Representation of Relief

Relief is so perfectly and precisely represented on topographic maps that if you look on them at a
distance of 1 meter you will see crests and valleys, as on a thermoformed map. In the following, you will
learn the different techniques used to represent relief on topographic maps.

Contour lines

Contour lines are an effective device for representing relief on topographic maps. They can be
defined as an imaginary line connecting points of equal elevation on the ground surface.
As with all types of isolines, when contour lines are close together, they represent a steep slope,
whereas when lines are far from each other, they represent a gradual slope. Every fifth or tenth
contour starting at sea level is an index contour, which is drawn as a heavier line and is labelled.
Each topographic map uses a contour interval, or equidistance, (the distance in elevation between
contour lines) appropriate for that area. While flat areas may be mapped with a 5 meter contour
interval, stepped terrain may have a 20 meter or more contour interval. This is why the contour
interval is still specified on the topographic map legend.
Spot heights (Elevation point)

In addition to contour lines, heights of many points occur on the map, such as road intersections,
summits of hills, lake shorelines, etc. These points are called Spot Heights.

Shading

Shading is a method for representing relief on maps in a natural, aesthetic, and intuitive manner.
The light direction is the most important element for shaded relief. Normally, as shown in the
following graphics, the light illuminates the terrain from the upper-left. However, less popular is
illumination from the south, as the relief shading tends to look more correct. In extreme cases,
relief inversion occurs where mountains appear as valleys and vice versa. Some local adaptations
are also possible.
Rocks and cliffs representation

The representation of cliffs and rocks on topographic maps is a very difficult task still yet, even
in the realm of digital cartography: the painting of rock hachures is mostly “hand-made”.
Furthermore, this expensive method can only be produced by specialists: the painter has to use
graphical tricks to give steep rocks depicted on a map equivalent visual importance compared to
that observed in nature. During the last two centuries, cartographers have developed different
cliff representation styles. On the following slide show, some of those methods are presented.

Hachures

Hachures are fine lines generally drawn in the direction of steepest topographic slope (gradient). These
lines represent the slope of the land—the more gentle the slope, the fewer the lines — thicker hachures
indicate steeper slopes — and the absence of lines indicates flat terrain.
Contours in depressions are indicated by hachuring to make depressions and knolls easily distinguished
on maps.
Form Lines

When available information is insufficient to warrant the use of either normal or approximate contours,
form lines are used. Normally, form lines are used only in areas outside the United States. Form lines
collectively portray the general shapes of topographic features, but with little or no reference to a
datum plane. They do not present an accurate representation of the terrain, but merely illustrate the
general topographic shapes of an area. Since the lines are based on little or no control, their intervals
cannot be used to estimate differences in elevations.
Layer Tinting.

Layer tinting is a method of showing relief by color. A different color is used for each band of
elevation. Each shade of color, or band, represents a definite elevation range. A legend is printed
on the map margin to indicate the elevation range represented by each color. However, this
method does not allow the map user to determine the exact elevation of a specific point—only
the range.

Relief or Terrain Models

a three-dimensional scale model of a part of the earth's surface.

Ridge and Stream Lining

Ridge and stream lining is mainly used to emphasized the location of low and high ground. This
method is especially useful on aerial photographs.

Ridgelining and streamlining

TYPES OF CONTOURS:

Contour Lines.

Contour lines are the most common method of showing relief and elevation on a standard topographic
map. A contour line represents an imaginary line on the ground, above or below sea level. All points on
the contour line are at the same elevation. The elevation represented by contour lines is the vertical
distance above or below sea level. The five types of contour lines (Figure 10-1) used on a standard
topographic map are as follows:
 Figure 10-1. Contour lines.

(1)   Index. Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth contour line is
a heavier line. These are known as index contour lines. Normally, each index
contour line is numbered at some point. This number is the elevation of that line.

(2)   Intermediate. The contour lines falling between the index contour lines are
called intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer and do not have their
elevations given. There are normally four intermediate contour lines between
index contour lines.

(3)   Supplementary. These contour lines resemble dashes. They show changes in
elevation of at least one-half the contour interval. These lines are normally found
where there is very little change in elevation, such as on fairly level terrain.
(4) Approximate Contours. Whenever there is any question as to the reliability of the source
material or of the survey, approximate contours are substituted for normal contours. An
approximate contour on a map represents an imaginary line on the earth's surface, all points of
which are estimated to be of the same elevation. As with normal contours, a distinction is made
between index, intermediate, and supplementary contours.

(5) Depression Contours . Depression contours are drawn to show low spots such as excavations
around which contour closed. This symbol used is the index or intermediate contour to which
ticks are drawn perpendicular to the contour
line on the downhill side.
Contour Intervals.

Contour lines are drawn on a map at definite elevation intervals. Using a given contour interval,
the lines are far apart in flat areas and close together in hilly areas. Consequently, to present the
best picture, the size of the contour interval used varies with the nature of the terrain, although
normally a contour interval is constant in a series of map sheets. On sheets where the relief is
generally flat or gently rolling, a smaller contour interval is used than on sheets where the relief
is generally hilly. Scale also affects the contour interval; if the contour interval on a 1:25,000
scale map were 5 meters, for example, the interval used on a 1:50,000 map covering the same
area would be 10 meters.