Highway Engineering I ()

CHAPTER 2

2.1 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION

In general, the aim of alignment selection process is to find a location for the new road that will
result in the lowest total construction, land, traffic and environmental costs. The fundamental
objective in the highway geometric design process is the establishment of the new highway’s
centerline and cross-sections in relation to the terminal points and to the topography through
which the highway will pass. The vertical and horizontal alignment of the centerline determines
the amount of cut and fill, cross-section details, drainage design, construction and user costs and
environmental impacts.

Highway alignment is a basis for process of highway design and construction. Improper
alignment would increase construction cost, land acquisition cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle
operation cost and accidents rate.

Different types of highway have different needs. That means each type highway has its own
purpose and requirement. But generally any connecting road between two points should be short,
easy (for construction, maintenance, vehicle operation), safe (low accident, stable foundation),
and economical.

Guidelines for Alignment and Route Location

There are certain guidelines that must be borne in mind in selecting the alignment and locating
the route. They are:

 The route of the highway should be so selected that it can handle the traffic most
efficiently and serve the inhabited localities.
 A direct alignment usually results in overall economy.
 The gradients and curvature should be kept to the minimum necessary for the terrain.
Excess of both may result in economy of initial cost, but will involve high operation
costs, time costs and accident costs.
 The location should minimize the use of agricultural land. If a road already exists, it may
be advisable to make use of the land already available to the maximum extent.

1
Highway Engineering I ()

 The location should involve the least impact on the environment.

 Obstructions such as cemeteries, places of worship, archaeological and historical
monuments should be steered through.
 Proximity to schools, playgrounds and hospitals should be avoided.
 Interference with utility services like electric overhead transmission lines, water supply
mains, sewers, pipelines, etc should be avoided as far as possible.
 Frequent crossing and re-crossing of railway lines should be avoided.
 Locate the highway close to sources of embankment materials and pavement materials.
 Avoid marshy and low-lying land areas having poor drainage.
 Avoid areas liable to flooding.
 Steep terrain should be avoided as much as possible.
 Deep cutting and costly tunnels should be avoided as far as possible.
 When the alignment has to cross major rivers, the crossing point should be fixed
carefully.
FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT
The selection of alignment of a highway is subjected to controlling factors such as:

i) Obligatory points
ii) Traffic
iii) Geometric design
iv) Economics
v) Other consideration
i) Obligatory points : - these are points through which the alignment is to pass such as bridge
sites towns etc. and points through which the alignment should not pass such as costly
structures, religious places, hospital etc.
ii) Traffic: - the alignment, should satisfy the traffic demand.
iii) Geometric Design: - the grades, radius or curves, sight distance super elevation should be
within the limits.
iv) Economy: - this includes the initial cost, maintenance cost & operation cost.
v) Other considerations: the alignment should permit the construction of drainage structures.
Hydrological factors such as runoff, seepage flow, high flood level etc. will also affect the

2
Highway Engineering I ()

alignment of the highway. Political consideration a monotony i.e. long horizontal curve
should be taken into consideration.

ROUTE SURVEY

The highway development program may involve the construction of new road or improvements
to an existing one. In the relocation or reconstruction of existing highways and establishment of
new ones, surveys are required for the development of projects plans and the estimation of
projects. One of the important surveys that are carried out is route survey.

The purpose of the route survey is to fix the road alignment i.e. to position the central line of the
road on the ground.

Before an attempt can be made at selecting a physical location for a highway improvement, data
must be available regarding traffic desires and needs the planning intentions within the area to be
traversed, and estimates or the future physical characteristics of the highway itself: Location
surveys involving geologic and photogrammetric skills provide the basic information for
structural design, as well as the economic analysis that have a considerable influence on the final
location of the highway. Before the steps of location of route survey consider the following
points.

 Know the termini points of the scheme.

 From the study of a map of the area, identify and locate
 National parks
 Any ancient relics, castles and the likes
 Existence of monasteries
 Mining sites
 Existing transport facilities
 Other public facilities (electricity, water)
 Location of construction materials
 Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on pertinent
details of topography, climate, soil, vegetation, and any other factors.
 Based on the information collected in the previous two steps select a corridor.

3
Highway Engineering I ()

 Identify a number of possible centerlines within the corridor.

 Make a preliminary design for the possible alternative alignments and plot on a base
map.
 Examine each of the alternative alignment with respect to grades, volume of earthwork,
drainage, crossing structures, etc to select the best alternative route.
 Make final design and location of the selected best alternative route.

The work of the highway location survey may include

a) Desk study
b) Reconnaissance survey
c) Preliminary location survey
d) Final location survey
a) Desk study

Before any field investigation is made, a great deal can be learned from a desk study of the area.
The first step in highway location and design is to obtain the relevant data in the form of maps,
aerial photographs, charts or graphs and so on. If the topography map of the area is available, it
is possible to suggest the likely routes of the road. As it is discussed above the features that
should be studied in aligning the possible centerline of the road are such as valleys, pond, lakes,
mountain cross, bridges sites, river and etc.

b) Reconnaissance Survey

The first step in the reconnaissance survey is the location and acquisition of all maps and data
relating to the area, as well as the most suitable air photographs. These are then thoroughly
studied. A visit to the area may also be considered desirable at this stage. Where appropriate,
additional information may be obtained from the relevant offices.

Next, armed with questions generated by the desk study, the engineer will evaluate the
engineering economic aspect of the area and delimits areas that are obviously unsuitable for
highway construction.

Upon completion of the reconnaissance survey, the engineer should be at least in a position to
design the more detailed geotechnical investigations which are likely to follow, and should also

4
Highway Engineering I ()

have sufficient information available which, when taken in combination with the social, ecology,
traffic, economic, and political inputs, will enable the selection of one or more apparently
feasible corridor routes. If the reconnaissance survey has been very thorough, and the necessary
data are readily available, it may be possible immediately to carry out the necessary economic
and environmental comparisons to aid in the determination of the best route.

The results of these studies are presented in a reconnaissance report. In its essentials, this report
should state the service and geometric criteria to be satisfied by the project, describe the
preferred route(s), and present tentative estimates of the cost.

The purpose of the reconnaissance survey is to evaluate the feasibility of one or more corridor
routes for a highway between specific points that may be many kilometers away. Mostly a desk
study, good reconnaissance survey can be the greatest single money-saving phase in the
construction of a new road. Hence the engineer should make ample provision in both time and
finance for this stage of highway location study. The following is a useful checklist of the
general information required in the first phase of the reconnaissance study for a major highway,
irrespective of whether it is in a rural or in urban area.

1. General Land Survey

 Location of site on published maps and charts

 Aerial survey, where appropriate
 Site boundaries, outlines of structures, and building lines
 Ground contours and natural drainage features
 Above ground obstructions to view and flying, e.g. transmission lines
 Meteorological information

2. Permitted use and restrictions

 Planning and statutory restrictions applying to the particular areas

 Tunnels, mine-works (abandoned, active and proposed
 Ancient monuments, burial grounds, etc

3. Approaches and access (including temporary access for construction purpose)

5
Highway Engineering I ()

 Road
 Railway
 By water
 By air

4. Ground conditions

 Geological maps
 Flooding, erosion, landslide and subsidence history
 Construction and investigation records of adjacent sites
 Seismicity

5. Sources of material for the construction

 Naturals
 Tips and waste materials
 Imported materials

6. Drainage and sewerage

 Names of the sewerage and land drainage

 Location and levels of the existing systems
 Existing flow quantities
 Flood risk to the proposed works

7. Water supply

8. Electric and gas supply

9. Telephone and others

b) Preliminary Location Survey

The preliminary survey is a large-scale study of one or more feasible corridor routes. It results in
a paper location and alignment that defines the line for the subsequent final location survey. This
paper location and alignment should show enough ties to existing topography to permit a

6
Highway Engineering I ()

location party to peg the centerline. In many case field details for final design may also be
obtained economically during the preliminary survey phase.

The preliminary survey is made for the purpose of collecting the additional physical information
that may affect the location of the highway within a given corridor area, the shape of the ground,
any potential ground subsidence problems, the limits of the catchment areas, the positions and
invert levels of streams and ditches, and the positions of trees, banks and hedges, bridges,
culverts, existing roads, power lines and pipe lines, houses and monuments are determined and
noted. These are then translated into maps, profiles and (frequently) cross sections that can assist
the engineer in the determination of preliminary grades and alignments and the preparation of
cost estimates for alternative centerlines.

Two approaches are available for preliminary survey mapping: aerial surveys and ground
surveys, either separately or in various combinations.

The ground method is best used in the situation where then corridor is closely defined, narrow
right-of-way are contemplated, and the problems of man-made culture are clear. Ground surveys,
beginning with a traverse baseline, will probably furnish necessary data quite economically.
Additional operations that can be quite easily included are the profile levels and cross-sections,
and the ties to land lines and cultural objects.

The aerial survey is likely to be more suitable and economical in the following instances:

 where the reconnaissance was unable to approximate closely the final alignment
 Where a wide right-of-way is necessitated
 Where it is desired to prevent the premature or erroneous disclosure of the details of
probable location (preventing any land speculation or the premature awakening of local
public concerns).

The choice of method should be an educated one, based on an advanced cost analysis that takes
into account the overall project schedule and the time and need requirements of various
techniques. The following discussion is primarily with the carrying out of the traditional type of
ground survey.

7
Highway Engineering I ()

 The first step is the carrying out of a baseline traverse – a series of connecting straight
lines and tangents stationed continuously from the beginning to the end of the survey.
 The degree of accuracy commensurate with the importance of the project and the nature
of the topography being traversed.
 Angles between connecting lines should be measured in accordance with accepted
highway surveying procedures and every single point should be carefully referenced to
at least two points established well outside the area that might be occupied by the
highway construction.
 To furnish date for a profile of the baseline, levels should be taken at all marked
stations, as well as at all important breaks in the ground. Elevations should also be noted
at all cross roads, streams, and other critical points on the line.
 After the baseline has been pegged and levels run over it, the topography elevations may
be taken by one of the several methods, i.e. cross sectional leveling. These are done at
the same time as the profile levels. Observations are made at right angles from each
station as far as is considered necessary to cover the expected construction area for a
given centerline. At the same time locations of all trees, fences, building and important
elements are noted so that they can be shown on the preliminary amp.
b) Final Location Survey

This survey, much of which is very often carried out as part of the preliminary survey, serves the
dual purpose of fixing the centerline of the road, while at the same time collecting physical data
which are necessary for the preparation of plans for construction purposes. The following are the
general features of the final location survey:

a) Pegging the centerline: The centerline, including all curves, is pegged with reference to paper
location in preliminary-survey map, conforming as much as possible to important control points
(e.g. road junctions and bridge sites) the alignments prescribed.

b) Center leveling: The leveling data obtained in relation to the final location survey are
fundamental to the vertical alignment, earthworks, and drainage designs. Levels should be taken
at regular intervals along the centerline, at all stations ant intermediate points where there are
significant changes in ground elevation.

8
Highway Engineering I ()

c) Profile and cross-section: should be taken at each station and points of significant change in
ground slope level.

d) Intersecting Road: The direction with respect to the peg centerline of all intersecting roads
should be measured. Profiles and cross-section of the intersecting roads should be taken for some
distance on both sides.

e) Ditches and streams: A highway route my cross a great number of permanent and
intermittent streams and ditches. During the final location survey detail surveying information
should be taken including profile and cross-section leveling.