Highway Engineering – CEC 413 | Engr. A. M.

Sani
THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARARAWA
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
LECTURE NOTE (1 of 5) ON HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (CEC 413)
CLASS: HND 2

INTRODUCTION
The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one and all. The road or
highways not only include the modern highway system but also the city streets, feeder roads and village roads,
catering for a wide-range of road vehicles and the pedestrians. This mode has also maximum flexibility for travel
with reference to route, direction, time and speed of travel etc. through any mode of road vehicle. It is possible to
provide door to door service by road transport. The other three modes (railways; water ways; airways) has to
depend on the roadway for the service. Ultimately, road network is therefore needed not only to serve as feeder
system for other modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide independent facility for road
travel by a well-planned network of roads throughout. The illustrations below give some insight into highway
classification.

HIGHWAY LOCATION

• Road locations are most easily determined in relatively undeveloped, low-cost areas where basic
engineering and construction cost considerations dominate the cost of the road provided that
environmental issues are not of major concern.

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• However, the road location become more complex and non-engineering’ issues become more
conspicuous if the route is required to pass through well-developed rural areas. This is because the new
road has to interact with existing roads and built-up areas.

• Moreover, the problems are at their most complex when the road traverse major urban areas where
community desires, interactions with existing roads and streets, and economic, environmental and
planning issues become critical.

• Ideally a new major road needs to be located where the following objectives are achieved at minimum
construction, environmental, land, traffic operations and maintenance costs.

 It can best serve the traffic desire lines

 It can be as direct as possible
 It allows convenient free-flowing traffic operation

 However, due to its profound complexity, the location process in and about an urban area can, in practice,
be reduced to finding an alignment that meets traffic desire lines, is acceptable to the public, and enables
road construction to occur at an economical cost.
 The location of a new major road can require consideration of many complex and interrelated factors,
which normally utilize the skills of economists, geologists, planners and surveyors as well as those of road
engineers (see Table below).

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Reconnaissance Survey
• Walking the sites
• Several feasible routes are identified, each within a band of a limited width of a few hundred metres
• For rural roads, maps or photographs give little information, and therefore aerial photography is
commonly used to obtain the required information.
• Feasible routes are identified through careful examination of the aerial photographs, with due
consideration of the following factors:
 Terrain and soil conditions
 Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas
 Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and highways
 Directness of route

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• Control points between the two endpoints are determined for each feasible route. For example, a bridge
site with no alternative may be taken as a primary control point. The feasible routes carefully chosen are
then plotted on photographic base maps.

A particular location is usually selected based on the following factors in relation to the design control

 Topography
 Soil characteristics
 Environmental factors such as noise and air pollution
 Economic factors
 Human habitation

• Route location process consists of selecting the best compromise between 'demand‘ factors and 'terrain'
factors. Demand factors determine the areas to be served and the road standard, and terrain factors
influence the engineering cost.
• The principal terrain factors are:
 Ground conditions as they influence the strength of the soil beneath the road (the sub grade) or present
instability problems or natural hazards
 Materials used in construction, including quarried rock
 Earthworks (the volume and stability of cuttings and embankments)
 Surface and sub-surface drainage, including erosion
• The emphasis placed on these different factors will vary with the stage of the survey. The choice of route
is normally associated with the identification and feasibility stages.
• One of the major objectives of these stages is to identify critical factors which could have a major impact
on engineering costs and therefore deserve extra study at the early stages of the project.
• Changes to the design that must be made during the course of a construction contract often involve
considerable disruption, delay and expense, and are normally the result of insufficient preliminary survey
work.
• The main principle for highway location is that the roadway elements involved are blended together to
produce a system that meets the design criteria and safety standards while allowing for smooth flow of
traffic at the design capacity. The Primary principles of route location consist of the following
 Connect two points with shortest distance
 Traverse through favorable topography
 Avoid areas where land cost is high
 Determine the two end terminus
Principles of route location

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• Also, highway location process should ensure minimum disruption to historic, religious and
archaeological sites and to other land-use activities. The minimum disruption can be achieved through
careful Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
• The highway location process involves the following phases:
 Reconnaissance survey (study of existing information)
 Preliminary location survey
 Final location survey
Preliminary Location Survey
• The positions of the feasible routes are set as closely as possible by establishing all the control points and
determining preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments for each.
• In the course of the preliminary survey the
• detailed relief of the ground,
• the locations of ‘soft’ ground and
• potential ground subsidence areas,
• the limits of the water catchment areas,
• the positions and invert levels of streams and ditches,
• the positions of trees, banks and hedges, bridges, culverts, existing tracks and roads, power lines and
pipelines, houses and monuments, and other natural and man-made cultural places need to be clearly
determined and noted for each route within the established corridor.
• These details are then translated into base topographic maps so that likely road alignments can be plotted.
• Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the economic and environmental feasibility of the
alternative routes.
Economic Evaluation

• Economic evaluation of each alternative route is carried out to determine the future effect of investing the
resources necessary to construct the highway. Factors usually taken into consideration in Economic
evaluation include
 Road user costs
 Construction costs
 Maintenance costs
 Road user benefits and
Road user dis-benefits (adverse impacts due to dislocation of families, businesses etc.)
The results obtained from the economic evaluation of the feasible routes will provide information
on the economic resources that will be gained or lost if a particular location is selected. This
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information is also used to aid the policy maker in determining the type of highway to be built
and whether it is economically viable.

Environmental Evaluation
• Highway is an integral part of the local environment, therefore, highway constructions at any location
will have a significant impact on its surroundings.
• The environment in which the highway is built comprises interrelated variables: plant, animal, and
human communities and encompasses social, physical, natural, and man-made variables.
• These variables are in a manner that maintains equilibrium and sustains the lifestyle of the different
communities.
• The construction of a highway may offset the equilibrium and result in significant adverse effects on the
environment. This may lead to a reduction of the quality of life of the animals and/or human
communities. Hence the need for environmental impact of any alignment selected be fully evaluated.
• Federal government legislation has been enacted that sets forth the requirements of the environmental
evaluation required for different types of projects.
The environmental evaluation should include:
 A detailed description of each route alternatives
 The probable environmental impact, including the assessment of positive and negative effects on the
environment
 An analysis of short-term impact as differentiated from long-term impact
 Any secondary effects, which may be in the form of changes in the patterns of social and economic
activities
 Probable adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided if the project is constructed
 Any irreversible and irretrievable resources that have been committed

• In cases where an environmental impact study is required, it is conducted at this stage to determine the
environmental impact of each alternative route. Such a study will determine the negative and/or positive
effects the highway facility will have on the environment.
• For example, the construction of a freeway at grade through an urban area may result in an unacceptable
noise level for the residents of the area (negative impact), or the highway facility may be located so that it
provides better access to jobs and recreation centres (positive impact).
• Public hearings are also held at this stage to provide an opportunity for constituents to give their views on
the positive and negative impacts of the proposed alternatives.
The best alternative, based on all the factors considered, is then selected as the preliminary
alignment of the highway.
Final Location Survey
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• The final location survey is a detailed layout of the selected route.

• It involves fixing the final, permanent, centreline of the road, whilst at the same time gathering the
additional physical data needed to prepare the construction plans.
• The horizontal and vertical alignments are determined, and the positions of structures and drainage
channels are located.
• All ditches and streams within the area of construction should be carefully located with respect to the
pegged centreline, and their profile elevations taken upstream and downstream
• Detailed information should also be obtained on all existing bridges or culverts, including the type, size,
number of openings or spans, elevations of culvert flow lines and stream-beds under bridges and, where
appropriate, high water elevationsThe availability of computer-based techniques has significantly
enhanced this

process.
• Once the need for a major road has been justified by the transport planning process, the approach to
selecting an appropriate route location can be described as a ‘hierarchically structured decision process’.
See Fig. 1.
• The first step in the location process requires fixing the end termini (i.e. two points to be connected)
• Defining a region, A, which will include all feasible routes between these two points; in a non-urban
setting this region will often be, say, one-third as wide as it is long.
• The region is then searched using reconnaissance techniques to obtain a limited number of broad bands,
B and C, within which further (refining) searches can be concentrated; for a rural motorway, for example,
such bands might be as much as 8–16km wide.
• Within these bands, further reconnaissance-type searching may result in the selection of corridors D, E
and F, each perhaps 3–8km wide.

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• A comparison of these corridors may then suggest that E will provide the best route, and Route G is then
generated within it; typically, this route could be 1–1.5km wide in a rural locale.
• The next, preliminary location, step is to search this route and locate within it (not shown in Fig. 1) one
or more feasible alignments, each perhaps 30m wide and containing relatively minor design differences.
• These alignments are then compared during the final location phase of the analysis, and the most suitable
one is selected for structural design and construction purposes.

Location of Highways in Urban Areas

• Urban areas usually present complex conditions that must be considered in the highway location process.
In addition to factors discussed under office study and reconnaissance survey, other factors that
significantly influence the location of highways in urban areas include:
 Connection to local streets
 Right-of-way acquisition
 Coordination of the highway system with other transportation systems
 Adequate provisions for pedestrians
 Connection to Local Streets
• When the location of an expressway or urban freeway is being planned, it is important that adequate
thought be given to which local streets should connect with on- and off-ramps to the expressway or
freeway.
• The main factor to consider is the existing travel pattern in the area. The location should enhance the flow
of traffic on the local streets.
• The location should provide for adequate sight distances at all ramps.
• Ramps should not be placed at intervals that will cause confusion or increase the crash potential on the
freeway or expressway.

Simplistically, the steps involved in this survey can be summarized as follows:

• Determine the approximate traffic volume along a general corridor suggested by traffic desire lines
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• Select the road type, the number of lanes needed to carry the traffic load, and the level of service to be
provided to road users
• Establish one or more preliminary routes that meet desire-line needs, and sketch preliminary designs,
including interchange and flyover locations
• Assign traffic to one or more of the selected routes to determine design traffic volumes
• Adjust routes and complete preliminary plans for major alternative road locations
• Compare alternative locations using cost, environmental, road user benefit, and social analyses and select
the preferred one(s) for public consultation.
• Note:
• The number of alternative road locations available for consideration in a built-up area are normally fairly
limited. The town is an established entity and it is only in run-down areas (such as alongside old railway
lines) and on the very outskirts that relatively low-cost land may be available.
• The existing streets are fixed in location and size by the natural topography and by the buildings that they
service.
• Thus, the location of a new major road or the substantial upgrading of an existing one must inevitably
result in changes to portions of the established city culture which, in turn, has many direct and indirect
impacts upon owners and users of the affected urban infrastructure.

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• Once the final location of the highway system is determined, it is then necessary
to provide the plans and specifications for the facility.
• The plans and specifications of a highway are the instructions under which the highway is constructed.
• They are also used for the preparation of engineers’ estimates and contractors’ bids.
• When a contract is let out for the construction of a highway, the plans and specifications are part of the
contract documents and are therefore considered legal documents.
• The plans are drawings that contain all details necessary for proper construction, whereas the
specifications give written instructions on quality and type of materials and methods of construction.

SETTING OUT OF ROAD WORKS

Determination of levels
One of the major purposes of the longitudinal section and cross section diagrams is to show the proposed levels or heights at
which a road is to be constructed and also the existing levels of the ground. It is therefore of the utmost importance than the
road constructor ensures that the road is constructed at the correct height or level.

Setting out
The Surveyor must set out the levels for the road construction using the following
procedures:

1. Place two reference pegs at each chainage peg, one on each side of the road at the right angles to the centre line and at a
fixed distance of 1,5metres behind the edge of black top. All reference pegs at both horizontal and vertical curves as well as
at any change of grade to be concreted in.

2. Place a gum pole or fencing standard at about 200mm behind each reference peg.

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3. After all the reference pegs and poles have been placed, the level of each reference peg must be determined by the Surveyor
by levelling from a benchmark with Surveyor`s level. Forward and return levelling must be done to eliminate errors in
levelling.

4. Levels one metre higher than the final centre line, quarter point, and gutter levels at each particular chainage are marked
on each gum pole as follows:

Cambered road

(a) The level of the reference peg known

(b) Final road level at the centre line, quarter point, and gutter are read off from the cross section.
(c) Add 1 metre to the levels obtained in (b)
(d) The difference in height between the top of the peg and the levels obtained in © are obtained by subtracting (a) from (c)
(e) The levels determined in (c) are then marked on the pole by placing a staff on the peg, measuring up the difference
calculated in (d) and making a pencil mark on the pole at the required height with the help of a set square. (See Figure 5.7).

Alternatively, the levels determined in (c) may be marked on the pole directly using the surveyor`s level.

(f) A nail should be knocked into the pole at each pencil mark to provide a more
permanent reference.

ii) Road with straight cross fall

g) Calculate the levels of the imaginary points p and q (see figure 5.9 and model calculation)
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h) Calculate the level of P1 and Q1 by adding 1 metre to the level of p and q.
i) The levels of the reference pegs are already known from previous levelling (see point 3
above)
j) The difference in height between the levels of the tops of the pegs and the levels of P1 and Q1 are obtained by subtracting
(i) from (h).
k) The levels of P1 and Q1 are then marked in pencil and the poles using the method
described in (e) and nails are knocked into the poles at these points.

In 7,0 m change in level of road is 0,3m

In 1,7 m change in level is (1,7/7) x 0,3= 0,073

Therefore, ap = qb = 0,073 m

To calculate P1 and Q1

Level of P1 = 102,300 + 0,073 + 1,000 = 103,373

Level of Q1 = 102000-0,073 +1,000 = 102,927
Transfer of levels from the poles to the road
The road constructor can now set out the centre line, quarter points or gutter levels at any chainage by adopting the following
procedure:
1. Locate the position of the centre line, quarter points and gutters by measuring horizontally the required distance from one
of the reference pegs in a straight line between them
2. Stretch a line tightly from one pole to the other, holding each end on the relevant nail and then measuring down from the
line a distance of 1 metre at the required point. This will give the final road level at that point.
3. Surface, base, sub-base and subgrade levels may conveniently be determined with the help of a wooden rod, marked up as
shown in Figure 5,10. The levels referred to are always those of the tops of the layers in question.

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4. If, say, the subgrade level at the centre line is required to be set out on a cambered road, the string is stretched between
points A1 on opposite poles and the gauge rod is held at the centre line with the subgrade mark against the string. The bottom
of the rod will then be at the proposed subgrade level. If the subgrade level at the gutter line is required, the string is stretched
between points C1 on the poles and the gauge rod is held at the gutter line position with the sub-grade mark against the string.
The bottom of the rod will again denote the subgrade level at that point.
The subgrade level at the quarter point can similarly be found by stretching the string between point B1 and holding the
gauge with the subgrade mark against the string

Similarly, if the sub-base, base course or surface level is required, the gauge rod is held
with the sub-base, base course or surface mark against the string.

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Setting out of batters for cut and fills

Batters pegs are normally set at each 20 metres distance NORMAL to the centre line. They may be required at shorter
intervals where the radius of the curve is small. Figures 5.14 and 5.15 shows the methods of setting out.
Poles to be painted white and the distance written on front and back of poles sufficiently large to be discernible at a
distance.
As batter boards are erected it is unnecessary to use red paint to indicate cuts
Use Company standard colours, and if fills are not excessive erect auxiliary poles showing formation levels.
Slope distances are normally taken of cross-sections
Each cross-section should be carefully considered, and a sketch made and taken into the field to aid in setting out.
Information such as slope distances and distances from the centre line may be conveniently written on metal tags
In fairly shallow cuts, levels may also be given on plies on the centre line. These poles may remain until required depth is
obtained, and then cut out.
Fills should be re-centred and new batters placed either mostly or at each 2 metre.
Coloured insulating tape should be used for standard slops, which often occur in freewaywork
Centre- line poles on high fills should be extended vertically as the layers are added to maintain the centre line.
When cut or fill has reached sub-grade level (approximately) pegs should be placed at position C (Figures 5.7 and 5.8) to
ensure that the cut (or fill) is wide enough.

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