UNIT-II Contouring

Contours
It is an imaginary line passing through points of equal elevation.
Generally contours are drawn for ground points but if the contours are drawn underwater, they are termed as
submarine contours, fathoms or bathymetric curves.

Contour Interval
The vertical distance between consecutive contours is termed as contour interval. It is desirable to have a constant
contour interval throughout the map. However, in special cases, a variable contour interval may also be provided. But a
variable contour interval should be avoided as it gives false impression of the steepness of the ground in different parts
of the map.
The contour interval depends on the following factors:
1. Scale of map: Contour interval is inversely proportional to the scale of map.
For topographical map, a general rule is
Contour Interval, C.I. =

Ques-1. Find a suitable contour interval on a map drawn to a scale of 1:50000.

Soln.
Scale is 1cm = 50,000cm
1cm = 0.5 km
Hence, no. of cm per km = 1/0.5 = 2
Contour Interval = 25/2 = 12.5m
2.
Purpose of map Contour Interval
For railways and highways Upto 2m
For measurement of earthwork, building sites and dams, etc. Upto 0.5m
For city survey Equal to 0.5m may be adopted
For town planning survey 0.5m to 2m may be adopted
For geological survey Usually 6m to 15m

3. Nature of country: Contour Interval varies with topography of area, i.e. large for steep grounds and small for flat
grounds.
4. Time: Contour interval is kept large when time for project completion is less.
5. Funds: Contour interval is kept large when funds available are less and limited.

Horizontal Equivalent
The horizontal distance between consecutive contours is termed as horizontal equivalent. It is not a constant value but
varies from point to point depending upon the steepness of the ground, i.e. steeper the ground lesser will be the
horizontal equivalent. For example, if contour interval = 1m, gradient = 1 in 20, the horizontal equivalent =
( ⁄ )
Ques-2 The contour interval on a map is 12m. If the upward gradient of 1 in 20 is required to be drawn between two
points, what will be the horizontal equivalent?
Soln. Horizontal equivalent = contour interval x gradient = 12 x 20 = 240m

Contour Gradient
A line lying on the ground surface throughour and maintaining a constant inclination to the horizontal is termed as
contour gradient. In the field, it can be located quickly with the help of clinometer or a gradienter.

Characteristics of Contour
The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour map are as follows:
1. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be uniform.
2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope and varies inversely on the
amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced equally for uniform slope (Figure 17.2); closely for steep slope contours
(Figure 17.3) and widely for moderate slope (Figure 17.4).

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 UNIT-II Contouring

3. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the normal of the contour at that point
(Figure 17.5). They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such lines.
4. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings (Figure 17.6)
5. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging cliffs are the exceptions). (Figure
17.7)
6. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff is an exception). (Figure 17.8)
7. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.
8. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map.
9. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill (Figure 17.9(a)). A set of ring contours with
higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside, depicts a depression (without an outlet) Figure
17.9(b).
10. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in U-shape cross a ridge and in V-
shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in contour lines is towards higher ground in the case of ridge and
towards lower ground in the case of valley (Figure 17.10).
11. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

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 UNIT-II Contouring

NOTE: For classroom teaching only. Not to be published.

 UNIT-II Contouring

Contouring
The method of establishing / plotting contours in a plan or map is known as contouring. It requires planimetric position
of the points and drawing of contours from elevations of the plotted points. Contouring involves providing of vertical
control for location of points on the contours and horizontal control for planimetric plotting of points. Thus, contouring
depends upon the instruments used (to determine the horizontal as well as vertical position of points).
In general, the field methods of contouring may be divided into two classes:
 Direct methods
 Indirect methods

Direct Method
In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Points which happen to fall on a desired
contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and tedious
and thus used for large scale maps, small contour interval and at high degree of precision. Direct method of contouring
can be employed using Level and Staff as follows:
Vertical control: In this method, a benchmark is required in the project area. The level is set up on any commanding
position and back sight is taken on the bench mark. Let the back sight reading on the bench mark be 1.485 m. If the
reduced level of the bench mark is 100 m, the height of instrument would be 100 + 1.485 = 101.485 m. To locate the
contour of 100.5 m value, the staff man is directed to occupy the position on the ground where the staff reading is
101.485 -100.500 = 0.985 m. Mark all such positions on the ground where the staff reading would be 0.985 m by
inserting pegs. Similarly locate the points where the staff reading would be 101.485 -101 = 0.485 m for 101m contour.
The contour of 101.5 m cannot be set from this setting of the instrument because the height of instrument for this
setting of the instrument is only 101.485 m. Therefore, locating contours of higher value, the instrument has to be
shifted to some other suitable position. Establish a forward station on a firm ground and take fore sight on it. This point
acts as a point of known elevation, for shifting the position of the instrument to another position, from where the work
proceeds in the similar manner till the entire area is contoured. (Fig. 17.11)

Indirect Methods
In this method, points are located in the field, generally as corners of well-shaped geometrical figures such as squares,
rectangles, and spot levels are determined. Elevations of desired contours are interpolated in between spot levels and
contour lines are drawn by joining points of equal elevation.
Indirect methods are less expensive, less time consuming and less tedious as compared to the direct method. These
methods are commonly employed in small scale surveys of large areas or during mapping of irregular surface or steep
slope. There are two different ways usually employed for indirect method of contouring:
• Grid method and
• Radial line method

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 UNIT-II Contouring

Grid Method
In this method, the area to be surveyed is divided into a grid or series of squares (Figure 17.12). The grid size may vary
from 5 m x 5 m to 25 m x 25 m depending upon the nature of the terrain, the contour interval required and the scale of
the map desired. Also, the grids may not be of the same size throughout but may vary depending upon the requirement
and field conditions. The grid corners are marked on the ground and spot levels of these comers are determined by
leveling. The grid is plotted to the scale of the map and the spot levels of the grid corners are entered. The contours of
desired values are then located by interpolation. Special care should be taken to give the spot levels to the salient
features of the ground such as hilltops, deepest points of the depressions, and their measurements from respective
corners of the grids, for correct depiction of the features. The method is used for large scale mapping and at average
precision.

Radial Method
In this method, a number of radial lines are set out at known angular interval at each station and points are marked at
the ground at convenient distance apart on the rays that are set. Spot levels of these points are determined by leveling.
The points are plotted to the scale of the map and spot levels are entered. The contours of desired values are then
located by interpolation. This method is convenient in hilly terrain with level stations chosen at high points so as to
command a large area from each. Horizontal control may be obtained by taping (Figure 17.13).

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 UNIT-II Contouring

A Comparison between Direct and Indirect Methods of Contouring

Direct Method Indirect Method

1 Very accurate but slow and tedious Not very accurate but quicker and less tedious.

2 Expensive Reasonable cost

Suitable for large projects requiring moderate to low
Appropriate for small projects requiring high accuracy, e.g., layout of highway, railway, canal, etc.
3 accuracy, e.g., layout of building, factory,
structural foundations, etc.

4 More suitable for low undulating terrain. Suitable for hilly terrain.

5 Calculations need to be carried out in thefield Calculation in the field is not mandatory.
After contouring, calculation cannot be
6 Calculations can be checked as and when needed
checked.

Interpolation of Contours
Points of desired elevation, at which contours are desired to be drawn, are interpolated in between observed points.
Then, contours are drawn by joining points of equal elevation by smooth curves keeping in mind the principal
characteristics of contour. They are then inked in, preferably in brown to distinguish them from other features. The
contour value is written down in a gap in the line provided for the purpose. Every fifth contour is drawn bolder to make
it distinguishable from the rest.

Contour Gradient
An imaginary line on the surface of the earth having a constant inclination with the horizontal (slope) is called contour
gradient. The inclination of a contour gradient is generally given either as rising gradient or falling gradient, and is
expressed as ratio of the vertical height to a specified horizontal distance. If the inclination of a contour gradient is 1 in
50, it means that for every 50 m horizontal distance, there is a rise (or fall) of 1 m.
When the inclination of a contour gradient is given its direction from a point may be easily located either on the map or
on the ground by the methods discussed below.

Uses of contours
Some of the engineering uses of contours are the following:
1. With the help of contour map, proper and precise locationof engineering works such as roads, canals, etc. can be
decided.
2. In location of water supply, water distribution and to solve the problems of stream pollution, etc.
3. Planning and designing of dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, transmission lines etc.
4. To select sites for new industrial plants.
5. To ascertain the intervisibility of stations.
6. To ascertain the profile of the country along any direction.
7. To estimate the quantity of cutting, filling and the capacity of reservoirs.

Some of the salient uses of contours are described below.

Nature of Ground
To visualize the nature of ground along a cross section of interest, a line say XY is being considered through the contour
map (Figure 18.3). The intersection points between the line and contours are projected at different elevations of the
contours are projected and joined by smooth curve. The smooth curve depicts the nature of the ground surface along
XY.
To Locate Route
Contour map provides useful information for locating a route at a given gradient such as highway, canal, sewer line etc.
Let it be required to locate a route from P to Q at an upward gradient of 1 in 100. The contour map of the area is
available at a contour interval of 5 meter at a scale of 1:10000. The horizontal equivalent will therefore be equal to 100
meter. Then with centre at P with a radius of 2 cm draw an arc to cut the next higher contour, say at q. With q as centre,

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 UNIT-II Contouring

mark the next higher contour by an arc of radius 2 cm say at r. Similarly, other points such as s,t,u…. etc are obtained
and joining the points provides the location of route. (Figure 18.2)
Intervisibility between Stations
When the intervisibility between two points cannot be ascertained by inspection of the area, it can be determined using
contour map. The intervisibility is determined by drawing a line joining the stations / points say PQ and plot the
elevations of the points and contours intersected by PQ as shown in Figure 18.3. If the intervening ground is found to be
above A'B' line, the intervisibility is obstructed. In the figure, the ground is obstructing the line of sight.
To Determine Catchment Area or Drainage Area
The catchment area of a river is determined by using contour map. The watershed line which indicates the drainage
basin of a river passes through the ridges and saddles of the terrain around the river. Thus, it is always perpendicular to
the contour lines. The catchment area contained between the watershed line and the river outlet is then measured with
a planimeter (Figure 18.4).
Storage capacity of a Reservoir
The storage capacity of a reservoir is determined from contour map. The contour line indicating the full reservoir level
(F.R.L) is drawn on the contour map. The area enclosed between successive contours is measured by planimeter (Figure
18.5). The volume of water between F.R.L and the river bed is finally estimated by using either Trapezoidal formula or
Prismoidal formula.

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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

Case-I: Base of object Accessible

If the distance between instrument station and object can be measured directly.
(a). R.L. of top of vertical object

Staff

θ
E
s O
A
B.M. D

Let AF be any vertical object

D = horizontal distance between object and instrument
s = staff reading held at B.M.
h = height FE
θ = angle of elevation of top of object
B.M. = bench mark
In ∆EOF, EF = CE tan θ
h = D tan θ
R.L. of top of F = R.L. of B.M. + s + h
R.L. of top of F = R.L. of B.M. + s + D tan θ

(b). R.L. of top of inclined object

Let AF be any inclined object.
x = distance between foor of object and projection F’ of the top,
O1 and O2 are the instrument stations such that O1, O2 and A are in the same vertical plane,

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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

D1 and D2 are horizontal distance between the foot of the object from instrument stations O1 and O2
respectively,
s1 and s2 are staff readings held at B.M from instrument stations O1 and O2 respectively, and
θ1 and θ2 are angle of elevations of top of object from instrument stations O1 and O2 respectively.

h1 h2

Staff

θ1
θ2
s2 s1

B.M. A
O1 F’ x O2

D1 D2

R.L. of top of F = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h1

= R.L. of B.M. + s1 + (D1-x) tan θ1 …(1)
R.L. of top of F = R.L. of B.M. + s2 + h2
= R.L. of B.M. + s2 + (D2+x) tan θ2 …(2)
s1 + (D1-x) tan θ1 = s2 + (D2+x) tan θ2
x(tan θ1 + tan θ2) = (s1 – s2) + D2 tan2 – D1 tan θ1
x = (s1 – s2) + D2 tan2 – D1 tan θ1
Case II: Base of object Inaccessible
If the distance between instrument station and object cannot be measured directly.
(a). When instrument stations are at same level
Let
h = vertical distance, FA’
s = staff reading on bench mark (B.M.)
θ1 & θ2 are the angles of elevation at stations O1 & O2 respectively
D = horizontal distance between object and instrument station O1
d = horizontal distance between two stations
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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

Staff

θ2 θ1
s A’

B.M. A
O2
O1
d D

In ∆O1A’F, h = D tan θ1 …(1)

In ∆O2A’F, h = (D+d) tan θ2 …(2)
fron eqns. (1) & (2)
D tan θ1 = (D+d) tan θ2
D (tan θ1 - tan θ2) = d tan θ2

R.L. of top of F = R.L. of B.M. + s + h

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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

(b). When instrument station at O2 is higher than that at O1

F

h2 h1

Staff

θ2
θ1 A’’
s2 A’
s1

B.M. A
O2
O1
d D

(h1 – h2) = A’A’’ = (s2 – s1) = s …(1)

In ∆O1A’F, h1 = D tan θ1 …(2)
In ∆O2A’’F, h2 = (D+d) tan θ2 …(3)
(1) – (2) → (h1 – h2) = D tan θ1 - (D+d) tan θ2 …(4)
from eqn. (1) & (4) s = D (tan θ1 - tan θ2) - d tan θ2

[ ]

R.L. of top of F = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h1

(c). When instrument station at O1 is higher than that at O2

(h2 – h1) = A’A’’ = (s1 – s2) = s …(1)
In ∆O1A’F, h1 = D tan θ1 …(2)
In ∆O2A’’F, h2 = (D+d) tan θ2 …(3)
(1) – (2) → (h2 – h1) = (D+d) tan θ2 - D tan θ1 …(4)
from eqn. (1) & (4) s = D (tan θ2 - tan θ1) + d tan θ2

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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

h1 h2

Staff

θ1
A’
s1
θ2 A
A’’
s2
O1
B.M.

O2 d D

[ ]

R.L. of top of F = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h1

(d). When instrument stations at very different level (i.e. O1 is much higher than O2)
When the difference in elevation (s2 – s1) between the two instruments is too large and cannot be measured on a
staff at B.M., the following procedure is adopted.
Step.1. Set up instrument at O1 and measure the angle at point F.
Step.2. Transit the telescope and establish a point at O2 at a distance d from O1.
Step.3. Shift the instrument to O2 and measure the angle at F.
Step.4. Observe the staff reading ‘r’ with respect to horizontal cross wire on the staff at O1.
Let s be the difference in level between two axes at O1 and O2 (i.e. s = h2 – h1)
We know,

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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

[ ]

Staff

r
h

O1 F
(h-r)
θ

h1 h2

d
O2

θ1
A’
H.I.1
A
Staff
s

(h-r) O1
θ2
A’’
s2
H.I.2
B.M.

O2 d D

Now, h = d tan θ
Height of station at O1 above axis at O2 = (h-r) = (d tan θ – r)
s = (d tan θ – r + H.I.1)
R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + s2 + s + h1
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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

[ ]

(e). When instrument stations and object are in different vertical plane

O2 θ2 h2 h1

O2 A’’
Staff
β A’

θ1 γ
A
s2 O1
s1
α
B.M.
O1

Step.1. Set up instrument at O1 and measure horizontal angle ‘α’ and vertical angle ‘θ1’.
Step.2. Observe staff reading s1 at B.M.
Step.3. Shift instrument to O2, set it up and measure horizontal angle ‘β’ and vertical angle ‘θ2’.
Step.4. Observe staff reading s2 at B.M.
Step 5. Measure horizontal distance ‘d’ between stations O1 and O2.
In ∆O1O2A, <O1AO2 = γ = 180º - (α + β)

( )

( )

R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + h1

R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + s2 + h2
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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

Exercises:

1. The theodolite was set up at O and angle of elevation of top of building at A was 8º26’. The horizontal
distance between the instrument station and building is 200 m. If R.L. of instrument axis is 200 m,
determine the R.L. of top of building. [Ans. 1554.65 m]
2. A vane 3 m above the foot of a staff was sighted at a point 3000 m. The observed angle of elevation was
2º30’. The reduced level of trunion axis being 200 m. Find R.L. of staff station. [Ans. 328.5857 m]
3. In order to determine the angle of elevation of top of signal on a hill, observations made from two stations
O1 and O2 (all in same vertical plane). If the angles of elevation of top of signal from O1 and O2 were 25º35’
and 15º5’ respectively. Determine the elevation of foot of signal if height of signal above its base was 4 m.
The staff readings on B.M. from O1 and O2 were 2.755 m and 3.855 m respectively. Given that, R.L. of
B.M. = 105.42 m and distance between O1 and O2 = 120 m. [Ans. 180.686 m]
4. The following observations were made on a hilltop to ascertain its elevation. The height of target F was 5 m.
Staff reading
Instrument Vertical angle on
on B.M. Remarks
station target at hilltop
(m)
O1 2.55 18º6’ R.L. of B.M. = 345.58 m
Distance between instrument
O2 1.67 28º42’
stations, d = 100 m

Determine R.L. of top of hilltop. [Ans. 425.539 m]

5. Find the reduced level of the top of a church spire from the following data, considering that the church and
the instruments stations all in same vertical plane. [Ans. 566.628 m]
Staff reading
Instrument Vertical angle on
on B.M. Remarks
station target at hilltop
(m)
A 1.578 10º12’ R.L. of B.M. = 543.075 m
Distance between instrument
B 1.269 8º20’
stations, AB = 30 m

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 UNIT-II Trigonometrical Levelling

6. To determine the elevations of top of lighthouse the following observations were made. Given that the
stations O1, O2 and the lighthouse are in same vertical plane. Find the R.L. of top of lighthouse. [Ans.
64.283 m]
Staff reading
Instrument Vertical angle on
on B.M. Remarks
station target at hilltop
(m)
O1 1.377 11º53’ R.L. of B.M. = 50.15 m
Distance between instrument
O2 1.263 8º05’
stations, O1O2 = 30 m

7. The top of a vertical cliff was sighted from two stations P and Q, which are 125 m apart and were in same
vertical plane with the top of cliff. The angle of elevation of top of cliff observed from stations P and Q
were 30º25’ and 22º28’. The angle of elevation from Q to a vane 1.75 m above the foot of staff held at
station P is 16º15’. The heights of instrument at P and Q were 1.856 m and 1.565 m respectively. The R.L.
of station Q is 100 m. Find out the R.L. of top of vertical cliff. [Ans. 189.375 m]
8. The top of Mount Everest was sighted from two stations A and B, which are 180 m apart and were in same
vertical plane with the top of mountain. The angle of elevation of top of Everest observed from stations A
and B were 35º30’ and 23º50’. The angle of elevation from B to a flag 3.00 m above the instrument station
A is 19º30’. The heights of instrument at A and B were 1.35 m and 1.50 m respectively. The R.L. of station
B is 8738.64 m. Find out the elevation of Mount Everest. [Ans. 8848 m]
9. The following observations were made from stations O1 and O2 (being 50 m apart) in order to find the
elevation of chimney.
Horizontal angle at station O1, between chimney and O2 = 60º
Horizontal angle at station O2, between chimney and O1 = 50º
Angle of elevation from O1 to the top of chimney = 30º
Angle of elevation from O2 to the top of chimney = 29º
R.L. of line of collimation at O1 = 22.5 m
R.L. of line of collimation at O2 = 20.5 m
Determine the R.L. of top of chimney. [Ans. 46.038 m]
10. It was required to obtain the elevation of top of a mobile tower located on the roof of a building since direct
measurement was not possible, the following data was obtained. A line AB = 135 m long was staked out
and the horizontal angles to the tower were observed at A as 58º30’ and at B as 30º00’. At point B a back
sight of 2.00 m was taken on B.M. of elevation 100 m and vertical angle to the top of tower was found to be
54º00’. Calculate the R.L. of top of tower. [Ans. 256.284 m]

NOTE: For classroom teaching only. Not to be published.