Survey of Infrastructures Er.

Manish Prakash

Survey of Infrastructures
1. Route Survey
The term route survey is generally applied to survey of narrow strips of land stretching for long
distances. Such surveys are commonly undertaken for transportation system design such as
roads, railway lines, water supply, sewerage lines, canals, aqueducts, transmission lines,
cableways etc. Route surveying includes all field work and requisite calculations, together with
maps, profiles and other drawings. Route surveys are done with two main aims:
a. Determining the best general route between the stations/locations
b. Fixing the alignment grades and other details of the selected route

A comprehensive route survey consists of the following sequence of surveys:

i. A reconnaissance survey
ii. Preliminary survey
iii. Location survey
iv. Construction survey

1.1. Reconnaissance Survey

A reconnaissance survey is a rapid but through examination of an area or a strip of an area
between the stations of the project to determine which of the several possible routes may be
worthy for detail survey and the approximate cost of the project. The reconnaissance survey is
the key to the project and therefore, it must be done under the supervision of an experienced
engineer. The time, effort and money spent on reconnaissance is not wasted, as it helps refine
further survey work. Only one or two of the most probable routes will be chosen for a detail
survey after reconnaissance.

The first step in reconnaissance survey is to collect the available map and aerial photographs
of the area. Various possible routes are marked on the map keeping the general topography of
the area in the mind. The area under consideration is examined in detail in order to assess the
feasibility and relative merits of all the possible routes.

The second step of reconnaissance, approximate elevation and distance are measured. The
elevations are determined by a clinometer. The distances are found by pacing. The directions
and angles are measured by a magnetic compass. If necessary, a stadia survey of the area can
be conducted. From all these measurements, the possible gradients and the probable necessary
lengths are determined for each alternative route. The relative costs of the various routes are
worked out and the best route is selected for the more accurate preliminary survey.

The reconnaissance also includes the collection of information about the type of soil, geological
structures, river crossings, drainage patterns, ecology, land usage etc. These information help
in selecting the best possible route as they provide a general impression of the terrain. At the
end, a reconnaissance report is prepared which includes the following information:
a) Accurate topography of the country with a short description of the topography
b) Total length of each route and approximate gradients
c) Probable radii of the horizontal curves
d) Amount of expected earthwork and cost of construction of each route
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

e) Obligatory points, towns, bridges, highways, railways, river crossings etc. on the routes
f) Geological characteristics of the soils of the area and land use
g) Width of the waterway required for each river and other drainages
h) Maximum discharge and high flood level of the rivers
i) Availability of building materials, labour, machinery etc.
j) A critical analysis of the various routes with economic analysis and conclusions and
justification for the selected best route

A route may have three locations:

a) Valley location: In the case of valley location, the route follows the valleys and the drainage
lines, and has few excessive grades. There is often danger of washouts and floods. A
number of bridges may be required to cross the tributaries. The reconnaissance of the route
should include the entire valley since it often happens that a more advantageous location is
achieved by crossing the valley at strategic points.

b) Cross country location: In the case of cross country location, the line is located in
opposition to the drainage. Such a line crosses the ridges very often, and will have steep
grade. The construction costs along such a line may also be excessive.

c) Ridge line location: Locations along ridge are relatively free of drainage problems and
major drainage structures. However, since ridges are seldom straight, considerable
curvature may have to be employed in such a location. Also steep grades are encountered
when the location drops into valleys, or when the ridge is regained.

1.2. Preliminary Survey

An analysis of the reconnaissance data will give a good idea of the location of the route. One
or two of the most possible routes are selected for further survey. The survey done on such
selected routes is known as preliminary survey. The objectives of the preliminary survey are
as follows:
a) Preparation of an accurate topographic map of the tract of land containing route
b) Preparation of an estimate and working out the cost of the project
c) Selection of the most economical and viable route, if more than one route is surveyed

Preliminary survey is done with accurate instruments and the data collected is used for the
preparation of a topographic plane. One or two selected routes will be surveyed with equal
precision. A much wider width of land than actual required for the construction of the route is
surveyed. The field work in preliminary survey usually consist of
a) Traversing along the selected routes: Horizontal control points should be established near
the route by running traverse from the nearby triangulation points. As such routes are likely
to be very long. Intermediate control points are also established. An open traverse is ideal
for route surveying. The traverse may be done using deflection angles or included angles.
As a check, the bearings of the lines should be observed at various intervals. A theodolite
is used for traversing. From the reconnaissance data, the surveyor locates the stations for
open traversing on paper. These are then marked on the ground with pegs. Traverse lines
can be as long as practicable from the point of view of visibility and change in directions
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

of the route. The route will thus be a series of straight lines. Curves are then de designed
according to the requirements.

b) Longitudinal section along the selected routes: Levels are taken along the centre line of the
proposed route. The centre line is laid out by the traversing party using pegs driven at
suitable intervals. The levelling party will take levels at points along these lines. Depending
upon the terrain, levels are taken along suitable intervals. This will help to work out a profile
of the proposed route as well as design the earthwork requirements.

c) Cross-section across the selected routes: It is the process of finding levels along the lines
perpendicular to the route. Equal lengths on either side of the proposed route are surveyed
for this purpose. A number of sections at suitable intervals, depending upon the terrain are
taken. These data together with the profile data will help in designing the final profile of
the proposed route, earthwork and drainage system.

1.3. Location Survey

The data collected from the preliminary survey of one or more routes are analysed to find the
most suitable location for the route. The route is first finalized on the plan, or a paper location
is made. The paper location is necessary to arrive at the optimum project location. The factors
affecting the choice of paper location are (i) minimum gradients and curvature (ii) balancing
(equalization) of earthwork (iii) heavy earthwork (filling or cutting) (iv) suitable crossing for
rivers etc. the paper location of the alignment and grade line form a basis for the final location
of the line.
Once the location is finalized on the plan, it has to be transferred to the ground. This is known
as location survey. The final location of the route is established on the ground. Improvements
are made on the location depending upon the ground situation by making minor alterations
wherever required. Profile levelling and cross sections are again taken on the route that has
been fixed. Curves are laid out as per the requirements. The earthwork calculations are repeated
to estimate the fill requirements, source and haulage. The complete route is now available on
paper as well as on ground with stakes driven at intervals. All necessary field data are obtained
to permit the detailed design of miscellaneous structures.
1.4. Construction Survey
The purpose of the construction survey is to re-establish points, lines and grades on the ground
during construction. It is essentially setting out the details of the route on the ground. It is the
name given to the survey carried out as the construction proceeds to realize the paper plan. The
survey work has to continue until the construction is complete. Followings are the surveying
operations for construction purpose:
a) Visiting the located line and checking the location stakes
b) Resetting the missing or disturbed stakes from the field notes
c) Checking the levels of various points and establishing additional bench marks
d) Setting out the side slopes stakes for earthwork as well as grade stakes
e) Taking final cross-sections for ascertaining the quantity of earthwork
f) Measuring finished work at regular intervals
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

2. Water Supply System

● To provide drinking water from source to user after treatment by pipe network.
● Infrastructure for collection, transmission, treatment, storage and distribution of water for
various purposes like domestic, industrial, firefighting etc.

Fig. Water Supply System

2.1. Types of water Supply System
On the basis Types

Source Surface, Groundwater

Driving force Gravity, Pumping and Combined gravity & Pumping system

Supply Continuous, Intermittent

2.2. Gravity Flow Water Supply System

Gravity schemes are water distribution schemes without pumping; only the power of the earth
gravity force is used to bring the water from a high entry point to the lower outlets. Compared
to pumped schemes, gravity schemes require less operational cost for power and pump
operation and less maintenance cost for pumps.
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

Fig. Components of Gravity Water Supply System

2.3. Water Distribution
A water distribution system is the pipe network that distributes water from the source to the
consumers. It is the pipeline laid along the streets with connections to residential, commercial
and industrial taps. Water distribution system includes:
a. Distribution or service reservoirs for storing treated water, stabilizing pressures and feeding
into the distribution pipes
b. Pipelines of various sizes which include mains, sub-mains, branches and laterals for carrying
water
c. Valves for controlling flow of water in pipes
d. Hydrants for releasing water during fires
e. Pumps for supplying water to the service reservoirs or distribution pipes
f. Service connections for individual consumers
g. Meters for measuring the quantity of water supplied

2.4. Methods of Distribution

Gravity distribution
The flow and pressure in distribution systems are maintained through gravitational energy
through the elevation difference between source and supply point. Gravity distribution is the
most reliable system of distribution.
Pumping distribution
The flow and pressure in distribution systems are maintained through pumping energy by using
pump.
Combined gravity and pumping distribution
In this system the treated water to be supplied is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution
reservoir from which it is supplied to the consumers under gravity. This system is adopted
where the treated water to be supplied is available at almost the same level as the area of the
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

distribution. From the elevated reservoir the water is then conveyed through pipes under
gravity.
2.5. Layout of Distribution System
Dead End or Tree System
In this system, one main pipeline through the centre of the area to be served and from both
sides of the main, the sub-mains takes off. The sub-mains are further divided into several
branches from which service connections are given to the consumers. So, the network of
pipelines covers the entire area as like as a branch of a tree and no cross connection is done but
various dead ends are available. Mostly adopted in towns or cities developed in haphazard way.

Fig. Dead End or Tree System

Grid Iron System
In this system, one main pipeline though the center of the area to be served and from both sides
of the main, the sub-mains take off in perpendicular direction then branch lines inter connects
all sub-mains so that water can be circulate through entire distribution system. This system is
suitable is suitable for cities planned in the rectangular pattern or grid iron pattern.

Fig. Grid Iron System

Circular or Ring System
In this system, entire distribution area is divided into small circular or rectangular blocks and
main pipelines are laid on the periphery of those blocks. Those peripheries of the mains are
then linked in the interior of the area. In this case water at any point is available from any two
directions. This system is suitable for cities having well planned roads and roads in circular or
rectangular pattern. The length of main pipe is larger and hence large quantity of water is
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

available for firefighting and all other advantages and disadvantages are as same as in grid iron
system.

Fig. Circular or Ring System

Radial System
In this system, the layout is reverse of circular or ring system. Water flows towards the outer
periphery. In this system the entire distribution area is divided into small circular or rectangular
zones and each center of the zone is provided with a distribution reservoir and water is flowed
radially towards periphery from branches. This system has high pressure of distribution and
gives quick and efficient water distribution and gives quick and efficient water distribution and
hence more efficient in firefighting. This system is suitable for cities having radial road
network. The major disadvantage of this system is that it requires more reservoirs and all other
advantages and disadvantages are as same as in grid iron system.

Fig. Radial System

2.6. Survey along Water Supply System
The various types of survey which are generally performed in different components of water
supply system are as:
S.N Components Types of Survey General Considerations
1 Intake Site Topographical  Located at straight approach of stream
survey, Profile  Sufficient depth of water available for
levelling, Cross- withdrawal
sectioning  Located in an elevation position offering
difference in RL for gravity flow in
transmission main
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

2 Conveyance- Route survey,  Shortest and straight route

Transmission Profile levelling,  Minimum angle of deviation
Main Cross-sectioning  Less number of cross drainage
3 Treatment plant Topographical  Flat topography
survey  Located in an elevation position offering
maximum difference in RL for gravity flow
4 Distribution Route survey,  Elevated location of distribution reservoir
system Profile levelling, offering maximum difference in RL for
Cross-sectioning gravity flow along distribution system

3. Sanitation System
It consists of scientific and methodical collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal of the
waste matter, so that public health can be protected from the offensive and injurious substances.
3.1. Sewerage
The term sewerage includes structures, devices, equipment and appurtenances intended for the
collection, transportation and pumping of sewage and liquid wastes, but excluding works for
the treatment of sewage. It also includes the entire science of collecting and carrying sewage
by water carriage system through sewers.
3.2. Sewer and their Types
It is an underground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to a point of discharge
or disposal.
On the basis of type of sewage
Separate sewer
Storm water drain
Combined sewer
Branch
Sewer House
Lateral Sewer
Sewer
Stream

Outfall
Sewer

Treatment
Plant
Trunk Sewer

Fig. Sewer System

Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

3.3. Sewer Appurtenances

Sewer appurtenances are those structures of the sewerage system which are constructed at
suitable interval and other locations along a sewer line, to assist in efficient operation and
maintenance of the system. Inlet, catch pit, manholes etc. are the generally used sewer
appurtenances.

3.4. Survey along Sewer System

The various types of survey which are generally performed in different components of sewer
system are as:
S.N Components Types of Survey General Considerations
1 Sewer Route survey,  Straight approach with minimum deflection
Network Profile levelling, angles
Cross-sectioning  Gradual reduction of RL ensuring flow
under gravity in the entire sewer network
2 Treatment Topographical  Located near natural stream for final
Plant survey disposal
 Above high flood level
 Gravity flow in between different
components of treatment plant

4. Irrigation and Canal

Irrigation is the application of water to the farm land for the purpose of producing crops
whenever and wherever the rainfall is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the crops.

4.1. Types of Irrigation System

Irrigation

Flow Irrigation Lift Irrigation

Direct Irrigation Storage Irrigation Combine storage

(Diversion (Storage scheme) and diversion
scheme) scheme

4.2. Canal
Canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground to carry
water to the fields either from river or reservoir.

4.2.1.Types of Canal (Based on canal alignment)

Ridge canal: A ridge canal or watershed canal is aligned along a watershed and runs for most
of its length on a watershed. When a channel is on the watershed, it can irrigate command areas
on both banks and hence a large area can be brought under cultivation. Also, no drainage can
intersect a watershed and hence the necessity of constructing cross drainage works are avoided.
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

Contour canal: A channel aligned nearly parallel to the contours of the area is called contour
canal. The contour chosen for the alignment should be so placed as to include all cultivable
area of the valley on one side of the canal. The contour canal can irrigate only on one side.

Side slope canal: It is a channel aligned roughly at right angles to the contours of the country
and is neither on the watershed nor in the valley. Such a channel would be roughly parallel to
the natural drainage of the country and hence, it does not intercept any cross-drainage.

Fig. Types of canal (Based on canal alignment)

4.3. Command area

Command area is the area which is going to be benefited by the irrigation project.

4.4. Survey along Irrigation System

The various types of survey which are generally performed in different components of sewer
system are as:
S.N Components Types of Survey General Considerations
1 Intake Topographical  Located at straight approach of stream
survey, Profile  Sufficient depth of water available for
levelling, Cross- withdrawal
sectioning  Located in an elevation position offering
difference in RL for gravity flow in canal
2 Canal Route survey,  Gentle gradient for gradual decrease in RL
Profile levelling, along canal alignment
Cross-sectioning  Along ridge line
 Minimum angle of deviation
 Less number of cross drainage works
 Equal cutting and filling works
3 Command Topographical
Area survey

5. Hydraulic Structures and Waterways

Hydraulic structures are submerged or partially submerged structures in water used to divert,
disrupt or completely stop the natural flow. Hydraulic structures are designed for integrated
river, lake or seawater projects are referred to river, lake and marine water works respectively.
By the features of their actions on the stream flow, main hydraulic structures are distinguished
as water retaining structures, water conveying structures and special purpose structures. Dam,
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

barrage, weir, energy dissipating structures etc. are the common examples of hydraulic
structures.

5.1. Survey of Reservoir or Dam Area

A topographic survey of the area is made to determine the location, height of dam and the
extent of the reservoir. A contour interval small enough to portray the topography of the area
accurately is used. The area enclosed by the flow line and by each contour is determined
separately with the planimeter. The average of the area enclosed by two consecutive contours,
multiplied by the vertical interval between them, gives the volume of water lying between these
two contours. The volume up to any given contour is determined and the necessary height of
dam to hold any given quantity of water becomes known.

A number of control points and BM’s are permanently established and referenced both
upstream and downstream from the dam. These are the horizontal and vertical control of the
reservoir site. The centerline and centers of curvature of the dam are located and fixed to assure
permanency. These points are set high enough above the dam to prevent disturbance or
submergence.

The three functional parts of a reservoir are dam, discharge spillways and outlet chambers with
valves to regulate flow of water from the reservoir. During the construction of the dam, survey
activities include:
a) Setting stakes for excavation, fills, spillways, outlet chambers
b) Taking cross-sections
c) Laying out forms for concrete
d) Locating gates and valves
e) Relocating roads and utilities
f) Checking embankment slopes, placed concrete and installed equipment

5.2. Waterway
A waterway is any navigable body of water. The waterways can be inland waterways or oceanic
waterways. Inland waterways comprise of rivers (natural or canalized), lakes, canals, and
backwaters etc. which are navigable.
5.2.1.Survey of Waterway
Hydrographic survey is conducted for the survey of waterway. As in land survey, it is necessary
to have horizontal and vertical control for hydrographic surveying. It essentially involves
measuring the depth of water at points on the floor and establishing the locations of the points
at which depth is measured. Finding the depth of water at a point is known as sounding. For
sounding data to be meaningful, vertical control is necessary. BM's may be established on the
shore to relate the sounding to surface levels. The water level also continuously varies;
therefore, it is necessary to record the depth of the water when the sounding is taken. The
reduced levels of points on the floor have to be related to the depth of water as well.

To locate the points where soundings are taken, horizontal control is required. Triangulation
points or shoreline traverse points are used for this purpose. Wherever precision is required,
the location is determined with reference to the triangulation points. Otherwise, traverse using
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

a tape and compass or a theodolite are conducted near the shore. In the case of river, such points
can be located on both shores.

Fig. Hydrographic Survey

The results from a hydrographic survey are normally plotted to produce a bathymetric contour
map, which is a plan of the depth of the bed arranged in such a manner as to show lines of equal
depth from the shore or coastline. Based on the contour map, different routes for navigation
are studied. Based on the profile and cross-section drawn along the different routes the one
with the sufficient water depth will be the most suitable route for the navigation in the
waterway.

6. Electricity Production and Transmission Line

Hydroelectric power comes from water at work, water in motion. Some power plants are
located on rivers, streams and canals but for a reliable water supply, dams are needed. The dam
creates a head or height from which water flow. A pipe (penstock) carries the water from the
reservoir to the turbine. The fast moving water pushes the turbine blades which turns the rotor,
the moving part of the electric generator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the
generator stationary coil, electricity is produced. There are four broad hydropower plants are
(i) run of river hydropower (ii) storage hydropower (iii) pumped storage hydropower (iv)
offshore hydropower.
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

6.1. Components of Hydropower Project and its Survey

S.N Component Functions Types of Survey General Considerations
1 Head Works Storage and Topographical survey,  Located at straight
(Dam, Weir, withdrawal of water Profile levelling, approach of stream
Intake, Gravel for river, stream, Cross-sectioning  Minimum width of
Trap, Settling lake etc. waterway
Basin) Removal of  Sufficient depth of water
available for withdrawal
sediments.
 Located in an elevation
position offering
maximum difference in RL
for power generation
2 Headrace Conveyance of Route survey, Profile  Straight alignment with
Pipe/Tunnel water levelling, Cross- minimum deviation in both
sectioning the planes
3 Surge Tank Control pressure Topographical survey,  Located in elevated
variation by Profile levelling, position near the power
eliminating water Cross-sectioning house offering higher
hammer difference in RL
4 Penstock Pipe Conveyance of Route survey, Profile  Straight alignment with
water from surge levelling, Cross- minimum deviation in both
tank to power house sectioning the planes
5 Power House Generation of Topographical survey,  Located near natural
electricity Profile levelling, stream for final disposal
Cross-sectioning  Above high flood level

6 Tail Race Conveyance of Route survey, Profile  Short span with no

water from power levelling, Cross- deviations
house back to river sectioning

6.2. Transmission Line

Transmission lines are nothing but a long conductors carry electric energy from one point to
another in an electric power system. They can carry alternating current or direct current or
a system can be a combination of both. Also, electric current can be carried by either overhead
or underground lines. Transmission and distribution lines play an important role of connecting
link between generating stations and consumers.

6.2.1.Survey of Transmission Line

Route survey is performed for selecting the suitable alignment for the transmission line. The
survey work starts from the powerhouse site and ends to the substation or distribution station.
Also, the positions of the transmission towers are marked on the alignment based on the
distance between intersection points (sag consideration of conductors), change in the direction
(deviation) of the alignment both in horizontal and vertical planes. Since the length of
transmission line is of considerable distance so networks of triangulation stations and BM's are
used for the horizontal and vertical control of the alignment and towers. Profile and cross-
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

section (ROW 23m) levelling are required to be performed along the final alignment for
marking tower locations, earthwork calculation and for accurate information of elevations.

The general considerations for

 Deviation angle should be minimum and should not exceed 60 degrees.
 Design span or normal ruling span of the line is 400m for 400KV transmission line.
 The minimum ground clearance from the bottom conductor shall not be less than 9500 mm
for 400kV lines at the maximum sag conditions i.e. at 80°C and still air.

7. Cable Car
Cable transport is a broad class of transport modes that have cables. They transport passengers
and goods, often in vehicles called cable cars. The cable may be driven or passive, and items
may be moved by pulling, sliding, sailing, or by drives within the object being moved
on cableways.
Cable car is a type of aerial transportation mode in which passengers are transported in a cabin
that is suspended and pulled by cables driven with the help of motors. It consists of one or two
fixed cables (i.e. track cable), one loop of cable (i.e. haulage rope), and passenger cabins. The
track cables provide support for the cabins while the haulage rope driven by electric motor
provides propulsion (push forward/drive forward).
7.1. Components of Cable Car System
S.N Components Description Function
1 Cable car vehicle  Consists of carriage / grip,  Structural and mechanical
(cabin/gondolas) hanger and passenger cabin assemblage in which
 Vehicle may be fully passengers are shifted
enclosed carrier, semi-open,
seating chair with standing
space, etc.
 Vehicle has different capacity
2 Terminal Stations  Minimum two stations i.e.  Stations need Drive
lower terminal station and Machines System which
upper terminal station are consists of motor and drive
required  Motor as mechanical
device generates
rotational/linear forces
used to power a machine
whereas drive as electronic
device harnesses electrical
energy sent to motor
3 Intermediate Towers  Intermediate structures to  For longer span, towers are
support both track cable required to provide support
(loads) and haulage rope at various intermediate
(bundles) between terminals points
4 Cables  Cables i.e. ropes are a major  Cable pulls the cable car
component vehicles from one location
to another for transporting
passengers
Survey of Infrastructures Er. Manish Prakash

5 Plants and Machinery  Drive (main & auxiliary),  Provide movement by

gear box, tension / counter using electrical and
weight trolley, grip system, mechanical support
generator, emergency pulley,
speed reducer, Diesel
Generator (DG) set, etc.

Fig. Components of Cable Car

7.2. Survey of Cable Car
Route survey is performed for the survey of cable car. The survey runs between the origin and
destination of the cable way. Also, the positions of the towers are marked on the alignment as
per the required based on the distance between intersection points, change in the direction of
the alignment both in horizontal and vertical planes. Depending upon the length of cable either
network of triangulation stations or the traverse stations and BM's are used for the horizontal
and vertical controls of the cable car alignment and the position of the towers. Profile and cross-
section levelling are required to be performed along the final alignment for positioning of tower
and accurate information of elevation.

Also, detail topographical survey needs to be conducted in area at the beginning and end of the
cable car system for constructing the necessary facilities/infrastructures (entry and exit) of the
cable car system.