Highway Engineering I

4. Drainage and Drainage Structures

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Highway drainage structures are an essential component in the design of a highway. Provision of
adequate drainage is an important factor in the location and geometric design of highways. It is
desirable that they be designed economically and provides an adequate level of service. Factors
such as initial cost, design life, and the risk of loss of use of the roadway for a time due to runoff
exceeding the capacity of the drainage structure, need to be considered in the design. Drainage
facilities on any highway or street should adequately provide for the flow of water away from the
surface and subsurface of the pavement to properly designed channels and then discharge to the
natural waterways. Inadequate drainage will eventually result in:
i) Serious damage to highway structure
 Reduce pavement strength
 Swelling heave
 Stripping of asphalt
 Cause pumping in rigid pavements
 Fronts heave and reduction of bearing capacity when melting
ii) Traffic operation problems
 Slow traffic movement by accumulated water on the pavement
 Cause traffic accidents as a result of hydroplaning and loss of visibility from the splash
and spray.
The importance of adequate drainage is well recognized in highway engineering and about 25
percent of highway construction cost is estimated to be spent for erosion control and drainage
structures, such as culverts, bridges, channels, and ditches.
Construction Considerations
Many serious construction problems arise because important drainage and water related
factors were overlooked or neglected in the planning and location phases of the project. With
proper planning, many factors can be avoided or cost effective solutions developed to prevent
extended damages. Such factors include:
 Soil erosion;

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Highway Engineering I
 Sediment deposition;
 Drainage and landslide;
 Timing of project stages;
 Protection of irrigation systems and continued use during construction;
 Protection of streams, lakes, and rivers; and
 Protection of wetlands
Analysis of available data, scheduling of work, and other aspects involved in the early planning
and location studies can alleviate many problems encountered in the construction of drainage
structures.
Maintenance Considerations
Planning and location studies should consider potential erosion and sedimentation problems. If a
particular location will require frequent and expensive maintenance due to drainage, alternate
locations shall be considered, unless these maintenance costs can be reduced by special design.
Local experience is the best indicator of maintenance problems and interviews with maintenance
personnel and local residents are extremely helpful in identifying potential drainage problems.
Reference to highway maintenance, flood reports, and damage surveys is also valuable in
evaluating potential maintenance problems.
Drainage Surveys
Since hydraulic considerations can influence the selection of a highway corridor and the alternate
routes within the corridor, the type and amount of data needed for planning studies varies widely.
These studies depend on such elements as environmental considerations, class of the proposed
highway, state of land-use development, and individual site conditions.
Topographic maps, aerial photographs, and stream flow records provide helpful preliminary
drainage data, but historical high-water elevations and flood discharges are of particular interest
in establishing waterway requirements. Comprehensive hydraulic investigations may be required
when route election involves important hydraulic features, such as water-supply wells and
reservoirs, flood-control dams, water resource projects, and encroachment on flood plains of
major streams. Special studies and investigations, including consideration of the environmental
and ecological impact, shall be commensurate with the importance and magnitude of the project
and the complexity of the problems encountered.

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Data Collection
As part of planning and location studies several categories of data shall be obtained and
evaluated, including:
 Physical characteristics of drainage basins;
 Maps and topographic data including channel surveys and cross sections;
 Runoff quantity data (hydrologic and precipitation data);
 Channel and flood plain delineation and related studies;
 Flood history and problem inventory;
 Existing storm water management structure characteristics;
 Development of alternative plan concepts;
 Hydrologic and hydraulic analysis of alternative concepts;
 Consideration of multipurpose opportunities and constraints, benefit/cost analysis and
evaluation; and
 Runoff quantity data.
Stream Crossings
Additional factors to be considered in locating a stream crossing that involves encroachment
within a flood plain are:
 River type (straight or meandering),
 River characteristics (stable or unstable),
 River geometry and alignment,
 Hydrology,
 Hydraulics,
 Flood plain flow,
 Needs of the area, and
 Economic and environmental concerns.
A detailed evaluation of these factors is part of the location hydraulics study. When a suitable
crossing location has been selected, specific crossing components can be determined.
Types of Data
The following is a brief description of the types of data needed for planning and location studies.
Topographic

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Highway Engineering I
Topographic data shall be acquired at sites requiring hydraulic studies. These data are needed to
analyze existing flow conditions, and those created by various design alternatives. Significant
physical and cultural features near the project shall be located and documented in order to obtain
their elevation. Features such as residences, commercial buildings, schools, churches, farms,
other roadways and bridges, and utilities can affect, as well as be affected by, the design of any
new hydraulic structure.
Often, recent topographic surveys will not be available at this early stage of project development.
Aerial photographs, photogrammetric maps, topographic maps, and even old highway plans may
be utilized during the planning and location phases. When better survey data become available,
usually during the design phase, these early estimates will need to be revised to correspond with
the most recent field information.
Channel Characteristics
In order to perform an accurate hydraulic analysis, the profile, horizontal alignment and cross
sections of the stream shall be obtained. One method that can be useful in determining channel
characteristics, such as material in the streambeds and banks, type and coverage of vegetal
material, and evidence of drift or debris is the taking of photographs. Field visits made early in
the
project life can include photographing the channel, upstream and downstream, and the adjoining
flood plain. The photos can be valuable aids for not only preliminary studies but also for
documentation of existing conditions. The designer should determine the detail of field survey
required at the site. This should include the upstream and downstream limits of the survey, the
number of and distance between cross sections, and how far to either side of the channel the
sections should extend. The minimum number of cross sections will vary with the study
requirements and the particular stream characteristics. The level of accuracy of the survey
required shall be a consideration when determining the degree of hydraulic analysis needed.
Hydrologic Data
Information required by the designer for analysis and design include the physical characteristics
of the land and channel, as well as all the features that can effect the magnitude and frequency of
the flood flow. These data may include climatological characteristics, land runoff characteristics,
stream gauging records, high water marks, and the sizes and past performances of existing

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structures in the vicinity. The exact data required will depend upon the methods used to estimate
flood discharges, frequencies, and stages.
Catchment Characteristics
The hydrologic characteristic of the catchment of the stream under study is needed for any
predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these characteristics can be
found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of the basin. The size and
configuration of the catchment, the geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds,
lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the basin can all be found
from maps. Land use and vegetal cover may be also be determined from maps, but with rapidly
changing land uses a more accurate survey will probably be achieved from aerial photographs
and
field visits. Having determined these catchment characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values,
storage values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values.
Precipitation
A precipitation survey normally consists of the collection of rainfall records for the rainfall
stations near the study site. Unlike the survey of stream flow records or basin characteristics,
however, rainfall records from outside the watershed can be utilized. Ideally, these records will
contain several years of events, for every month and season and will include duration values for
various length rainstorms.
Flood Data
The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis. This data
can be collected both in the office and in the field. The office acquisition includes the collection
of past flood records, stream gauging records, and newspaper accounts. The field collection will
consist mainly of interviews with residents, maintenance personnel, and local officials who may
have recollections or photos of past flood events in the area. If there is a stream gauging station
on the stream being studied, it is close to the crossing site, and has many years of measurements,
then, in some cases, this may be the only hydrologic data needed. This data shall be analyzed to
ensure that stream flows have not changed over the time of measurement. Such changes in flow
may be due to watershed alteration such as the construction of a large storage structure, diversion

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of flow to another watershed, addition of flow from another watershed, or development that has
significantly altered the runoff characteristics of the watershed.
High-Water Information
Sometimes high-water marks are the only data of past floods available. When collected, these
should include the date and elevation of the flood event when possible.
The cause of the high-water mark should also be noted. Often unusual debris rather than an
inadequate structure cause the mark, therefore, designing roadway or structure grades to such an
elevation could lead to an unrealistic, uneconomical design.
High-water marks can be identified in several ways. Small debris, such as grass or twigs caught
in tree branches, hay or crops matted down, mud lines on buildings or bridges, are all high-water
indicators.
Existing Structures
The size, location, type, and condition of existing structures on the stream under study can be a
valuable indicator when selecting the size and type for any new structure. Data to be obtained on
existing structures includes size, type, age, existing flow line elevation, and condition,
particularly in regards to the channel. Scour holes, erosion around the abutments upstream or
down, or abrupt changes in material gradation or type can all indicate a structure too small for
the site. With knowledge of flood history, the age, and overall substructure condition may also
aid in determining
if the structure is too small.
There are two sources of water that the highway engineer is primarily concerned to provide
highway drainage facilities. The first source, surface water, is that which occurs as rain or snow.
Drainage for runoff water on the surface from this source is referred to as surface drainage. The
second source, ground water, is that which flows in underground streams. This may become
important in highway cuts or at locations where a high water table exists near the pavement
structure. Drainage for seepage water and underground streams is referred to as subsurface
drainage.
4.1. Surface Drainage
Surface drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is removed from the pavement
and right of way of the highway or street. A properly designed highway surface drainage system

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should effectively intercept all surface and watershed runoff and direct this water into adequately
designed channels and gutters for eventual discharge into the natural waterways. Water seeping
through cracks in the highway riding surface and shoulder areas into underlying layers of the
pavement may result in serious damage to the highway pavement. The major source of water for
this type of intrusion is surface runoff. An adequately designed surface drainage system will
therefore minimize this type of damage. The surface drainage system includes:
i) Transverse slopes: - These include crowning of pavements on either side of the centerline or
providing a slope in one direction across the pavement width and crowning of shoulders away
from the pavement to facilitate the removal of surface water from the pavement surface in the
shortest possible time.
ii) Longitudinal slopes: - A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction of the highway is
required to obtain adequate slope in the longitudinal channels, particular at cut sections. Slopes
in longitudinal channels should generally not be less than 0.2 percent for highways in very flat
terrain. Although zero percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements with adequate cross
slopes, a minimum of 0.5 percent is recommended for curbed pavements. This may be reduced to
0.3 percent on suitably crowned high- type pavements constructed on firm ground.
iii) Longitudinal Channels: - These are ditches constructed along the sides of the highway to
collect the surface water that runs off from the pavement surface, subsurface drains, and other
areas of the highway right of way. When the highway pavement is located at a lower level than
the adjacent ground, such as in cuts, water is prevented from flowing onto the pavement by
constructing a longitudinal drain (intercepting drain) at the top of the cut to intercept the water.
The water collected by the longitudinal ditches is then transported to a drainage channel and then
to a natural waterway or retention pond.
iv) Curbs and gutters: - Curbs and gutters are facilities more frequently in urban areas,
particularly in residential areas, where they are used in conjunction with storm sewer systems to
control street runoff in addition to other functions, which include preventing the encroachment of
vehicles on adjacent areas and delineating pavement edges. When it is necessary to provide
relatively long continuous sections of curbs in urban areas, the inlets to the storm sewers must be
adequately designed for both size and spacing so that the impounding of large amounts of water
on the pavement surface is prevented.

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v) Cross - Drainage Structures: - Cross drainage structures are constructed to carry traffic over
natural waterways that flow below the right of way of the highway. These structures also provide
for the flow of water below the highway, along the natural channel, without significant
alternation or disturbance to its normal-course. One of the main concerns of the highway
engineer is to provide an adequate size structure, such that the waterway opening is sufficiently
large to discharge the expected flow of water. Inadequately sized structures can result in water
impounding, which may lead to failure of the adjacent sections of the highway due to
embankments being submerged in water for long periods.
Cross drainage structures can be categorized into major and minor structures. Major structures
are those with clear spans greater than 6m, whereas minor structures are those with clear spans of
6m or less. Major structures are usually large bridges, although multiple-span culverts may also
be included in this class. Minor structures include small bridges and culverts.
vi) Sediment and Erosion Controls: - Continuous flow of surface water over shoulders, side
slopes and unlined channels often results in soil erosion which can lead to conditions that are
detrimental to the pavement structures, embankments and cut sections. The methods used to
prevent erosion and control sediment include:
 Intercepting drains at the top of a cut to collect and transport runoff to paved spillways
that are placed at strategic locations on the side of the cut and then to the longitudinal
ditches alongside the highway.
 Curbs and gutters be used to prevent un-surfaced shoulders and embankment slopes
from erosion and then direct surface water into paved spillways.
 Turf cover on unpaved shoulders, ditches, embankments, and cut slopes in an efficient
and economic method of preventing erosion when slopes are flatter than 3 to 1. The turf
cover is commonly developed by sowing suitable grasses immediately after grading.
Slope and channel linings are more effective prevention of erosion than any of those already
described. For example, when cut and embankment side slopes are steep and are located in
mountainous areas subjected to heavy rain or snow a commonly used method is to line the slope
surface with rip-rap or hand-placed rock. Channel linings are also used to protect longitudinal
channels from eroding. Protective linings are of two types: flexible (dense graded bituminous
mixtures and rock-rip-rap) and rigid (cement concrete and soil cement). Rigid linings are much

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more effective in preventing erosion under sever conditions, but they are more expensive and,
because of their smoothness, tend to create high unacceptable velocities at the end of the
linings. The designe of surface drainage systems for a highway may be divided into three
major phases:
(1) An estimate of the quantity of water that may be expected to reach any element of the system;
(2) The hydraulic design of each element of the system; and
(3) The comparison of alternative systems, alternative materials, and other variables in order to
select the most economical system that can be devised. In the third phase, attention must be
given to selecting the system that has the lowest annual cost when all variables are taken into
consideration.
4.1.1. Flood Estimation
A variety of approaches have been used to estimate the quantity of runoff for drainage design.
When a drainage structure is to handle the flow of an existing stream such as in the case of some
culverts and most bridges, the flow used for hydraulic design may be based on available records.
For such “gauged” sites, statistical analyses can be performed on the recorded stream flow to
provide an estimated peak design flow for a given “return period’’. The term “return period”
refers to the estimated frequency of rare events such as floods. Section of the frequency of
occurrence of the design storm is largely a matter of experience and judgment although the
concerned road agency may have an established interval to be used for a given situation. The
return period is a statistical matter. For example, if the system is designed for a return period of
most severe storm to occur once is 25 years; the statistical assumption is that the system will
accommodate the most severe storm to occur once in 25 years. It is apparent that selection of a
return period of 100 years instead of 25 would mean designing for a more severe storm and, in
general, a more costly system. Conversely, if the frequency is 10 years, the intensity of the
design storm will be less and in most cases a less costly drainage system will result, although
economic losses from use of the short time
might offset the savings in construction costs. The estimation of peak runoff for drainage design
is accomplished by consideration of severe storm that occur at intervals and during which the
intensity of rainfall and runoff of surface water are far greater than at other periods. Rainfall

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intensity during the design storm is a function of occurrence, duration, and intensity. As shown
in
Figure 4-1, the intensity of rainfall for a particular return period varies greatly with the duration
of rainfall. An accurate estimate of the probable intensity, frequency, and duration of rainfall in a
particular location can be made only if sufficient data have been collected over a period of time.
If such information is available, standard curves may be developed to express rainfall-intensity
relationships with accuracy sufficient for drainage problems.

Figure 4-1 Typical Rainfall intensity-duration curves

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The available methods of flood estimation may be categorized into three groups; analysis of
stream flow data, runoff modeling and regionalized flood formula, but here rational method
which is under the category of runoff modeling will be presented
Rational Method
The rational method is a method most widely used rainfall runoff relation for ungauged areas. It
is most suitable for small catchments of sizes up to five square kilometers. The basic form of the
equation is:

Where:
Q = Flood peak at catchment’s exit (m3/sec).
C = Rational runoff coefficient;
I = Average rainfall intensity over the whole catchments (mm/hr)
for the duration corresponding to the time of concentration;
A = Catchments area in hectares
The time of concentration is defined as the time required for the surface runoff form the remotest
part of the drainage basin to reach the point where the drainage facility is located. It depends on
several factors including the size and shape of the drainage area, the type of the surface cover,
the slope of the drainage catchments, the rainfall intensity, and whether the flow is entirely
overloaded or partly channelized.
The time of concentration generally consists of one or more of the following three components:
time for overland flow, time for gutter or stream sewer flow (urban), or time for channel flow.
Travel time is the ratio of flow length to average flow velocity. Mathematically

Where: Ti = The travel time for section i, with length L (km);

V = Average flow velocity (km/hr)
Tc = Time of concentration (hr)
Alternatively, time of concentration can be calculated by Kirpich formula:

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Where: Tc = Time of concentration (hr)

L = Length of main stream (km)
S = Average slope of main stream (mm-1)
Having determined the time of concentration the corresponding rainfall intensity can then be
obtained from the intensity duration curve for the selected recurrence interval (return period)
Figure 4-1. In the absence of rainfall intensity duration curves, simple empirical relationships of
the form:

In which; I = the rainfall intensity in mm/hr;

T = rainfall duration in hrs;
a, b, and n are constants to be determined.
The drainage catchment area (the land that contributes to the runoff) is normally determined
from a topographic map. The runoff coefficient, C, is an integrated value representing the ratio of
runoff to rainfall for the drainage area. It depends on the type of ground cover, the slope of
drainage area, storm duration, and prior wetting. The runoff coefficient can be estimated from
Figure 4-1. In case where the drainage area consists of different ground characteristics with
different runoff coefficients, a representative value Cw is computed by computing the weighted
coefficients as:

4.1.2. Hydraulic Design of surface Drainage Structures

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Highway Engineering I
The objective of the hydraulic design for any highway drainage structure is to provide a suitable
structure size that will economically and efficiently dispose of the expected runoff without
detrimental erosion and sedimentation problem.
Design of Side Ditches
With the quantity of water expected to reach any given point in the drainage system known, the
design of side ditches, gutters, stream channels, and similar facilities is based on established
principles of flow in open channels. The principles also apply to flow in conduits with a free
water surface. In the design of open channels, the principles also apply to flow in conduits with a
free water surface. In the design of open channels, an important design consideration is the flow
velocity. The flow velocity in the channel should not be as low as to cause deposits of
transported
material, nor so high as to cause erosion of the channel. The most appropriated channel gradient
range to produce the required velocity is between 1 percent and 5 percent.
For most types of linings, sedimentation is usually a problem when slopes are less than 1 percent,
and excessive erosion of the lining will occur when slopes are less than 5 percent. Consideration
of recommended maximum velocities that can be found in different standards and literatures for
particular–lining materials is vital for preventing erosion problems. Attention should also be paid
to the point at which the channel at the point of discharges into the natural waterway. For
example, if the drainage channel at the point of discharge is at a much higher elevation than the
natural waterway, then the water should be discharged through a spillway or chute to prevent
erosion.
The hydraulic design of an open channel drainage facility for a given storm entails the
determination of the minimum cross-sectional area of the channel that will accommodate the
flow due to that storm and prevent water from overflowing the facility. The most commonly used
formula to give reliable capacity estimate is Manning’s formula, which assumes uniform steady
floe in the channel:

Where, Q = capacity (m3 / see); A = channel cross- sectional area (m2); v = mean velocity

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(m/sec); n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, R = Hydraulic Radius (A/P) in m; S = Slope
(m/m); and P = wetted perimeter (m).
The depth of flow in a uniform open channel depends on the shape of the cross-section, the
roughness, and the slope of the channel, and the amount of discharge. For example, water
flowing down a relatively flat slope in an open channel is in tranquil flow, while that falling
down a steep slope is rapid. In the same channel, with the same quantity of flow, the flow can be
changed from tranquil to rapid by an increase in slope. In such a case, the depths of flow
decreases form that existing in the section of tranquil flow to a lower value in the section of rapid
flow. The decrease in depth begins at some distance. In the section of rapid flow, since the
quantity of flow is the same, the dimensions of the channel is the same and the depth less, it
follows from the equation of continuity that the velocity is greater.
Critical depth is defined as the depth corresponding to the change from tranquil to rapid flow.
Critical velocity and critical slope are the velocity and slope that correspond to uniform flow at
critical depth. Critical depth is independent of channel slope and roughness, but the critical slope
is a function of slope of the channel. Tranquil flow exists when the normal depth water in an
open channel is greater than the critical depth; conversely when the depth is less than critical, the
flow is rapid. Theoretically, in any channel in which the water is flowing at critical depth, the
velocity head (V2/2g, where V is the velocity of flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity) is
equal to one half the mean depth of flow (mean depth is defined as the water cross sectional area,
A, divided by the free water surface, T). In other words, at critical flow,

Design Procedure: Hydraulic design procedure are difficult to simplify because of the wide
variety of choices presented to the designer in a typical case and when varies assumption must be
made. A simple design procedure that utilizes the manning equation may, however, be outlined
as follows:
1. For the cover material in the ditch will be running, select the Manning's roughness coefficient,
n, the side slopes-normally controlled by the angle of natural repose.
2. Using the Manning formula, calculate the maximum permissible hydraulic radius.

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3. Using the equation of continuity, calculate the minimum permissible cross section area
required from the given discharge and permissible velocity. Calculate the wetted perimeter for
this area.
4. Solve the expression obtained in step 3 simultaneously for the bottom width of the ditch and
the depth of flow.
5. Check the depth of flow whether it is greater than the critical depth or not.
6. If the depth of flow is greater than the critical depth, add a suitable freeboard and modify the
section for particularity. In the case of side ditches a freeboard should at least be equals the
height above the bottom of the pavement. For other channels, a value of 0.5m is added as a
freeboard.
7. If the depth is greater than the critical depth consideration should be given to reduce the slope
or provision should be sought to protect from erosion.
Design of Culverts
Depending on the class of highway, the volume of the stream flow to be crossed, the site
conditions, and economic factors, the flowing cross-drainage structures maybe considered:
�Fords
�Drifts
�Culverts, and
�Bridges
Fords are the simplest river crossings that utilize the existing river bed and are appropriate for
shallow, slow moving watercourses with little probability of flood. The traffic volume may be up
to about 100 vehicles per day. Gravel or stones can be used to line the bottom of the ford to
provide a firm footing for vehicles. Drifts are crossing structures as fords, but here a concrete
slab is constructed where the bed of the river is not able to carry vehicles. They are suitable as a
crossing where fords cannot be used due to risk of flood. Culverts are cross-drainage structures
that convey water from streams and side channels below the road. A culvert is usually, although
not always, differentiated from a bridge by virtue of the fact that the top of the culvert does not
form part of traveled roadway. More frequently, culverts are differentiated from bridges on the
basis of span

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length. On an arbitrary basis, structures having a span of 6 m or less will be called culverts,
whereas those having spans of more than 6 m will be called bridges. Culverts also differ from
bridges in that they are usually designed to flow full under certain conditions, while bridges are
designed to pass floating debris or vessels. Culverts are to be found in three general locations: at
the bottom of depressions where on natural watercourse exists; where natural streams intersect
the roadway; and at location required for passing surface drainage carried in side ditches beneath
roads and driveways to adjacent property.
Principles of Culvert Location: The majority of culverts are installed in natural watercourses
that cross the roadway, either at right angles or on a skew. In addition to selecting the proper
location for the culvert crossing with respect to the centerline of the road the alignment and grade
of the culvert are of importance. The location of the centerline of the culvert on the centerline of
the road may be determined by inspection of the plans or in the field.
These locations will generally b e on the centerline of existing watercourse of at the bottom of a
depression if no natural watercourse exists. The alignment of the culvert should generally
conform to the alignment of the natural stream, and the culvert should, it possible, cross the
roadway at right angles in the interests of economy. Skew culverts, located at an angle to the
centerline of the road, are needed in many instances.
Hydraulic Design of Culverts: Earlier in this chapter, the concepts and procedures related to
estimation of the quantity of runoff from a drainage basin was presented. In this section, we will
briefly discuss principles and techniques for the hydraulic design of culverts. A more complete
treatment of the subject is assumed to be dealt in hydraulics and related courses. The purpose of
hydraulic design is to provide a drainage facility or system that will adequately and economically
provide for the estimated flow throughout the design life without unreasonable risk to the
roadway
structure or nearby property. Hydraulic design of culverts involves the following general
procedure:
1. Obtain all site data and plot a roadway cross section at the culvert site including a profile of
the stream channel.
2. Establish the culvert invert elevation at the inlet and outlet and determine the culvert length
and slope.

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3. Determine the allowable headwater depth and the probable depth of tail water during the
design flood.
4. Select a type and size of culvert that will accommodate the design flow under the
established conditions.
5. Examine the need for energy dissipaters, and where needed, provide appropriate protective
devices to prevent destructive channel erosion.
Whenever a constriction such as a culvert is placed in a natural open channel, there is an increase
in the depth of water just upstream of the constriction. The allowable level of the headwater
upstream of the culvert entrance is generally the principal control on the culvert size and inlet
geometry. The allowable headwater depth depends on the topography and the nature of land use
in the culvert vicinity. In establishing the headwater depth the designer should consider possible
harmful effects that flooding may cause, such as damage to the pavement, interruptions to
traffic, and inundation of nearby property.
The type of flow in a culvert depends on the total energy available between the inlet and outlet,
primarily of the difference in the headwater and the tail-water elevation.
The flow characteristics and capacity of a culvert are determined by the location of the control
section. Laboratory tests and field studies have shown that highway culverts operate with two
major types of controls: inlet and outlet controls.
Under inlet control, the discharge capacity of a culvert depends primarily on the depth of
headwater at the entrance and the entrance geometry (barrel shape cross-sectional area, and type
of inlet edge). Inlet control commonly occurs when the slope of the culvert is steep and the outlet
is not submerged. In addition to the factors mentioned in inlet control culverts, the maximum
flow in a culvert operating with outlet control depends on the tail-water at the outlet and the
slope, roughness, and length of the culverts. It occurs on flat slopes, especially where
downstream condition causes the tail-water depth to be grater than the critical depth.
On the basis of experimental work, analytical relationships have been developed for analysis of
design of culverts. These relationships are complex and the analysis or design of a culvert is
tedious even with the use of monographs and charts. Several computer and hand calculator
programmers are presently available that can be used to increase the accuracy of the results and
significantly reduce the time it takes for design or analysis.

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Culvert Types and Materials: Materials most commonly used in the construction of culverts are
reinforced concrete and corrugated metal. Less frequently, culverts are made from timber, cast-
iron pipe, vitrified-clay pipe, and stone masonry. Reinforced concrete pipe intended for use in
culverts is made in diameters of 300 to 3600 mm and in various lengths, the usual length being
1.2 to 2.4m. Reinforced-concrete culverts may be manufactured with a cross section other than
circular-elliptical and "arch" shapes being in quite common use. Concrete box culverts are
constructed in place with square or rectangular cross section; single box culverts vary in size
from 0.6 to 3.6 m square, depending on the required area of waterway opening. Both concrete
pipe and concrete box culverts are built with more than one opening where additional waterway
area is required and when it is desired to avoid the use of may, of example, be "double" or
"triple” concrete pipe or concrete box culverts. Concrete arches are sometimes used in place of
concrete box culverts, although difficulties attendant on their proper design and construction
have somewhat restricted their use. Corrugated steel of various thicknesses is used in various
forms in the construction of culverts for use in highway drainage. Corrugated metal (galvanized
steel) pipe is made in diameters of 200 to 2440 mm and in lengths of 6 to 12 m. In many culvert
installations headroom is limited, and a circular pipe that has sufficient hydraulic capacity is not
suitable. In such cases corrugated metal "Pipe arches" may be used. Pipe arches made of standard
corrugated metal are available in sizes varying from a span of 460 mm and a rise of 280 mm to a
span of 1830 mm and a rise of 1120 mm. Other materials that may be used in the construction of
culverts include vitrified-clay pipe, cast-iron pipe, and timber. In addition, masonry arch culverts
are constructed in localities where suitable stone is cheaply available. Each of these types of
culvert has advantages and may be used in areas where the material is economically available
and for special-purpose structures.
The type of culvert selected for use in a given location is dependent on the hydraulic
requirements and the strength required to sustain the weight of a fill or moving wheel loads.
After the hydraulic and strength requirements are satisfied, the selection is largely a matter of
economic: durability and cost of the completed structure including cost of transport and
installation.

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