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CHAPTER- 3:- BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

ELEMENTS OF A BRIDGE PROJECT
The design of bridges requires the collection of extensive data and from this the selection of
possible options. From such a review the choice is narrowed down to a shortlist of potential
bridge designs. A sensible work plan should be devised for the marshalling and deployment
of information throughout the project from conception to completion and through the design
period to the end of its life. Such a checklist will vary from project to project but a typical
example might be drawn along the following lines.

i) Feasibility Phase:
a) data collection;
b) topographical and hydrographical surveys;
c) hydrological information;
d) geological and geotechnical information;
e) site investigation requirements for soil and rock evaluation
f) Meteorological and aerodynamic data;
g) Assembly of basic criteria;
h) Likely budget.
ii) Assembly of design criteria:
(a) data and properties on the material to be used including steel, concrete, timber,
(b) foundation considerations;
(c) hydraulic considerations, flood, scour;
(d) loading and design criteria;
(e) clearance height and width (such as for navigation or traffic);
(f) criteria for gradients, alignment, etc,;
(g) hazards such as impact, accident;
(h) proximity to other engineering works
(i) functional requirements;
(j) transportation and traffic planning;

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(k) highway and/or railway engineering aspects;

(l) drainage requirements;
(m)provision for services (water, sewage, power, electricity, telephone,
communications links)
(n) design life and durability considerations.
iii) Design phase:
(a) choice of bridge:
(b) detailed design of bridge including foundations, substructure and
superstructure;
(c) production of drawings and documentation,
(d) preparation of quality assurance plan;
(e) estimation of cost and program.
iv). Construction phase:
(a) contractual matters;
(b) construction methods;
(c) budget and financial control;
(d) quality control;
(e) supervision of construction;
(f) commissioning;
(g) operating, inspection and maintenance schedules for each part of the work.
v). Performance phase:
(a) obligations of owner;
(b) management of facility;
(c) inspection, maintenance and repair;
(d) rehabilitation and refurbishment requirements (change of loading, widening,
change of use and durability aspects);
(e) decommissioning and demolition

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DESIGN OBJECTIVES

The objectives in a bridge design are safety, serviceability, economy, constructability

and aesthetics.

Safety – the primary responsibility of the engineer is to ensure public safety in the design
by ensuring adequate structural safety

Serviceability – consists of satisfying requirements of deformation, durability, inspect

ability, maintainability and ride ability

Deformation – Bridges should be designed to avoid excessive deformations that cause

undesirable structural or psychological effects. Limits on deflection or minimum depth to
consider are given in codes

Durability – contract documents specify quality of materials to be used and standards of

fabrication and erection of elements to ensure durability. Self-protecting measures of the
structure from the effects of the weather will be taken during design and construction

Inspectability – inspection ladders, walkways, catwalks and covered access holes will be
provided where other means of inspection are not practical.

Maintainability – structural systems whose maintenance is expected to be difficult should

be avoided.

Rideability – the deck of the bridge will be designed to permit smooth movement of
traffic. The number of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum.

Economy – structural types, span lengths and materials should be selected based on cost.
The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge should be
considered

Constructability– bridges should be designed in a manner such that fabrication and

erection can be performed without undue difficulty or distress and that construction force
effects are within tolerable limits.

Aesthetics – Aesthetics aspect and space requirement of buildings are designed by

architects. Aesthetic, space requirement, hydraulic and structural aspects of bridges are
designed by civil engineers.
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Bridges should complement their surroundings, be graceful in form and present an

appearance of adequate strength. Because the major structural components are the largest
parts and are seen first, they determine the appearance of a bridge.

BRIDGE SITE SELECTION

Preliminary Survey
The objective of the preliminary survey is to study more than on alternative bridge sites.
Usually the road plans are not prepare contours at this early stage, which makes it necessary
to use the topographic maps available in the country. Possible bridge sites are first located on
topographic maps. The Ethiopian Mapping Authority has prepared maps to scale 1:250,000
for the whole country. This is especially suited for the planning stage to calculate catchment
areas, possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries and other uses. After locating
the possible bridge sites on these maps, these sites are visited to collect certain preliminary
data required for thorough examination of alternative bridge sites from which the final site
shall be selected.
Selection of Bridge Site
In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to picture.
 The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream side
of the crossing. This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular and the
obstructions caused by piers, etc have minimum disturbance effect on the flow.
 The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents.
 If this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will
result in excessive scour which endanger the foundation.
 A bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew angle
above 20° should be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
 The channel in the reach should be well defined.
 The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
 The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly in erodible. In this case
the river flow will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity will not cause
erosion.

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 The site on a meandering river should be a nodal point. A nodal point is defined as the
location where the river regime does not normally shift and the location serves as a
fulcrum about which river channel swing laterally ( both upstream and downstream)
 The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for founding
piers and abutments.
 The site should allow for constructing approach road.
Data Collection
Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field
information on the catchment area and runoff, local terrain conditions and water levels,
navigational (like Baro River) and other clearance requirements. Field reviews shall be made
by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most complete survey data
cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal inspection by someone
experienced in bridge design.
Hydrology
Information required by the designer for analysis and design should include all features that
can affect the magnitude and the frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under
study. These are: Climatologically characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging
records, high water marks and size and performance of existing structures in the vicinity.
High water marks can be obtained from gauges or from local people. In addition, they can
be identified from small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass
or similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high water indicators.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are
needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these
characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of
the basin.
The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream network, storage
volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the
basin can be found from maps. Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times,
infiltration values, storage values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in
calculating flood flow values using different methods .Like: Reve’s formula, Rational
formula, Area-Velocity formula.

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Soil Investigation
Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in
cooperation with the soil investigators.
Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundation
material and foundation level of the abutments and piers for design of the foundation. This
information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or geophysical
surveying.
Samples of at least 2Kg each should be collected marking station number and river name
where the crossing site is fixed.
Field Sketching and Photos
It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate water
shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough
dimensions with approximate measurements
As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as well
as along the contemplated highway centreline in both directions. Details of the streambed and
banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both
upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be taken
to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.

SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE

Factors to be considered in Selection

Selection of bridge type in general is related to economy, safety and aesthetics. The
following conditions will be evaluated with respect to economy, safety and aesthetics in the
selection process.

a) Geometric Conditions of the Site

The type of bridge selected will often depend on the horizontal and vertical alignment
of the highway route and on the clearances above and below the roadway.

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For example, one a curve continuous box girder and slab bridges are good choice because
they have a pleasing appearance, can readily be built on a curve, and have a relatively high
torsion resistance. Relatively high bridges over navigable waterways will require a different
bridge from that required by a flood plain

b) Subsurface Conditions of the Site

The foundation soil type and its bearing capacity determine whether or not piers and
abutments can be founded on spread footings or piles.

If settlement is a problem, the bridge type selected must be able to accommodate this.
Surface and subsurface drainage conditions affect magnitude of earth pressure, movement
and stability of embankments. These influence choice of substructure, which in turn influence
type of superstructure selected.

For example, rigid frame bridge requires strong foundation material that can resist both
horizontal and vertical thrust. If the foundation material is weak, then another bridge type is
more appropriate.

c) Functional Requirements

The bridge must function to carry not only present but also future volumes of traffic.
Decision must be made on the number of lanes of traffic to accommodate present and future
volumes of traffic, inclusion of sidewalks, future wearing surface, possibility of future
widening and the like In the case of stream and flood plain crossings, the bridge must
continue to function during flood and should not impose constriction to water or debris.
Satisfaction of these requirements will suggest some type of bridge over others.

d) Aesthetics

The fact that: the highway bridge is out in the open means that it can be seen and reacted to
by whoever passes by. It should be the goal of the bridge designer to obtain a positive
aesthetic response to the bridge type selected.

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d) Economics and ease of Maintenance

A general rule is that a bridge with the minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints, and
widest spacing of girders will be the most economical. Deck joints are high maintenance cost
items, so minimizing their number will reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge.

Generally concrete structures require less maintenance that steel structures. One effective
way to obtain the minimum construction cost is to prepare alternative designs or to allow the
contractors to propose alternative designs to take advantage of new construction techniques to
obtain less total project cost. Selection will be made based on total cost comparison.

e) Legal Considerations

The requirements of environmental laws and other applicable laws much be met

COMPONENTS OF BRIDGES
• Superstructure:

• Deck slab

• Girders / trusses / arches / cables…

• Handrails, guard-stones,…

• Bearings (for deck)

• Substructure:

• Abutments

• Piers

• Foundations for abutments and piers

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Superstructure: - The superstructure comprises all the components of a bridge above the
supports.

Deck: - The deck is the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to be
bridged. The deck can be a reinforced concrete slab or a stiffened steel plate. The main
function of the deck is to distribute loads transversely along the bridge cross section.

The deck either rests on or is integrated with a frame or other structural system designed to
distribute loads longitudinally along the length of the bridge.

Railings or Parapet: - are provided along edges of bridges for protection of traffic and
pedestrian

Bearings: - are mechanical systems which transmit the vertical and horizontal loads of the
superstructure to the substructure, and accommodate movements between the superstructure
and the substructure.

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Examples of bearings are mechanical systems made of steel rollers acting on large steel plates
or rectangular pads made of neoprene.

The use and functionality of bearings vary greatly depending on the size and configuration of
the bridge. Bearings allowing both rotation and longitudinal translation are called expansion
bearings, and those which allow rotation only are called fixed bearings.

Substructure. The substructure consists of all elements required to support the superstructure
and overpass roadway. The basic substructure components consist of the following:

Abutments;- are earth-retaining structures which support the superstructure and overpass
roadway at the beginning and end of a bridge. Like a retaining wall, the abutments resist the
longitudinal forces of the earth underneath the overpass roadway. Abutments come in many
sizes and shapes, which will, like all elements described in this section,

TYPES OF BRIDGES
Bridges are classified according to their superstructure and superstructure may be classified
based on the following characteristics

1)Material 5)Load path characteristics Usage(for movable

2) Span length bridges)
3)Structural form 6)Deck type (for combination and double deck
4)Position Span types bridges)

1) Material
By material of construction, bridges can be classified as steel, concrete, stone, timber or
aluminium bridges. But this is not to suggest that these bridges are constructed from one type
of material exclusively. Often a combination of material predominantly used for the
construction.

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2) Span length
Once a preliminary span length has been chosen, comparative studies are conducted to find
the bridge type best suited to the site. For each group of bridge spans (small, medium and
large), experience has shown that certain bridge types are more appropriate than others.

a) Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)

Culverts: are used for small spans through highway embankments. These are often the most
economical solution for short spans. They are constructed of steel, precast or cast in situ
reinforced concrete. Their structural form can be pipe, pipe arch, rigid frame box or slab box
culverts.

Slab Bridges: are the simplest and least expensive structures that can be built for small spans
up to 12m. These bridges can be built on ground supported false work or constructed of
precast elements.

T-Girder bridges: are generally economical for spans of 10-20m. These are usually
constructed on ground supported false work. Greatest use is for stream crossing provided
sufficient free board is provided to avoid damage of the stem of the T by floating debris.

Rolled steel Girder Bridges: wide flange beam bridges are simple to design and construct.
They can be economical up to 30m spans if the deck is made composite and cover plate is
used in maximum moment regions. Composite construction is recommended because that
results in an efficient structure. Shear connectors in the form of welded studs must be
designed to resist all forces tending to separate the steel and the concrete.

b) Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)the candidate structure types include: concrete and
steel box girder, precast pre stressed concrete box girder, composite rolled steel girder and
composite steel plate girder bridges.

1) Precast Concrete Box Girder Bridges: as span lengths increase transportation and
handling presents a problem.

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2) Composite Rolled Steel Girder composite construction can result in savings of up to 20-
30%for spans over 15m. Adding cover plates and providing continuity over several supports
can increase their economic range to spans of 30m.
3) Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridges: these can be built to any desired size. These are
suitable for spans of 25-50m and have been used for spans well over 100m. They have low
dead load, which may be of value when foundation conditions are poor.
4) Cast in – Situ Reinforced Concrete Box Girder these are used for spans of 15-35m and
are usually more economical than steel girders and precast concrete girders. Their appearance
is good. Their torsional resistance is also good which make them suitable for curved
alignment.
5) Cast in Place post Tensioned Concrete Box Girder Bridges: these afford many
advantages in terms of safety, appearance, maintenance and economy. These bridges have
been used for spans up to 180m. The number of piers can be reduced because longest spans
can be constructed economically. Dead load deflections are minimized due to the prestress.
6)Composite Steel Box Girder Bridges: are used for spans of 20-150m. These bridges are
more economical in the upper span ranges where depth may be limited. Because of much
welding and details where errors can give rise to fatigue failures, steel box girder should be
used only in very special circumstances.
c) Large Span Bridges (50-150m)
The candidate structures are: composite steel plate girder, cast in place post tensioned
concrete box girder, post tensioned concrete segmental bridges, concrete and steel arch
bridges, and steel truss bridges. Most of these are discussed in short and medium span
bridges. Post-tensioned concrete segmental construction may be discussed now. If cast in
place construction is to be adopted, it is common practice to use the balanced cantilever
method of construction with travelling forms. For precast construction also balanced
cantilever method will be used by progressive placement.
d) Extra Large (Long) Span Bridges (over 150m)
An examination of Table shows that all of the general bridge types except slab, have
been built with span lengths greater than 150m. These are special bridges designed to meet
special circumstances.

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Two of the bridge types, cable-stayed and suspension bridges are logical and efficient
choices for long span bridges. These tension type structures are graceful and slender in
appearance and are well suited to long water crossings. Maintenance for both is above
average because of the complexity of the hanger and suspension systems. Construction is
actually simpler than for the conventional bridge types for long spans, because false work is
not usually necessary

Table3.1:Span lengths for various types of superstructures

Structural Maximum span in

Material Spans (m) Rang of
Type service
Slab Concrete 0-12
240, Hamana-Ko
Concrete 12-250 Lane
Girder
Steel 30-260 261, Sava I,
Yugoslavia
235, Maracaibo,
Concrete girder
Cable-stayed <250 Venezuela 856,
Steel girder
Normandy
Truss Steel 90-550 550, Quebec, Canada
304, Gladsvile
90-300
510, New River
Arch Concrete 240-500
Gorge, USA
120-360
365, Port Mann
1990 main span, 3910
Suspension Steel 300-1400
total span,

3) Classification by Structural Form

From an engineering perspective, bridges are classified by their structural form. Only
certain type of structural form is suitable and economically viable alternatives for certain
span ranges.

Structural form refers to the load resisting mechanism of a bridge by which it transfers
gravity and lateral loads from the deck to the foundation. In different types of bridges loads
follow different paths as they are applied on the deck and finally transferred to the bearing
foundation soil below. From this perspective bridges can be classified as follows.

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Classification of bridge based on structural form with their span lengths.

Structural Maximum span in
Material Spans (m) Rang of
Type service
Slab Concrete 0-12
240, Hamana-Ko
Concrete 12-250 Lane
Girder
Steel 30-260 261, Sava I,
Yugoslavia
235, Maracaibo,
Concrete girder
Cable-stayed <250 Venezuela 856,
Steel girder
Normandy
550, Quebec, Canada
Truss Steel 90-550
(rail)
304, Gladsvile
90-300
510, New River
Arch Concrete 240-500
Gorge, USA
120-360
365, Port Mann
1990 main span, 3910
Suspension Steel 300-1400 total span,
Akashi-Kaiko, Japan

a) Slab-Stringer Bridges

In a slab-stringer bridge, the deck is supported on stringers that are in turn supported on
abutments for single span or abutment and piers for continuous and multi-span bridges.
The deck is usually made of concrete unless timber is used. The stringers may be reinforced
concrete, pre stressed concrete, steel or timber. The concrete slab can be cast either
compositely or non-compositely with stringers of steel, reinforced concrete or pre stressed
concrete.
The slab-stringer system is most suitable for short span bridges. In medium and long span
bridges, the slab-stringer unit is supported on floor beams, which intern transfer loads to
other main load-carrying elements such as arches, cables in cable-stayed bridges or
suspension cables through hangers in suspension bridges.
Other forms such as T- and box girder are designed as simple spans, where the slab is cast
monolithically with the beam. Although these bridges are generally suitable for short spans,
the pre stressed box girder can be built segmental to medium spans.

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Plate girder bridges are made of built-up steel beams and are economically suitable for spans
in the 60m range depending on whether they are simple spans or continuous.

b) Orthotropic Bridges

Orthotropic means having different elastic properties in two mutually perpendicular

directions. It evolved from steel deck plate in an effort to reduce the dead weight of highway
bridges during the post Second World War period. The most developed form consists of deck
plate stiffened by a shallow grid work of closely spaced welded ribs. The stiffened plate then
acts as the top flange of the stringers

Orthotropic deck bridges are generally considered suitable for long span bridges.

c) Truss Bridges

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Truss bridges are used for larger spans for which the depth of girder bridges is not practical
due to fabrication, erection and transportation limitation or due to economy in the case of
concrete girders. The maximum practical length of plate girders is in the 45m range. Truss
bridges provide the answer when a girder of large depth is required. By virtue of truss
action, members are primarily subjected to direct stresses only. Thus, they can carry large
amounts of force with small amount of steel.Trusses are hardly economical for spans less
than 92m.

d) Rigid Frame Bridges

Rigid frame bridges consist of superstructures supported on vertical or slanted monolithic

legs (columns), and are economically suitable for moderate medium – span lengths. Both
steel and concrete is used to construct this type of bridge, the girder being T-or box – girder.
A slant – legged pre stressed concrete box girder bridge spanning, Gouritz River was
completed in 1977 with total span of 265m.

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e) Arch bridges

Arch bridges are the oldest types of bridges ever built. A true arch transfers loads to its
foundation by pure compression, however, the variable position of the live load always
causes super imposed bending.

Arch bridges are economical for medium and long spans. The longest steel arch bridge ever
built is the 518m trussed, two – hinged deck type New River Georg Bridge in west Virginia,
completed in 1977.

The longest span concrete arch bridge is the 305m span Gladesville Bridge in Sydney,
Australia, Completed in 1964.

f) Cantilever Bridges

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Cantilever bridges were the answer for long – span railway bridges in the late 1800s. They
displayed the strength, rigidity and sturdiness required to carry the heavy railroad traffic that
had caused large deflections in the truss bridges of earlier times.
Essentially, a cantilever bridge consists of two simple spans (anchor spans) with cantilever
on each side of either shore supporting a short suspended span in the middle of the stream or
river. This arrangement results in substantial reduction of moments or forces, in the
suspended span. Moreover, because a cantilever span can be erected without a false work,
river navigation is not impeded during construction.

The Quebec Bridge in Canada and Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland are two of the longest
and most famous cantilever bridges.

The world’s longest highway cantilever bridge is the Greater New Orleans Bridge, a 480m
span over the Mississippi at New Orleans, Louisiana, built in 1955 – 58. Another great
cantilever bridge is the 457m span Howrah Bridge in Calcutta, India opened to traffic in
1943.

g) Cable Stayed Bridges

Cable-stayed bridges represent the most innovative and dramatic development of the post –
World War II period. These bridges are very competitive economically for medium and
long spans. They can be built with girders of either steel or pre-stressed concrete. Cablestayed
bridges are unique in that the superstructure is supported (or hung) at several
intermediate points by inclined cables, or stays, radiating from and continuous over the
towers, instead of being supported from underneath by conventional piers or bents.

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Loads in cable-stayed bridges are transmitted by the inclined stays, which connect the deck
to the towers.

The various arrangements of radiating cables and the imaginative forms and shapes of towers
have made cable – stayed bridges one of the most aesthetically pleasing structures.

The longest span cable – stayed bridge is the Tatara Bridge in Ehime, Japan, having a 890m
main span. Most cable-stayed bridges are stationary. Only one movable 110m span swing
cable – stayed bridge with a swing radius of 55m has been built over the Sacramento River
at Meridian, California.

h) Suspension Bridges

Suspension bridges are recognized for spanning the longest distances and for their superior
aesthetics.
The principle of suspension bridges is simple. It consists of four essential parts: the towers,
the anchorage, the cables, and the deck. The deck usually supported on stiffening trusses is
hung from suspension cables. It consists of a central main span flanked on each side by a
side span that is separated from the main span by towers. The ends of the suspension cables
are secured at the anchorage, which are usually built of massive masonry or concrete.
Suspension bridges can be classified by the types of cable anchorage as either external or
internal. Self- anchored (internally anchored) suspension bridges are suitable for short to
moderate spans (122 to 305m) where foundation conditions do not permit external
anchorage.
The longest span suspension bridge is the Akashi-kaiko Bridge (main span 1990m, total
length 3910m) linking Akashi city with Awaji Island, Japan.

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4) Classification by Span Types

Classification by Span Types

Simple span bridges – are suitable for short spans

Multiple simple spans-used for medium or long span bridges, depending on the site
conditions and economy. Two end abutments and several piers are used as intermediate
supports.

Continuous beams – advantage over simple spans include reduced weight, and greater
stiffness, smaller deflection, fewer bearing and expansion joints. Continuous spans also
provide redundancy and greater overload capacity than simple spans.

5) Classification by Load – Path Characteristics

One-dimensional systems - slabs bridges. These are one-way slabs

Two-dimensional systems -slab- stringer bridges. The load transfer is form slab to stringers
and from stringers to abutments/piers.

6) Classification by Position for Movable Bridges

Most bridges are stationary. However, to provide sufficient vertical clearance to facilitate
navigation through spanned waterways, such as navigable rivers or channels, bridges are
made movable. A movable bridge may be necessary when topography dictates that the

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roadway must be close to the surface of a navigable body of water to be spanned by the
bridge.
Movable bridges first evolved in the form of drawbridges. Many drawbridges were built
during the middle Ages by feudal lords to defend their castles, and not for navigational
purpose.
In general three kinds of movable bridges exist: the bascule bridge, the lift bridge and the
swing bridge.

Bascule Bridge – A motor driven pinion that engages rack opens or closes the span.

Lift bridge – moves vertically up and down as a whole. The operating mechanism is using
counter weight passing over pulleys at the two ends, the counter weight equalling the bridge
in weight. This type is suitable for long spans where not much vertical clearance is required.

Swing Bridge – provides passage to ships by swinging or rotating horizontally.

7) Classification based on Life Span of Bridges

Permanent bridges – bridges that serve for a longer period of time

Temporary bridges – have a short service period. An example is military bridges (pontoon
bridges)

Combination and Double-Deck Bridges: Most common bridges have only one deck. There
are some bridges having two decks, one above the other. These can be for highway traffic
only or a combination of highway and railway.

BRIDGE LOADING
Bridges serve their function under different types of loads. Loads determine the safety and
serviceability of structures. The minimum loads to be taken for design are given in codes
and standards to insure safety and serviceability. These loads may be classified as dead, live,
environmental and other loads. Another way to classify these loads is as permanent or
transient based on the duration of their action. Any of the limit states should not be
exceeded under the most unfavourable combinations of these loads.

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First will be treated the different types of loads acting on bridge superstructure and
substructure. Then will be discussed load combinations and the corresponding load factors
to be considered for the different limit states. Construction loads are not specified in here
and the designer should obtain pertinent information from the prospective contractors.

Type of Loads

The following permanent and transient loads will be considered for bridge design where
applicable. These may also be used for structural evaluation of existing bridges.

Permanent Loads

Dead Loads
DC: dead load of structural components and Non- structural attachments
DW: dead load of wearing Surfaces and Utilities
EV: vertical pressure from Dead load of earth Fill
Earth Loads
EH: horizontal earth pressure load
ES: earth surcharge load
DD: down drag
Transient Loads
Live Loads
LL: Vehicular live load
PL: pedestrian live load
IM: vehicular dynamic load allowance
CE: vehicular centrifugal force
BR: vehicular braking force
CT: vehicular collision force
Wind Loads
WL: wind on live load
WS: wind load on structure
Earthquake loads EQ
Force effects due to superimposed deformation

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TU: uniform temperature

TG: temperature gradient
SH: shrinkage
CR: creep
SE: settlement
EL: accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process
Water Loads, WA
Static pressure
Buoyancy
Stream pressure
Wave load
Different Standards for Bridge Loading
Different countries have got different codes. Some of the most widely used codes are those
of:
1. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
2. DIN Standard (in Germany)
3. BS 5400 Code (British Standard)
4. IRC (Indian Roads Congress) Bridge Code
AASHTO is the code used in Ethiopia for highway bridge design. Ethiopian Roads
Authority (ERA) has developed Bridge Design Manual, mainly adopting the specifications
of ASHTO 98 to our local condition, which may be used for highway bridge design.

AASHTO – 2005 Load Specifications

Dead Loads: DC, DW and EV

Dead loads include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities
attached to the bridge, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays and planned widening.
The design of all bridge structural elements is based on a set of loading conditions which the
component of element must withstand.

In the absence of more precise information, the densities specified in Table been used

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Density (Kg/m
Material Material
(Kg/m3) Density 3)
Bituminous wearing surface 2250 Cast iron 7200
Rolled gravel, macadam or ballast 2250 Soft clay 1600
Cinder filling 960 Steel 7850
Compacted sand, silt or clay 1925 Stone masonry 2725
Concrete, normal 2400 Fresh water 1000
Loose sand, silt or gravel 1600 Salt water 1025

Live Loads

a) Vehicular Live Loads

Design vehicular live loads on roadways of bridges consist of the combination of

 Design truck or design tandem and
 Design lane load
Design truck is given in Fig. Except in some cases the spacing between the 145kN axles
will be varied between 4.3 and 9m to produce extreme force effects. The design tandem
consists of a pair of 110kN axles spaced 1.2m apart.
The design lane load consists of a uniform load of 9.3kN/m2, longer than the bridge in the
longitudinal direction, and distributed over 3m width in the transverse direction. This is to
represent vehicle live load on bridges moving slowly during traffic jam. Both the design
truck and the lane load occupy a design lane width of 3m in the transverse direction (number
of design lanes is the integer part of W/3.6 where W is clear roadway width between curbs in
meters)

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b) Pedestrian Live Loads

A pedestrian load of 3.6kPa shall be applied to sidewalks wider than 0.6m and considered
simultaneously with the vehicular live load

c) Multiple Presence of Live Loads

This accounts for the smaller possibility of simultaneous occurrence of maximum live loads
on the bridge. The extreme live load force effects will be determined by considering each
possible combination of number of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor
specified in Table 4.2. For the purpose of determining the number of lanes for determination
of multiple presence factors, M, when the loading condition includes pedestrian live loads,
the pedestrian live load combined with one or more lanes of vehicular live loads, the
pedestrian walkway may be counted as one loaded lane.

Table Multiple presence factor of live loads, M

Number of loaded lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple presence factor, M 1.2 1.0 0.85 0.65

d) Dynamic Load Allowance: IM

Due to hammering effect of wheel assembly on riding surface discontinuities such as deck
joints, potholes, cracks and delimitations or due to surface undulations such as that caused
by settlement of fills or due to resonance of vehicle and bridge vibration, a dynamic

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allowance should be made. Field test carried out on the majority of bridges in the US show
that the dynamic component of the response does not exceed 25% of the static response to
vehicles. Table 4.3 gives dynamic load allowance, IM. IM shall not be applied to pedestrian
live loads, to design lane load, to centrifugal and braking forces.

e) Centrifugal Force: CE
Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. It will be
taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem and the factor c given
in equation

CE=
Where:
V is highway design speed (m/s)
G gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
R is radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a distance of 1.8m above the roadway
surface.
f) Braking Force: BR

Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration, the braking force
determined as a fraction „b‟ of vehicle weight is

b = 2ga v2.

Where a is the breaking length (distance) of uniform deceleration. Breaking forces shall be
taken as 25% of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem per
lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction.

g) Vehicular Collision Force: CT

Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at a.2m above the
ground should be considered.

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Water Loads: WA

a) Static Pressure

Static pressure of water acts perpendicular to the surfaces retaining the water. It varies with
depth linearly.

b) Buoyancy

Buoyancy is uplift force acting on submerged part of a structure. It equals volume of

water displaced by the structure multiplied by unit weight of water.

c) Stream Pressure

i) Longitudinal: The pressure of flowing water acting in the longitudinal direction of

substructures will be taken as

P=5.14x10-4CDV2 . . . .

Where:

P is pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD is drag coefficient given in Table
V is design velocity of design flood (m/s)
The longitudinal drag force will be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure and
the projected area of substructure subjected to the force.
ii) Lateral
The lateral uniformly distributed pressure on a substructure due to water flowing at an angle
0 to the longitudinal axis of the pier
P=5.14x10-4CLV2 .
Where:
P is lateral pressure (MPa)
CL is lateral drag coefficient

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Wind Loads: WL and WS

a) Wind Pressure on Structures

Wind load on bridges is assumed to be uniformly distributed acting perpendicular to the

projected area of exposed components. The pressure specified here is for a base wind
velocity of 160Km/hr. The design wind pressure on structures PD in MPa may be determined
from

Where: PB is base wind pressure

VDZ is design wind velocity at design elevation, Z(km/hr)
V10 is wind velocity 10m above low ground or design water level (km/hr)
VB is base wind velocity, 160km/hr
Z is height of structure at which wind load is calculated, >10m
V0 is friction velocity
Z0 is friction length of upstream fetch

b) Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WL

It is possible for wind to blow when vehicles are on the bridge. Therefore, the design wind
pressure will be applied to both the structure and the vehicles. Win pressure on vehicles
shall be taken as a moving force with the vehicle of 1.46kN/m acting normal to and 1.8m
above the roadway.
c) Aerodynamic Instability
Aerodynamic force effects shall be taken in to account for bridges and components that are
wind-sensitive. A rough value of span to depth or width ration above which bridges become
wind-sensitive is 30.0

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Earthquake Effects: EQ
Earthquake forces are inertia forces due to mass of bridges when a sudden shaking of the
ground occurs. These are taken as horizontal forces obtained as the product of seismic
coefficient Csm and the equivalent weight of the structure. The equivalent weight is the
function of the actual weight and bridge configuration

Where:
Pe(x) is equivalent static earthquake loading
Csm is dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient
P0(x) is a uniform load arbitrarily set to 1N/mm
Vs(x) is deformation corresponding to P0 (mm)
W(x) is un factored dead load of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure(N/mm)
Tm is period of vibration of the mth mode
A is acceleration coefficient which is the ratio of horizontal seismic ground acceleration
expected in an area to that of gravity, in EBSC8: 1995.
S is site coefficient

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