greenhouse effect which is the major cause of
global warming.

5
2.3 Solar Radiation

Solar Position Parameters and Calculation of their Values

Several solar parameters are used to describe the position of the sun at a specified
location, date and time and to make calculations regarding the rate of solar radiation
striking the earth at a specified location.

Some of those parameters are solar declination, solar hour angle, solar
latitude angle, zenith angle, & azimuth angle.

 Solar declination (δ) is the angle between the sun’s rays and a plane passing
through the equator. This is illustrated in Figure 4.6.

Fig. 2.1, Solar Declination Angle, δ

The solar declination depends only on the day of the year. The declination is also
equal to the latitude at which the sun is directly overhead at solar noon on the given day.
The declination is positive when the sun is directly overhead north of the equator
(December 21 through June 21) and it is negative when the sun is directly overhead
south of the equator (June 21 through December 21). The solar declination, δ , can be
calculated from the equation:

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 δ = (23.45) sin [360 (284 + n)/365]

Where n is the day number in the year, with January 1 as 1.

The variation of δ throughout the year is shown in Figure 4.6. The solar declination
has a maximum value of + 23.45° on June 21 and a minimum value of – 23.45° on
December 21.

 Hour Angle (ω), is a measure of the position of the sun relative to solar noon at a
given time at any given location on the earth. The hour angle, ω, is zero when the sun is
directly overhead (local solar noon). It is negative before local solar noon and is positive
in the afternoon. The hour angle changes by 15° each hour, or one degree in 4 minutes.

Fig. 2.2, The declination angle (δ), latitude ( Ø ) and hour angle ( ω) for point P

 Solar Latitude Angle (Ø) is the angle made by the radial line joining the location
to the center of the earth with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane.

7
  Solar Altitude Angle (α)is the angle between the sun’s rays and a horizontal
plane. When the sun is just rising or setting, the altitude angle is zero. When the sun is
directly overhead, the altitude angle is 90°.

 Zenith Angle ( θz ), is the angle between the beam of the sun and the vertical. In
other words, it is the vertical angle between the sunrays and the line perpendicular to the
horizontal plane through the point.

θz =cos-1 (sin Ø sin δ + cos Ø cos δ cos ω)

Where,
Ø = Latitude angle
ω = Hour Angle (Angle of radiation due to time of day)
δ = Solar declination angle

 Azimuth Angle ( Az ), is the horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal
projection of the sun rays.

Fig. 2.3, The Zenith angle (θz), the altitude angle (α), and the Azimuth Angle
(Az) of the Sun when view from point P on the Earth’s surface.

8
2.4 Solar Insolation

Solar insolation is the total solar radiation received on earth surface on particular
time.

The solar insolation I(t) can be calculated by the equation

I(t) = S Cos θz
Where,
S = Clear day average solar insolation on a surface perpendicular to incoming solar
radiation.
θz = Zenith Angle
= cos-1 (sin Ø sin δ + cos Ø cos δ cos ω)
Ø = Latitude angle
= 20.54° for Valsad
ω = Hour Angle (Angle of radiation due to time of day)
= 15° (Time – 12)
δ = Solar declination angle
= (23.45) sin [360 (284 + n)/365]

2.5 Physical Characteristics Of Water

Various characteristics of water are,

2.5.1 Turbidity

The turbidity is measured by a turbidity rod or by a turbidity meter with optical

observations and is expressed as the amount of suspended matter in mg/l or parts per
million (ppm).

For water, ppm and mg/l are approximately equal.

The standard unit is that which is produced by one milligram of finely divided silica
(fuller’s earth) in one liter of distilled water.

9
2.5.2 Total Dissolved Solids - TDS

"Dissolved solids" refer to any minerals, salts, metals, cat ions or anions dissolved
in water. This includes anything present in water other than the pure water (H 20)
molecule and suspended solids. (Suspended solids are any particles/substances that are
neither dissolved nor settled in the water, such as wood pulp.)

In general, the total dissolved solids concentration is the sum of the cat ions
(positively charged) and anions (negatively charged) ions in the water.

Parts per Million (ppm) is the weight-to-weight ratio of any ion to water. Conductivity is
usually about 100 times the total cat ions or anions expressed as equivalents. Total
dissolved solids (TDS) in ppm usually range from 0.5 to 1.0 times the electrical
conductivity.

 Where do Dissolved Solids come from?

Some dissolved solids come from organic sources such as leaves, silt, plankton, and
industrial waste and sewage. Other sources come from runoff from urban areas, road salts
used on street during the winter, and fertilizers and pesticides used on lawns and farms.

Dissolved solids also come from inorganic materials such as rocks and air that may
contain calcium bicarbonate, nitrogen, iron phosphorous, sulfur, and other minerals. Many
of these materials form salts, which are compounds that contain both a metal and a
nonmetal. Salts usually dissolve in water forming ions. Ions are particles that have a
positive or negative charge. Water may also pick up metals such as lead or copper as they
travel through pipes used to distribute water to consumers.

 Why Should You Measure the TDS level in your Water?

The EPA Secondary Regulations advise a maximum contamination level (MCL) of

500mg/liter (500 parts per million (ppm)) for TDS. Numerous water supplies exceed this
level. When TDS levels exceed 1000mg/L it is generally considered unfit for human
consumption. A high level of TDS is an indicator of potential concerns, and warrants
further investigation. Most often, high levels of TDS are caused by the presence of

10
potassium, chlorides and sodium. These ions have little or no short-term effects, but toxic
ions (lead arsenic, cadmium, nitrate and others) may also be dissolved in the water.

Taste/Health High TDS results in undesirable taste which could be salty, bitter, or
metallic. It could also indicate the presence of toxic minerals. The
EPA's recommended maximum of TDS in water is 500mg/L (500ppm).
Filter Test your water to make sure the filter system has a high rejection
performance rate and know when to change your filter (or membrane) cartridges.
Hardness High TDS indicates Hard water, which causes scale buildup in pipes
and valves, inhibiting performance.
Aquaculture A constant level of minerals is necessary for aquatic life. The water in
an aquarium should have the same levels of TDS and pH as the fish
and reef's original habitat.
Hydroponics TDS is the best measurement of the nutrient concentration in
hydroponics’ solution.
Pools and Spas TDS levels must be monitored to prevent maintenance problems.
Commercial High TDS levels could impede the functions of certain applications.
/Industrial

Table 2.1 TDS in water

Ideal Drinking water from reverse osmosis, distillation, 0-50 PPM

deionization, microfiltration, etc.
Often considered acceptable range for carbon filtration, 50-140 PPM
mountain springs or aquifers.
Average tap water. 140-400 PPM
Hard water. 170 PPM or
above
Less desirable 200-300 PPM

Unpleasant levels from tap water, aquifers or mountain springs. 300-500 PPM
The EPA's maximum contamination level. 500 PPM

Table 2.2TDS in Different Water Sources

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  How can we reduce or remove the TDS in water?

1. Carbon Filters (very slight reduction)

2. Reverse Osmosis (R.O.) (extremely high reduction and great tasting water )

3. Distillation (total reduction - flat taste)

4. DI Deionization (usually a final polishing filter following a RO Reverse Osmosis

filtration system to eliminate TDS)

2.5.3 pH and Water

The indicator for acidity or alkalinity, or basic, is known as the pH value. A pH value
of 7 means a substance is neutral. The lower value indicates acidity, and a higher value is
a sign of alkalinity.

Basically, the pH value determines whether water is hard or soft. The pH of pure
water is 7. In general, water with a pH lower than 7 is considered acidic, and with a pH
greater than 7, basic. The normal range for pH in surface water systems is 6.5 to 8.5 and
for groundwater systems 6 to 8.5. Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of the water to
resist a change in pH that would tend to make the water more acidic. The measurement
of alkalinity and pH is needed to determine the corrosiveness of the water.

In general, water with a low pH (< 6.5) could be acidic, soft, and corrosive.
Therefore, the water could contain metal ions such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, and
zinc...or, on other words, elevated levels of toxic metals. This can cause premature
damage to metal piping, and have associated aesthetic problems such as a metallic or
sour taste, staining of laundry, and the characteristic "blue-green" staining of sinks and
drains. More importantly, there are health risks associated with these toxins. The primary
way to treat the problem of low pH water is with the use of a neutralizer. The neutralizer
feeds a solution into the water to prevent the water from reacting with the household

12
plumbing or contributing to electrolytic corrosion. A typical neutralizing chemical is soda
ash. Neutralizing with soda ash, however, increases the sodium content of the water.

Water with a pH > 8.5 could indicate that the water is hard. Hard water does not
pose a health risk, but can cause aesthetic problems. These problems include an alkali
taste to the water (making that morning coffee taste bitter!), formation of a deposit on
dishes, utensils, and laundry basins, difficulty in getting soaps and detergents to lather,
and formation of insoluble precipitates on clothing.

According to a study, because of the association of pH with atmospheric gases and

temperature, it is strongly recommended that water samples be tested as soon as
possible. The study says that the pH value of the water is not a measure of the strength of
the acidic or basic solution, and alone cannot provide a full picture of the characteristics or
limitations with the water supply.

While the ideal pH level of drinking water should be between 6 - 8.5, the human
body maintains pH equilibrium on a constant basis and will not be affected by water
consumption. For example our stomachs have a naturally low pH level of 2 which is
beneficial acid that helps us with food digestion.

2.5.4 Taste and Odour

The extent of taste or odour present in a particular sample of water is measured by

a term called odor intensity, which is related with the threshold odour or threshold odour
number. Water to be tested is therefore gradually diluted with odour free water, and the
mixture at which the detection of odour by human observation is just lost, is determined.
The number of times the sample is diluted represents the threshold odour number.

For public supplies, the water should generally free from odour, i.e. the threshold
number should be 1 and should never exceed 3.

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2.6 Water Distillation

Easy access to clean, uncontaminated water is an integral part of daily life. Its
impact on agriculture, industry, overall health, and well-being is impossible to ignore. The
majority of water on Earth, excluding some rainwater, is contaminated with impurities
and/or chemical substances. Therefore it cannot be used for agriculture, industry, and
daily human consumption.

Fresh water is a necessity for the sustenance of life and also the key to man’s
prosperity. It is generally observed that in some arid, semi-arid and coastal areas which
are thinly populated and scattered, one or two family members are always busy in
bringing fresh water from a long distance.

The unavailability of healthy drinking water in impoverished regions is increasing at

an alarming rate parallel to increasing populations throughout the world. Rather than use
expensive non-renewable resources to meet this demand, solar energy can be harnessed
to power a simple distiller. Solar distillation is an affordable and reliable source for potable
water that is often ignored and underutilized. In areas with ample amounts of sunlight
and access to sea water, a solar distiller can potentially provide a family or small
community with sufficient water for daily consumption. In these areas solar energy is
plentiful and can be used for covering saline water into distilled water.

Considering the increasing demand on water all over the world and the water
resources depletion, sea-water and/or brackish-water distillation are considered, in fact, as
a contemplated principle to realize, in order to obtain soft or drinking water. Progress in
distillation has been made to the point where industrial units have been set up using
energy with a high cost price of a produced water cubic meters. In spite of having a low
efficiency, solar distillation proved to be a process of soft-water production, economically
an important solar deposit and where rainfall is rare or mostly absent. However, in the
case of coastal countries, an important groundwater resource, mostly brackish, is available
and where solar distillation can be an adequate solution to face the increasing demand on
soft water. The aim of our work is to study the energetic global efficiency of a solar still
with a greenhouse effect, which is dependent on the temperature difference between the
brine and the inner side of the glass, on the climate and geometric parameters and on

14
those related to the brine. A theoretical study has been carried out in order to set up
equations governing the performance system as well as parameters influencing solar-still
efficiency. By knowing equations governing the inner and the outer heat transfer and
through experimental models, we can, by mathematical simulation, set up an adequate
solar still and elaborate a mathematical model, being able to meet distilled-water demand
and where efficiency can reach acceptable values.

2.7 Water Distillation Principles

Every element can exist in three states: as a liquid, as a solid and as a vapour,
which mostly depend on its temperature. This applies to water, too. So, water can be
found as ice, water and steam. If water is cooled down below 0 degrees Celsius (32
Fahrenheit), it becomes ice, and if heated above 100 degrees Celsius (212
Fahrenheit), it becomes steam. The temperature, at which a substance changes it
state from liquid to vapour is called a boiling point, and it is different for different
substances. This difference can be used to separate substances, and as such can be
used for water purification.

The process is relatively simple:

 The dirty water is heated to the boiling point and thus vaporizes
 It becomes steam, while other substances remain in solid state, in boiler.
 Steam is then directed into a cooler where it cools down and returns to liquid
water
 The end result is water, purified of additional substances found in it before
distillation.

Distillation is an effective process and, what's more important, it can be done

with a lot of improvisation. You can heat water with whatever is at hand: fire,
electricity, or whatever. You can use almost anything that holds water for a boiler, as
long as you can direct the steam into a cooler. A cooler can be a long piece of copper
tubing bent into a spiral. All you need is something that will just cool the steam down.

15
 In a worst case scenario, you can distill water with an ordinary household pot
and two pot lids. Boil water in a pot covered with the first lid. After a while, you'll see
that the water in the pot vaporizes, and condenses on the lid (this is distilled water).
Now replace the lid with the second lid, and turn the first one vertically, so that all
condensed water collects at one point, and then pour it into a cup. Meanwhile, more
distilled water condenses on the second pot lid, so just repeat the above steps again ...
until you have a full cup.

Distillation will remove from water almost anything, even heavy metals,
poisons, bacteria and viruses. However, it does not remove substances that have
boiling points at a lower temperature than water. Some of these substances are oils,
petroleum, alcohol and similar substances, which in most cases don't mix with water.
Also, remember that substances removed from water remain in the boiler, so you'll
need to clean it up every once in a while.

2.8 Various Water Desalination techniques

 Distillation: The saline water is evaporated using thermal energy and the resulting
steam is collected and condensed as final product.
 Vapour Compression: Here water vapour from boiling water is compressed
adiabatically and vapour gets superheated. The superheated vapour is first cooled to
saturation temperature and then condensed at constant pressure. This process is
derived by mechanical energy.
 Reverse Osmosis: Here saline water is pushed at high pressure through special
membranes allowing water molecules pass selectively and not the dissolved salts.
 Electro-dialysis: Here a pair of special membranes, perpendicular to which there
is an electric field are used and water is passed through them. Water does not pass
through the membranes while dissolved salts pass selectively.

In distillation; thermal energy is used while in vapour compression, reverse

osmosis, electro-dialysis etc., some mechanical and electrical energy is used.

We can operate distillation for sea water from which salinity is closer to 35 g/l, or
for brackish water having salinity between 1 and 10 g/l. However, there is a

16
thermodynamic problem relied to the source of water to be desalinated, where efficiency
is different. We therefore notice that brackish water, for its salinity, requires less energy
for its distillation than that required by sea water, which means that efficiency is different.
For this reason, there are processes of distillation being used which are classified into two
groups:

Soft water (%) Energy/m3 (kW) Energy/m3 (kW)

initial water : sea water initial water : brackish water

10 0.8 0.032
50 1.10 0.174
90 2.20 0.290

Table 2.3, Comparison Of Energy Quantities Used For Brackish Water And Sea-
Water Distillation

2.9 Guidelines for Selection of Appropriate Technique

1. Quantity of Fresh Water Required and its End Use.

2. Available Water Sources, such as Sea, Ponds, Wells, Swamps etc.
3. Proximity to nearest Fresh Water Sources.
4. Availability of Electric Power at the Site or Close by.
5. Cost of Supplying Fresh Water by Various Methods.
6. Cost and Availability of Labor in the Region.
7. Maintenance and Daily Operational Requirements.
8. Life Span of the Water Supply System.

9. Economic Value of the Region.

17
2.10 Would a solar still suit your needs?

Human beings need 1 or 2 litres of water a day to live. The minimum requirement
for normal life in developing countries (which includes cooking, cleaning and washing
clothes) is 20 litres per day (in the industrialized world 200 to 400 litres per day is typical).
Yet some functions can be performed with salty water and a typical requirement for
distilled water is 5 litres per person per day. Therefore 2m² of still are needed for each
person served.

Solar stills should normally only be considered for removal of dissolved salts from
water. If there is a choice between brackish ground water or polluted surface water, it will
usually be cheaper to use a slow sand filter or other treatment device. If there is no fresh
water then the main alternatives are desalination, transportation and rainwater collection.

Unlike other techniques of desalination, solar stills are more attractive, the smaller
the required output. The initial capital cost of stills is roughly proportional to capacity,
whereas other methods have significant economies of scale. For the individual household,
therefore, the solar still is most economic.

For outputs of 1m³/day or more, reverse osmosis or electro dialysis should be

considered as an alternative to solar stills. Much will depend on the availability and price of
electrical power.

For outputs of 200m³/day or more, vapour compression or flash evaporation will

normally be least cost. The latter technology can have part of its energy requirement met
by solar water heaters.

In many parts of the world, fresh water is transported from another region or
location by boat, train, truck or pipeline. The cost of water transported by vehicles is
typically of the same order of magnitude as that produced by solar stills. A pipeline may
be less expensive for very large quantities.

Rainwater collection is an even simpler technique than solar distillation in areas

where rain is not scarce, but requires a greater area and usually a larger storage tank. If

18
ready-made collection surfaces exist (such as house roofs) these may provide a less
expensive source for obtaining clean water.

2.11 History of Solar Water Distillation

Solar distillation is used to supply small communities with soft water, where
drinking water is hardly existent. Solar distillation has been used since many centuries.
Mouchot has reported that the Arab alchemists are the first to have set up, in 1551,
apparatus for water distillation. The French chemist Lavaoisier has used, in 1862, wide
glass lenses, to concentrate solar rays to distillate water being inside the flasks. The first
conventional solar still is appeared in 1872 near Las Salinas (north of Chile). The model
has been made up by Carlos Wilson, a Swedish engineer, with a glazed surface spread
over 5000 m2; it worked till only 1910, because of a major problem relied to the rapid
accumulation of salts in the basin, requiring then a regular cleaning of the still.

In 1920, Kaush has used a metallic reflector to concentrate solar rays. Pasteur has
used, in 1928, many concentrators to focus solar rays in order to heat water through a
boiler. At the beginning of the thirties, Trifinov has proposed a cylindrical still. Abbot has,
in 1938, used cylindrical and parabolic reflectors, to concentrate solar rays and where the
overall is conveyed in tubes filled with water. Maria Telkshas, in 1945, discovered a new
type of solar still called “spherical still”, used by the American marines: about 200,000 of
this model have been used during the world war. As there was a drought, just after the
war, they used solar distillation as an alternate solution to the problem. Cooper has, in
1969, proposed a simulation to analyze efficiency of green-house solar still .

Since the 1970s, many other types of solar stills have been elaborated and studied,
from which we can quote: multiple-effect solar still, steeped plate or steeped solar still,
wick solar still or multiple-wick solar still and the combined solar still–green house.

Many countries have then approached solar still, like Algeria, Australia, Chile,
Greece, India, Tunisia and USA.

19
2.12 Types of Solar Water Distillation System

 Single Effect Basin Solar Still

 Wick Type Solar Still
 Multiple Effect Basin Solar Still
 Emergency Still

2.12.1 Multiple-effect basin stills

They have two or more compartments. The condensing surface of the lower
compartment is the floor of the upper compartment. The heat given off by the condensing
vapour provides energy to vaporize the feed water above. Efficiency is therefore greater
than for a single-basin still typically being 35% or more but the cost and complexity are
correspondingly higher.

Fig. 2.4, Multiple effect Solar Still

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2.12.2 Wick stills

Fig. 2.5, Wick Solar Still

In a wick still, the feed water flows slowly through a porous, radiation-absorbing
pad (the wick). Two advantages are claimed over basin stills. First, the wick can be tilted
so that the feed water presents a better angle to the sun (reducing reflection and
presenting a large effective area). Second, less feed water is in the still at any time and so
the water is heated more quickly and to a higher temperature.
Simple wick stills are more efficient than basin stills and some designs are claimed to cost
less than a basin still of the same output.

2.12.3 Emergency still

To provide emergency drinking water on land, a very simple still can be made. It
makes use of the moisture in the earth. All that is required is a plastic cover, a bowl or
bucket, and a pebble.

2.12.4 Hybrid designs

There are a number of ways in which solar stills can usefully be combined with another
function of technology. Three examples are given:

21
 Fig. 2.6, Hybrid Solar Still

 Rainwater collection. By adding an external gutter, the still cover can be used for
rainwater collection to supplement the solar still output.
 Greenhouse-solar still. The roof of a greenhouse can be used as the cover of a still.
 Supplementary heating. Waste heat from an engine or the condenser of a
refrigerator can be used as an additional energy input.

Fig. 2.7, Some existing models

22
2.13 Design Objectives For An Efficient Solar Still

 For high efficiency the solar still should maintain:

 a high feed (undistilled) water temperature
 a large temperature difference between feed water and condensing surface
 low vapour leakage.
 A high feed water temperature can be achieved if:
 a high proportion of incoming radiation is absorbed by the feed water as
heat. Hence low absorption glazing and a good radiation absorbing surface
are required
 heat losses from the floor and walls are kept low
 the water is shallow so there is not so much to heat.
 A large temperature difference can be achieved if:
 the condensing surface absorbs little or none of the incoming radiation
 condensing water dissipates heat which must be removed rapidly from the
condensing surface by, for example, a second flow of water or air, or by
condensing at night.

2.14 Parameters on which Solar Water Distillation System Output

Depends

1. Climatic Parameters
I. Solar Radiation
II. Ambient Temperature
III. Wind Speed
IV. Outside Humidity
V. Sky Conditions
2. Design Parameters
I. Single slope or double slope
II. Glazing material
III. Water depth in Basin
IV. Bottom insulation
V. Orientation of water distillation system

23
 VI. Inclination of glazing
VII. Spacing between water and glazing
VIII. Type of solar water distillation system
3. Operational parameters
I. Water Depth
II. Preheating of Water
III. Salinity of Water
IV. Rate of Algae Growth
V. Input Water supply arrangement (continuously or in batches)

2.15 Solar Still Advantages

Solar stills have got major advantages over other conventional distillation/ water
purification/ de-mineralization systems as follows:

 Produces pure water.

 No prime movers required.
 No conventional energy required.
 No skilled labour required.
 Local manufacturing/repairing.
 Low investment.
 Can purify highly saline water.

2.16 Solar Still Disadvantages

Solar water distillers do not boil the water, bringing to temp. of 100° Celsius, this has two
effects,

 Not killing bacteria that may and will be present in ’moist’ conditions, because they
are not sterilized with hot steam or with a disinfectant.
 Heat speeds up chemical reactions, breaking down some chemical compounds out
of water that can only be accomplished with high temperatures over 190 F.

24
2.17 Problems Associated With Solar Stills
 Poor fitting and joints, which increase colder air flow from outside into the still.
Cracks, or breakage of glass.
 Growth of algae and deposition of dust, bird droppings etc. To avoid these, still
must be cleaned regularly.
 Damage to the blackened absorbing surface over time.
 Accumulation of salt on the bottom, which needs to be removed periodically.
 The saline water in the still is too deep, or dries out.

2.18 Applications of Solar Still

Generally, solar stills are used in areas where

 Piped or well water is impractical. Such areas include remote locations or during
power outages.
 In areas that frequently lose power, solar stills can provide an alternate source of
clean water. A large use of solar stills is
 In developing countries where the technology to effectively distill large quantities of
water has not yet arrived..
 Another application for solar stills is survival. Simple solar stills can be created using
basic elements from camping gear and the environment. Stills for survival would
generally be the pit type since they are the simplest to produce. Moisture from the
ground can be extracted but to increase the available moisture, water must be
added inside or along the edges of the still. Where no water sources are readily
available, urine or shredded vegetation can be used inside the pit. However
makeshift solar stills often do not provide enough water for long-term survival, but
can prevent dehydration for short periods of time

25
 CHAPTER-3

DESIGN OF SOLAR STILL

As we made the solar still for study purpose, we have kept the area of the still as 1
m2, so that we can evaluate the output and the efficiency on per m2 basis.

The length and width of the still inner tray are taken as 1440mm X 700 mm
respectively, according to the economy of material.

According to D. W. Medugu and L. G. Ndatuwong ,(Accepted 16 September,

2009)Full Length Research Paper ”Theoretical analysis of water distillation using solar still”
, Department of Physics, Adamawa State University, Mubi – Nigeria, the best angle of
inclination of glazing is 10-15°, so we have taken it as 13.5°.

26
 CHAPTER – 4

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP & FABRICATION

4.1 Single Effect Solar Still

Fig. 4.1, A Single Effect Solar Still Schematic Diagram

The pure water is be obtained by distillation in the simplest solar water distillation
system, generally known as the “basin type solar water distillation system’. It is shown
schematically in fig. 4.1. Such solar water distillation systems have been operated for
farm and community use in several countries. It consists of a blackened basin containing
saline water at a shallow depth, over which is a transparent air tight cover that encloses
completely the spaces above the basin. It has a roof-like shape. The cover, which is of
glass, is sloped towards a collection trough. Solar radiation passes through the cover and
is absorbed and converted into heat in the black painted aluminium surface. Impure water
in the basin or tray is heated and the vapour produced is condensed to purified water on
the cooler interior of the glass roof. The transparent glass transmits nearly all radiation
falling on it and absorbs very little; hence it remains cool enough to condense the water
vapour. The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and is collected in collecting
channel. Saline water can be replaced in the operation by either continuous operation or
by batches. Although there are numerous configurations of basin type units, their basic
theory is identical. The basin type solar water distillation system has produced distilled
water at a cost per unit of product lower than other types of solar equipment.

27
4.2ComponentsOf Single Effect Solar Water Distillation System

1. Outer tray

2. Inner Blackened tray

3. Transparent Cover ( Glazing)

4. Condensate Channel

5. Sealing Gasket

6. Insulation

7. Supply and Delivery System

8. Stand

28
4.3 Fabrication of the components

4.3.1 OUTER TRAY: Outer tray is made of 18 gauge G.I. sheet, as per the dimensions
shown in the drawing, by cutting and bending and then joining by welding.

Fig. 4.2 Outer Tray

29
 Chart 4.1, Flow Process Chart for Outer Tray
ACTIVITY: SUMMARY
MANUFACTURING OUTER TRAY ACTIVITY PRESENT PROPOSED SAVING
LOCATION: OPERATION 5
METHOD: INSPECTION 6
OPERATOR: TRANSPORT 1
CHECKED BY: DELAY 0
APPROVED BY: STORAGE 2

SR. TIME SYMBOL

DESCRIPTION QTY DISTANCE
NO. MIN
D
COLLECT MATERIAL FROM
1
STORAGE
2 INSPECTION
TRANSPORT TO
3
FABRICATION SHOP
4 MARKING

5 INSPECTION

6 CUTTING

7 INSPECTION

8 BENDING

9 INSPECTION

10 WELDING

11 INSPECTION

12 GRINDING

13 INSPECTION

14 TO STORAGE

TOTAL 5 6 1 0 2

30
4.3.2 INNER BLACKENED TRAY: Inner blackened tray is made of aluminium, and it is
painted with heat absorbing black paint on the inner side, on which water will be resting.

Fig. 4.3Inner Tray

31
 Chart 4.2, Flow Process Chart for Inner Tray
ACTIVITY: SUMMARY
MANUFACTURING INNER TRAY ACTIVITY PRESENT PROPOSED SAVING
LOCATION: OPERATION 5
METHOD: INSPECTION 6
OPERATOR: TRANSPORT 1
CHECKED BY: DELAY 0
APPROVED BY: STORAGE 2

SR. TIME SYMBOL

DESCRIPTION QTY DISTANCE
NO. MIN
D
COLLECT MATERIAL FROM
1
STORAGE
2 INSPECTION
TRANSPORT TO
3
FABRICATION SHOP
4 MARKING

5 INSPECTION

6 CUTTING

7 INSPECTION

8 BENDING

9 INSPECTION

10 WELDING

11 INSPECTION

12 GRINDING

13 INSPECTION

14 TO STORAGE

TOTAL 5 6 1 0 2

32
4.3.3GLAZING: For glazing, Toughened Glass is used, which is fitted in aluminium frame.

Fig. 4.4 Glazing

33
 Chart 4.3, Flow Process Chart for Glazing
ACTIVITY: SUMMARY
MANUFACTURING GLAZING ACTIVITY PRESENT PROPOSED SAVING
LOCATION: OPERATION 4
METHOD: INSPECTION 5
OPERATOR: TRANSPORT 1
CHECKED BY: DELAY 0
APPROVED BY: STORAGE 2

SR. TIME SYMBOL

DESCRIPTION QTY DISTANCE
NO. MIN
D
COLLECT MATERIAL FROM
1
STORAGE
2 INSPECTION

3 TO HACKSAW M/C

4 MARKING

5 INSPECTION

6 CUTTING

7 INSPECTION

8 DRILLING

9 INSPECTION

10 ASSEMBLY

11 INSPECTION

12 TO STORAGE

TOTAL 4 5 1 0 2

34
4.3.4 CONDENSATE CHANNEL: Condensate channel is made of aluminium. It is
screwed on the inner side of the frame of the glazing, to collect the condensed water from
the inner side of glass.

Fig. 4.5Condensate Channel

35
 Chart 4.4, Flow Process Chart for Condensate Channel

ACTIVITY: SUMMARY
MANUFACTURING CONDENSATE ACTIVITY PRESENT PROPOSED SAVING
CHANNEL
LOCATION: OPERATION 5
METHOD: INSPECTION 6
OPERATOR: TRANSPORT 1
CHECKED BY: DELAY 0
APPROVED BY: STORAGE 2

SR. TIME SYMBOL

DESCRIPTION QTY DISTANCE
NO. MIN
D
COLLECT MATERIAL FROM
1
STORAGE
2 INSPECTION

4 MARKING

5 INSPECTION

6 CUTTING

7 INSPECTION

8 DRILLING

9 INSPECTION

10 BENDING

11 INSPECTION

12 JOINING

13 INSPECTION

14 TO STORAGE

TOTAL 5 6 1 0 2

36
4.3.5 STAND: Stand is used to support the still above ground level.

Fig 4.6 Stand

5 ROD 10 X 10 X 1440 M.S. 1

4 ROD 10 X 10 X 740 M.S. 2
3 FLAT 25 X 4 X 700 M.S. 1
2 ANGLE 25 X 4 X 750 M.S. 2
1 ANGLE 25 X 4 X 1450 M.S. 2
NO. MATERIAL SIZE M.O.C. QTY.

Table 4.1B.O.M. FOR STAND

37
 Chart 4.5, Flow Process Chart for Stand
ACTIVITY: SUMMARY
MANUFACTURING STAND ACTIVITY PRESENT PROPOSED SAVING
LOCATION: OPERATION 4
METHOD: INSPECTION 5
OPERATOR: TRANSPORT 1
CHECKED BY: DELAY 0
APPROVED BY: STORAGE 2

SR. TIME SYMBOL

DESCRIPTION QTY DISTANCE
NO. MIN
D
COLLECT MATERIAL FROM
1
STORAGE
2 INSPECTION
TRANSPORT TO
3
FABRICATION SHOP
4 MARKING

5 INSPECTION

6 CUTTING

7 INSPECTION

8 WELDING

9 INSPECTION

10 GRINDING

11 INSPECTION

12 TO STORAGE

TOTAL 4 5 1 0 2

38
4.3.6 SEALING GASKET: Sealing gasket of rubber is used, to provide sealing between
the glazing frame and the upper bent face of G.I. tray.

Fig 4.7, Sealing Gasket

4.3.7 INSULATION: Insulation is provided between outer and inner trays. 1” thick sheet
of PUF (Polyurethane Foam) is used as insulation material.

Fig 4.8, Insulation

4.3.8 SUPPLY, DELIVERY& DRAINAGE SYSTEM: For filling the water in the tray, inlet
nipple is provided at the right top corner. Impure water is filled in the inner tray through
the pipe connecting the water tank and the inlet nipple.

For collecting the distilled water, a collector is made along with rubber nipple and it
is fitted beneath the condensate channel. A pipe is attached with nipple, which will carry
the distilled water up to the collecting vessel.

An outlet is provided at the bottom of the still to drain out the remaining impure
water and salt from the still.

39
Chart 4.6, Operation Process Chart

40
4.4 COSTING OF THE SOLAR STILL

The costs incurred is tabulated here.

Table 4.2Costing

SR. DESCRIPTION SIZE QTY. COST (`)

NO.

1 G.I. Sheet 18 gauge, 8’ X 4’ 1 3500

2 Toughened Glass 1428 mm X 688 mm , 1 1000

5 mm thick
3 Aluminium window Frame 1.5” X 4450 mm 1 500
4 Aluminium Sheet 26 gauge, 6’ X 4’ 1 650
5 PUF Insulation Sheet 6’ X 4’ X 1” thick 1 400
6 Black Paint 500 ml 1 100
7 M.S. Angle 25mm X 4mm X7520 mm 1 700
8 M.S. Rod 10mm X10mm X 2970mm 1 300
9 M.S. Flat 25mm X 4mm X 740mm 1 100
9 Rubber Gasket 120” long 1 300
8 P.V.C. Pipe ½” X 10’ long 1 50
9 Hose Nipple ½” 2 15
10 Rubber Nipple ½” 2 15
11 P.V.C. Cock ½” 1 30
12 M-SEAL 90 grams 7 175
13 VETRA solution 1 50
14 Clamps - 4 100
15 Nuts & Bolts 20 40
16 Other - - 175
Total ` 7500

41
 CHAPTER-5

TEST REPORT

42
 CHAPTER – 6

THERMAL ANALYSIS

Fig. 6.1, Thermal model of single effect solar still

6.1 Theoretical analysis

In this section a complete mathematical model that describes the processes in the
basin of the solar still is presented. These models will assist in determining the hourly
saturated vapor pressures of water and glass, the convective and evaporative losses
coefficients from the water surface to the glass, the distillate output and the instantaneous
efficiency of the still.

Tiwari et al. (1989) explained the fraction of solar flux at different components of
the still unit as shown in Figure 3.1 and mathematically expressed as:

43
Solar flux absorbed by the glass cover is
α'g = (1- Rg)αg

Solar flux reflected by the water mass

R'w = (1- Rg)(1- αg )Rw

Solar flux absorbed by the water mass

A'w = α'w (1- αg )(1- Rg)(1- Rw)

Solar flux absorbed by the basin liner

α’b =(1- Rg)(1- αg ) )(1- Rw)(1- αw )

Solar flux lost by the ambient, through water and glass cover, will be
L = (1- αb ) (1- Rg)(1- αg ) )(1- Rw) (1- αw )

If the evaporation processes inside the still unit is considered as isobaric

atmospheric process at thermal equilibrium, then all the absorbed solar radiation is utilized
for evaporation and thermal losses. An energy balance for steady state around the water
basin can be written as (Tamini, 1987):

Rate of Energy In = Rate of Energy Out

That is,

(α'w + α'b )I(t) As = Qew + Qlosses

Where;

Qew is the heat which is utilized by solar still for obtaining m kg of distilled water per m2
per day;
Tw and Ta are the temperature of the water inside the still and ambient temperature
respectively;
L is the latent heat of vaporization;
mw is the daily output of the distillate.

44
 The heat transfer occurs outside the still, from the glass cover and the bottom and
side insulation. Heat transfer within the still is referred to as internal heat transfer mode
which consists of radiation, convection and evaporation as shown in Figure 1.

Here, the calculation is shown for readings at 2 p.m. on date 23/04/2011, which are
shown in the results.

The external heat transfer, radiation and convection losses from the glass cover to
the outside atmosphere qg can be expressed as

qg= qrg+ qcg

Where;
qrg =εg σ(Tg4 – Ts4)
= 0.9 x 5.667 x 10-8 x (3124-296.924)
= 86.88 W/m2
Where;
Tg is the temperature of the glass and may be assumed to be uniform due to the small
thickness of the glass cover;

Ts is the sky temperature;

Ts = 0.0552 Ta1.5
= 0.0552 x (307)1.5
= 296.92 K

εg is the emissivity of glass cover;

= 0.9

σ is the Stefan – Boltzmann constant;

= 5.667 x 10-8 W/m2K4

qcg = hcg (Tg - Ta)

= 7.3 (312-307)
= 36.5 W/m2

45
Where,
hcg is forced convective heat transfer coefficient from the glass to ambient air.
hcg= 2.8 + 3.0v
= 2.8 + 3 (1.5)
= 7.3 W/m2K
So,
qg= qrg+ qcg
= 86.88 + 36.5
= 123.38 W/m2

The internal heat transfer mode, that is, the heat exchange from the water surface
to the glass cover inside the still unit is governed by radiation, convection and
evaporation. In this case, the water surface and the glass cover are considered as infinite
parallel planes. The rate of radiative heat transfer, qrw from the water surface to the glass
cover for these infinite parallel planes is given by

qrw =εg α(Tw4 – Tg4)

= 0.9 x 5.667 x 10-8 x (3384-3124)
= 182.38 W/m2

Heat transfer occurs across humid area in the distillation unit by free convection,
which is caused by the effect of buoyancy, due to density variation in the humid fluid,
which occurs due to the temperature gradient in the fluid. Hence, the rate of heat transfer
from the water surface to the glass cover, qcw by convection is the upward direction
through the humid fluid and can be estimated by

qcw = hcw (Tw – Tg)

= 3.259 (338-312)
= 84.75 W/m2

The convective loss coefficient from the water surface to the glass hcw is given as

46
hcw = 0.884 {(Tw – Tg)+ [(Pw – Pg) Tw ]/ (268.9 x 103 – Pw)}1/3
= 0.884 [((338-312)+ [(24295.95–6835.06) 338]/ (268.9 x 103 – 24295.95)}1/3
= 3.259 W/m2K

Where;
Pw and Pg are the saturation partial pressures of water at water temperature and glass
temperature, respectively.
The values of Pw and Pg (for the range of temperature 100°C - 900°C) can be
obtained from the expression

P(w) = exp [ 25.317 – (5144 / 338)]

= 24295.95 N/m2
P(g) = exp [ 25.317 – (5144 / 312)]
= 6835.06 N/m2

The rate of heat transfer per unit area from the water surface to the glass cover can be
obtained by qew = hew (Tw – Tg)
= 35.62(338-312)
= 926.02 W/m2

Where;
hew = 16.273 x 103 hcw (Pw – Pg) / (Tw – Tg)
= 16.273 x 103 x 3.259 [(24295.95-6835.06) / (338-312)]
= 35.62 W/m2K

The hourly yield of the solar still is given as:

mew = hew [ (Tw – Tg) / L ] x 3600

= 35.62 [ (338-312) / 2260 x 103] x 3600
= 1.48 kg/m2 hr

The solar insolation I(t) can be calculated by the equation

I(t) = S Cos θz

47
 Where,
S = Clear day average solar insolation on a surface perpendicular to incoming solar
radiation.
θz = Zenith Angle
= cos-1 (sin Ø sin δ + cos Ø cos δ cos ω)
Ø = Latitude angle
= 20.54° for Valsad
ω = Hour Angle (Angle of radiation due to time of day)
= 15° (Time – 12)
= 15° (14-12)
= 30°
δ = Solar declination angle
= (23.45) sin [360 (284 + 114)/365]
= 12.62 °
So,
θz = cos-1 (sin Ø sin δ + cos Ø cos δ cos ω)
= cos-1 (sin 20.54 sin 12.62 + cos 20.54 cos 12.62 cos 30)
= 29.77°
So,
I(t) = S Cos θz
= 1353 x cos 29.77
= 1174 W/m2

The thermal efficiency of solar still can be defined as the ratio of the amount of
thermal energy utilized to get a certain amount of distilled water to the incident solar
energy within a given time interval.
The instantaneous efficiency of the still unit, ηi , can be determined as follows:

ηi = q / I(t) = hew [ (Tw - Tg) / I(t) ] x 100

= 35.62 [ (338-312) / 1174 ] x 100
= 0.7886

ηi = 78.86 %

48
 CHAPTER-7

RESULTS & CALCULATION

7.1 Results for GECV water

Depth of water in tray: 1 cm

Date: 23/04/2011

Table 7.1, Readings and calculation for GECV Water

Time Ta Tw Tg Tw-Tg Pw Pg hcw hew I(t) ηi Output

(h) °C °C °C °C N/m2 N/m2 W/m K W/m2K
2
W/m2 % liter

09:00 33 33 33 0 4947.0 4947.0 0 - 977.97 - 0

10:00 34 48 36 12 10851.7 5824.0 2.33 15.87 1174.45 16.215 0.1
11:00 34 52 36 16 13217.6 5824.0 2.60 19.54 1297.97 24.087 0.18
12:00 35 57 37 20 16799.8 6145.4 2.86 24.81 1340.09 37.032 0.45
13:00 35 62 38 24 21200.4 6482.1 3.12 31.12 1297.97 57.546 0.58
14:00 35 65 39 26 24296.0 6835.1 3.26 35.62 1174.45 78.858 0.66
15:00 34 61 39 22 20247.8 6835.1 3.02 30.00 977.97 67.483 0.61
16:00 34 55 38 17 15276.5 6482.1 2.70 22.70 721.90 53.451 0.5
17:00 33 46 37 9 9814.4 6145.4 2.11 13.97 423.72 29.673 0.45
Total 3.53

Table 7.2, Test Result for GECV Water

TDS (ppm) pH
BEFORE DISTILLATION 817 7.0
AFTER DISTILLATION 47.3 6.9

49
 68 Ambient Temp.
65
66
64 62 Plate Temp.
61
62
60 Glass Temp.
57
58 55
Temperature. °C

56
54 52
52
50 48
48 46
46
44
42 39 39
40 38 38
37 37
38 36 36
36
34
34 35 35 35
32 33 34 34 34
33
30
09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time

Chart 7.1, Time V/S Temperature Graph for GECV Water

0.7 0.66
0.61
0.58
0.6
0.5
0.5 0.45 0.45
Output. litre

0.4

0.3
0.18
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time

Chart7.2, Time V/S Output Graph for GECV Water

50
7.2 Results for Saline water

Depth of water in tray: 1 cm

Date: 26/04/2011

Table 7.3, Readings and calculation for Saline Water

Time Ta Tw Tg Tw-Tg Pw Pg hcw hew I(t) ηi Output

(h) °C °C °C °C N/m2 N/m2 W/m K W/m2K
2
W/m2 % liter

09:00 32 32 32 0 4681.7 4681.7 0 - 979.48 - 0

10:00 34 44 35 9 8865.0 5517.6 2.08 12.61 1175.73 9.650 0.09
11:00 35 50 37 13 11983.7 6145.4 2.41 17.64 1299.08 17.648 0.16
12:00 36 54 38 16 14561.2 6482.1 2.63 21.62 1341.15 25.799 0.4
13:00 36 59 38 21 18453.8 6482.1 2.94 27.29 1299.08 44.123 0.55
14:00 35 63 38 25 22191.8 6482.1 3.18 32.48 1175.73 69.067 0.61
15:00 34 58 37 21 17609.9 6145.4 2.92 25.96 979.48 55.648 0.57
16:00 33 51 37 14 12587.5 6145.4 2.48 18.59 723.78 35.955 0.47
17:00 32 43 35 8 8421.3 5517.6 2.00 11.79 425.95 22.149 0.35
Total 3.2

Table 7.4, Test Result for Saline Water

TDS (ppm) pH
BEFORE DISTILLATION 3380 7.1
AFTER DISTILLATION 385 7.0

51
 68 Ambient Temp.
66 63
64 Plate Temp.
62 59
60 58 Glass Temp.
58
Temperature. °C

56 54
54 51
52 50
50
48
46 44
43
44
42
40 38 38 38
37 37 37
38 35 35
36
34 36 36
34 35 35
32 34 32
32 33
30
09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time

Chart 7.3, Time V/S Temperature Graph for Saline Water

0.7
0.61
0.6 0.57
0.55

0.5 0.47
0.4
Output. litre

0.4 0.35

0.3

0.2 0.16

0.09
0.1
0
0
09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time

Chart 7.4, Time V/S Output Graph for GECV Water

52
7.3 Results for Different Depths of Water In Still

We have tested the still by using different depths of water, and the output is
tabulated as below.

Table 7.5, Results For Different Depths Of Water

OUTPUT OF
DEPTH OF WATER DISTILLED
DATE SAMPLE
WATER
cm litre
23/04/2011 GECV Water 1 3.53
24/04/2011 GECV Water 1.5 3.1
25/04/2011 GECV Water 0.5 3.3
26/04/2011 Saline Water 1 3.2
27/04/2011 Saline Water 1.5 2.9
28/04/2011 Saline Water 0.5 3.0

53
 CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION

 At the end of the project, we can conclude that we can easily distill saline water by
solar water distillation.
 From the report and the results calculated, we conclude that
o The GECV Water is distilled and its TDS are reduced from 817 ppm to 47.3
ppm, and the daily output of distilled water is 3.53 liter for 1 cm depth in
tray.
o The saline water is distilled and its TDS are reduced from 3380 ppm to 385
ppm, and the daily output of distilled water is 3.2 liter for 1 cm depth in tray.
 From the table 7.3, of output achieved with different depths of water, we can
conclude that the best depth of water for maximum output is 1 cm.

54
 REFERENCES

 Malik MAS, Tiwari GN, Kumar A, Sodha MS (1982). Solar Distillation. Pergamon press,
New York.
 D. W. Medugu and L. G. Ndatuwong,( Accepted 16 September, 2009)Full Length
Research Paper “Theoretical analysis of water distillation using solar still” , Department
of Physics, Adamawa State University, Mubi – Nigeria.
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