B.

TECH FIRST YEAR

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-2021

COURSE NAME: BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE : CV 1001
LECTURE SERIES NO : 01 (ONE)
CREDITS : 3
MODE OF DELIVERY : ONLINE
FACULTY : SCCE
ROPOSED DATE OF DELIVERY: 16 OCTOBER 2020
ASSIGNMENT 1
QUIZ 1
MID TERM EXAMINATION –I
END TERM EXAMINATION
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA'S
 INTRODUCTION

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

CV1001| 3 Credits | 3 0 0 3
OUTCOMES:
After completion of this chapter, we will be able to

 Understand various types of surveying work of civil engineering such as Chain survey, compass
survey, levelling, theodolite, contouring, plane table and total station survey.

03/04/2021
4 4
OUTLINE:
 Principles and types of surveying
 Site plans
 linear measurements, angular measurements
 Levelling, ordinary levels
 Total stations,
 Use of theodolite and plane table
 Contouring
 L- section and cross sections

03/04/2021
SURVEYING
 Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different
objects on above or beneath the surface of the earth by measuring the
distance, direction and elevation between them.
 The object of a survey is to prepare a plan or a map so that it may
represent a area on a horizontal plane.

03/04/2021
 Important Objectives of Surveying
 The main object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to show the relative
positions of the objects on the surface of the earth.
 To determining the boundaries of land.

 It is very useful for alignment for major projects, such as

dams,canals,roads,railways etc.

 The successful completion of any engineering project mainly depends upon the
accurate surveying. of surveying
 Classification of surveying
A) Primary classification
1. Plane surveying- surveying is done without considering curvature of earth for small measurements

2. Geodetic surveying- considering curvature of earth for large measurements of surveying

 Note: as the length of arc 12km long is laying in the earth’s surface is only one centimeter greater than the
subtended chord.

B) Secondary classification

1. Based on instruments

 a) Chain surveying: Linear measurements are done using chain and taps.

 b) Compass surveying: Agular measurements are done using various compass.

 Classification of surveying
c) Plane table surveying, d) Theodolite surveying
e) Tacheometric surveying, f) Photographic surveying

2. Based on methods
a) Triangulation surveying, b) Traverse surveying

3. Based on object
a) Geological surveying, b) Mine surveying,
c) Archaeological surveying, d) Military surveying.

4) Based on nature of field

a) Land surveying, b) Marine surveying,
c) Astronomical surveying,

03/04/2021 9
 Classification of surveying

 Land surveying is again divided into following classes

i) Topographical surveying:- to determine the natural and artificial features of country such as rivers,
lakes, hills, roads, railways, towns etc.
ii) Cadastral surveying:- to determine the boundaries of fields, estates, houses, etc
iii) City surveying:- to locate the premises, streets, water supply and sanitary system etc.
iv) Engineering surveying:- to collect data for designing of engineering works such as roads, reservoirs,
railways etc.
  Difference between Plane surveying & Geodetic
surveying

Plane surveying Geodetic surveying

1. The effect of curvature of earth is not considered. 1. The effect of curvature of earth is considered.

2. The surface of the earth is taken as plane. 2. It involves spherical trigonometry. So it is called
trigonometrical survey.

3. The area to be surveyed less than 250 km2 3. The area to be surveyed more than 250 km2

4. The degree of accuracy is low. 4. The degree of accuracy is high.

5. Plane surveying is conducted by state agencies like 5. Geodetic surveying is conducted by Survey of India
Irrigation department, Railway department. (GTS) department.

6. 6.
Scale
 The area that is being surveyed is vast and therefore plans are made to some scale
 Scale can be represented by two methods:

a) Engineer's scale: one centimeter on the plan represents some whole number of meters on the ground such
as 1cm=10m etc.

b) One unit of length on the plan represents some number of meters on the ground, such as /1000 known as
Representative Fraction (R.F.)
 SURVEY LINE
• The lines joining the main survey stations are called
main survey line
• The biggest of main survey line is called baes line
• Check Lines: check lines or proof lines which are run in
the field to check the accuracy of the work.
• Tie Line: a line which joins subsidiary stations on the
main line.

03/04/2021 13
Conventional symbol
 Uses of surveying

1. It is useful for measurement of areas.

2. To prepare different types of maps such as topographical map, cadastral map,

engineering map, military map, contour map, geological map etc.

3. It is very useful for the purpose of designing projects, such as

dams,canals,roads,railways etc.

4. It is used for making of plans in connection with legal documents.

5. In case of dispute of property, certain plans may be used as a legal documents

 Principles of surveying

1. To work from whole to the part.

2. To locate a new station by at least two measurement ( linear or angular ) from fixed
reference points.
To work from whole to the part.

• According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (controlling stations) and

main survey lines (controlling lines).

• The area is then divided into a number of parts by forming well-conditioned triangles.

• The main survey lines are measured very accurately with a standard chain and then the sides of triangles

are measured.
  To work from the whole to the part.

 The purpose of this process of working is to prevent accumulation of error. During this
procedure, if there is any error in the measurement of any side of a triangle, then it will
not affect the whole work. The error can always be detected and eliminated.

 But, if the reverse process (from the part to the whole) is followed, then the minor error
in measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and these errors will
become absolutely uncontrollable.
To locate a new station by at least two measurement ( linear
or angular ) from fixed reference points

 According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at
least two measurement from fixed reference points. Linear measurements refer to
horizontal distances measured by chain or tape.
 Angular measurements refer to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by a
prismatic compass or theodolite.
 SITE PLAN

 A site plan is a diagram that shows the layout of a

property or “site”. A site plan may include the location
of buildings and structures. As well as, property
features such as driveways, walkways, landscaped
areas, gardens, pools or water, trees, terraces and more.
 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

Methods

Direct measurements By optical means Electronic methods

UNIT 2 :CHAIN SURVEYING 25 November 08

 DIRECT MEASURE IS DONE BY:
PACING
PASSOMETER
PEDOMETER
ODOMETER
SPEEDOMETER
CHAINING

 Pacing: In this method surveyor walks along the line to be measured and counts the number of steps.
Then the distance measured is equal to number of steps × average length of a step.
Average length of a step can be found by walking along a known length. A normal man takes a step of
length 0.75 m to 0.8 m.

03/04/2021 22
   Passometer: A passometer is a watch-like instrument which is carried vertically in the pocket of shirt or
tied to a leg. It records number of steps taken. Thus the problem of counting number of steps is eliminated
in this approximate method of linear measurement.
 Using Pedometer: This instrument is similar to passometer but it can record the distance instead of
number of steps. In this, zero setting and setting of step length is made before walking.
 Odometer: This instrument is attached to the wheel of a cycle or other vehicle. It records the number of
revolutions made by the wheel. Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the distance travelled may be
found.

si

03/04/2021 23
 Speedometer: Odometer calibrated to give distance directly is called speedometer. This is to be used for
particular vehicle only. All automobiles are provided with speedometers. By running the vehicle along
the line to be measured distance can be found.
 Chaining: Surveying work is done using chain or tape called chaining, principal of chaining is to provide
a skeleton or framework consisting of a number of triangles as triangle is the only simple figure, although
other simple shape can also be plotted

 Chains: The chains are composed of 100 pieces of 4 mm diameter galvanized mild steel wires bent into
rings at the end and joined to each other by three circular or oval shaped rings.

03/04/2021 24
03/04/2021 25
 To facilitate easy reading of the chain, brass tallies are provided.
 End of 10th link from each end is provided with a talley of one tooth, 20th link is provided with a talley of
two teeth; 30th link with a talley of three teeth; 40th link with a talley of 4 teeth and the middle of chain is
provided with a talley of circular shape

 length of a link is the distance between centres of two consecutive middle rings.
 the length of the chain is from outside of one handle to the outside of the other handle.
 Commonly used metric chains are of 20 m length. They have 100 links with talleys at every 2 m.
 Each link is of 0.2 m length. Simple rings are provided at every one metre length except wherever tallies
are provided.
 

03/04/2021 26
However 30 m chains are also in use. Length of each link is 0.3 m. It is not so convenient as 20 m chain to
read, since no rings can be provided at one metre distance and each link needs multiplication with 0.3 to
arrive at metre units.

03/04/2021 27
INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAINING/TAPING

 Chain/tape

 Arrows

 pegs

 Ranging rods

 Plumb bob

 Hand level

UNIT 2 :CHAIN SURVEYING 25 November 08

 TAPING / CHAINING

 Chaining or taping carries same meaning

 Use of either chain or tape.

 This method is basis for most surveying.

 Precision

 1/1000 to 1/5000 (ordinary land survey)

 Use of chain or tape

 Chain (Early 1600s)

 Steel tape in use by early 2000s

 Tape is very common nowadays.

UNIT 2 :CHAIN SURVEYING 25 November 08

 Contd….

 Arrows
 10 arrows

Pegs
 Station position
 Terminal points of survey line

UNIT 2 :CHAIN SURVEYING 25 November 08

 Contd….

 Ranging rods
 Used to range intermediate points on survey line
 Length 2 m ( very common) or 3 m
 Bands of 20 cm painted alternate colour
 ( red & white, black & white)

 Ranging poles
 Similar to ranging rod but big in size
 Used in case of long lines
 Used to range intermediate points on survey line

UNIT 2 :CHAIN SURVEYING 25 November 08

 INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAINING/TAPING Contd….

 Plumb bob:
 Verticality of ranging pole
 Transferring the points to ground
 Also used for centring purpose in other
surveying methods.

UNIT 2 :CHAIN SURVEYING 25 November 08

LOCATING THE GROUND FEATURES
Contd….

25 November 08 UNIT 2 :CHAIN SURVEYING

FIELD WORK
Contd….

25 November 08 CHAIN SURVEYING

ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

 Angular measurements we usually do with:

 Compass: surveyor compass, prismatic compass

 Theodolite
  Height we usually do with:
 Dumpy level

 Auto level

 Theodolite & Digital leveler

COMPASS SURVEYING

The principle of surveying is traversing; which involves a series of lines

which are connected.
TYPES OF COMPASS

 PRISMATIC COMPASS

 SURVEYOR’COMPASS
THE PRISMATIC COMPASS
CONSISTING PARTS

7. Object vane
1. Cylindrical metal box
8. Eye Vane
2. Pivot
9. Glass Cover
3. Lifting pin and lifting liver
10. Sun Glasses
4. Magnetic Needle
11. Reflecting Mirror
5. Graduated Ring
12. Spring Brake or Brake Pin
6. Prism
PRISMATIC COMPASS
 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR COMPASS
SURVEYING
The various instruments used in the compass survey are : 
 Prismatic compass
 Tape
 Ranging rods
 Tripod
 Arrows
 Plumb Bob
PRISMATIC COMPASS

• Prismatic Compass comprises of a magnetic needle attached to the circular

ring made up of aluminum.

• The needle is on the pivot and will orient itself in the magnetic meridian

• The line of sight is defined by the objective vane and the eye slit, both
attached to the compass box.
A triangular prism is fitted below the eye slit.

• The readings increase in clockwise direction.

The object vane frame can be folded on the glass lid

which covers the top at box.
lever which lifts the needle of the pivot and holds it against the
glass lid.

When bright objects are sighted dark glass may be interposed in

to the line of sight.
 ADJUSTMENTS OF PRISMATIC
COMPASS:
The following are the adjustments usually necessary in the
prismatic compass:

 Centering
 Leveling
 Focusing the prism.
CENTERING:
 The center of the compass is placed vertically over the station point by
dropping a small piece of stone below the center of the compass, it falls on
the top of the peg marking that station.

LEVELLING:
 By means of ball and socket arrangement the Compass is then leveled the
graduated ring swings quite freely. It may be tested by rolling a round pencil
on the compass box.

FOCUSSING THE PRISM :

 The prism attachment is slid up or down focusing till the readings are seen to
be sharp and clear.
THE SURVEYOR’S COMPASS
SURVEYOR’S COMPASS
WORKING OF SURVEYOR’S COMPASS
1. Centering
2. Levelling
3. Observing the bearing line
TYPES OF MERIDIANS

1. Magnetic Meridians and Magnetic Bearing

2. True Meridian and True Bearing

3. Arbitrary Meridian and Arbitrary Bearing

TYPES OF BEARINGS

1. True bearing
2. Magnetic bearing
3. Grid bearing
4. Arbitrary bearing
MEASUREMENTS OF BEARINGS
REDUCED BEARING [RB]

W.C.B OF ANY QUADRANT IN RULE FOR QUADRANT

LINE WHICH IT LIES CONVERSION

1. 0° to 90° first RB = WCB N-E

2. 90° to 180° second RB = 180° - WCB S-E

3. 180° to 270° third RB = WCB - 180° S-W

4. 270° to 360° fourth RB = 360° - WCB N-W

 Levelling is the process by which differences in height between two or
more points can be determined.

 Leveling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is to find or

establish the elevation of a given point with respect to the given or
assumed Datum (reference point).

 Common leveling instruments include the spirit level, the dumpy level, the
digital level, and the laser level.
SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
 Level surface (e.g. the geoid)
 A water surface with no motion Gravity gradient is the normal to the level surface The
Instrument’s Bubble is in the normal (!)
 Horizontal surface
 At the instruments axis, the horizontal surface is tangent to the level surface Over short distances
(<100 m) the horizontal surface and the level surface will coincide For long leveling lines the
effects of the gravity field must be considered

 Vertical Line
A line that follows the direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

 Horizontal Plane
A plane perpendicular to the direction of gravity.

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
DEFINITIONS

 Datum
Any level surface to which elevations are referred. for example, mean sea level)
 Mean Sea Level (MSL)
The average height of the sea's surface for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period.

 Elevation
The vertical distance from a datum to a point.

 Bench Mark (BM)

A permanent point of known elevation.
Can include artificial objects such as metal disks set in concrete, foundation corners, and fire hydrants or
natural objects such as large rocks.

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
 Vertical Control
A series of bench marks in a project of known elevation. Bench marks established using higher order leveling are used
to control the elevation of other points established during a project.

 Back sight (BS)

 The first reading from a new instrument stand point (i.e. take the height to the instrument)

 Fore sight (FS)

 The last reading from the current instrument station (i.e. give the height to a benchmark)

 Intermediate sight (IS)

 Any sighting that is not a back sight or fore sight

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BASIC PRINCIPLE OF LEVELING

 Measures height differences between points

 Along a line
 Several points from one occupation
Leveling rods

Line of sight

Back sight Fore sight

fs
bs
Dh = bs - fs

Gravity Gradient

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
READING A STAFF

• Read the [m], [dm] & [cm]

• Estimate the [mm]

• Check yourself for frequent used

numbers (2/3) or (7/8)

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
BASIC RULES FOR LEVELING

 Always start and finish a leveling run on a Benchmark (BM or TGBM) and close the
loops Keep fore sight and back sight distances as equal as possible
 Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m) Never read below 0.5m on a staff
(refraction)
 Use stable, well defined change points Beware of shadowing effects and crossing
waters

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
EFFECT OF EARTH CURVATURE

Horizontal Level

ct
fe
ef
re
atu
rv
Cu
(r +Dh)2 = r2 + s2
=>
Dh  s2/(2r)

Distance (s) in m 10 20 50 100 1000

Effect (Dh) in mm 0,008 0,03 0,2 0,8 80

www.fh-oow.de/institute/ima/personen/weber/VK_12/VL_VK1/geo_niv_6.htm

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
 Refraction

Mean Gradient: 0,2 °C / m

www.fh-oow.de/institute/ima/personen/weber/VK_12/VL_VK1/geo_niv_6.htm

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
 COLLIMATION ERROR

 Occurs when the line of sight (as defined by the lens axis and cross-hairs) is not horizontal
 Leads to an incorrect staff reading

line of sight error

horizontal line

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
Procedure of leveling

1. The instrument must be check before use! (see lecture)

2. The instrument and level must be stable settled-up
3. The bubble tube must be leveled before the reading
• Beware of sun exposure (will wander)
• Ensure the instruments pendulum is in-limit
4. The instrument must be set up in the middle between two staffs
• Prevents curvature effects
• If impossible, use the same distances, but opposite for the next readings
5. You must not use the parallax screw between the backsight and foresight readings

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
 PROCEDURE OF LEVELING

6. Readings must be taken 30-50 cm above the ground

 Surface refractions
 Beware also of temperature gradients (inside/outside buildings) !!!!

7. Staff should be set up vertically

8. A change plate should be used

9. Leveling must be done in two opposite directions but the same line (beware of gravity gradients)

10. Staff should be calibrated, especially if INVAR

11. Be careful when crossing rivers (large water surfaces)

 Use “same-time” (mutual) observations
 Repeat it during different times of the day

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS SEA LEVEL TRAINING COURSE - OOSTENDE, BELGIUM - 13-24 NOV. 2006
LEVELLING STAFF

03/04/2021 66
PICTURES OF LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS

Dumpy
Level
03/04/2021 68
AUTO LEVEL
AUTOMATIC LEVEL

1. Base Plate
2. Horizontal Circle
3. Eyepiece
4. Circular Bubble
5. Sighting Pointer
6. Objective Lens
7. Focusing Knob
8. Fine Motion Drive
9. Footscrew
10. Bubble Mirror
 •.
LEVELING METHODS
 Taping
 Barometric Leveling
 Trigonometric Leveling
 Differential Leveling
TAPING
 Using a tape or a graduated rod to measure the vertical distance
between two points. applicable when an unobstructed vertical
line between the two points exists.
Examples:
 measuring the depths of mine shafts
 construction layout of multistory buildings
 depth of ditches for water lines, etc

03/04/2021 71
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

72
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Plane Tabling is a graphical method of surveying in which the field

work and plotting are done simultaneously.

Useful to fill in details between stations fixed by triangulation or

theodolite traversing.

Particularly adapted for small scale or medium scale mapping in

which great accuracy in detail is not required.
 PARTS OF PLANE TABLE

 Plane Table
 Tripod
 Alidade
 Trough Compass
 Spirit level
 U-Fork with Plumb bob
 Drawing paper
 Pins
 Drawing accessories
PLAIN ALIDADE

Sight Vane

Object Vane

Fiducial Edge
SETTING UP THE PLANE TABLE

i. Fixing the plane table on the tripod stand

ii. Leveling the table

iii. Centering the table

iv. Marking the North-line

v. Orientation

1. Orientation by magnetic needle

2. Orientation by back sighting

METHODS OF PLANE TABLING

 There are four methods of surveying with the plane table:

1. Radiation Method

2. Intersection Method

3. Traversing Method

4. Resection Method
 RADIATION METHOD

 In this method the objects are

located by radiating lines

from the point, and measuring
the distance with chain or tape
with suitable scale. It is
chiefly used for locating the
details from the station, which
have been established
previously by other methods
triangulation, or traversing.
 RADIATION METHOD

B
C

b
c
d
P
A
a
e
f

F
 INTERSECTION METHOD
In this method the point is fixed on the plane by the intersection of the rays drawn from the two
instrument stations. The line joining the stations is called Base line.
A
C
B

a b c

BASE LINE
p q

f d
e

P Q

F
D

Method requires only the linear measurements of this line

INTERSECTION METHOD
THEODOLITE

A theodolite is a tool for measuring vertical and horizontal angles. It is used in triangulation
networks. It looks like a small telescope and is used everywhere from construction sites to
highway points. Theodolites measure angles using age old principles of trigonometry and
assist surveyors in establishing precise locations.
 PURPOSE OF THEODOLITE

 An instrument used in surveying to measure horizontal and vertical angles with a small
telescope that can move in the horizontal and vertical planes.
 Theodolites are electronic devices that are widely used for the measurement of vertical and
horizontal angles for mapping applications, and in the construction industry.

 From geometry, we know that it is possible to calculate unknown lengths and angles of a triangle
given particular information regarding the other angles and lengths of the sides of a triangle.
 For example, given beginning coordinates such as (x,y) in plane coordinates or the latitude and
longitude, it is then possible to calculate new coordinates by measuring certain angles and distances
(lengths of sides of a triangle).
Parts of Theodolite
 Contouring
Contour An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is known as
contour.

Contouring
The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called Contouring.

Contour Map
A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map.
A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative positions
in plan serves the purpose of both, a plan and a section.
PURPOSE OF CONTOURING

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a road, a railway,
a canal, a dam, a building etc.
i) For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or suitable site.
ii) To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.
iii) To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of earthwork both in cutting
and filling should be minimum.

iv) For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
v) To find the capacity of a reservoir and volume of earthwork especially in a mountainous region.
vi) To trace out the given grade of a particular route.
 CONTOUR INTERVAL
The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the contour interval.

HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT
The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is called as horizontal equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while the horizontal
equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -INTERVAL DEPENDS

i) The Nature of the Ground In flat and uniformly sloping country, the contour interval is small , but
in broken and mountainous region the contour interval should be large otherwise the contours will
come too close to each other.

ii) The Purpose and extent of the survey. Contour interval is small if the area to be surveyed is small and
the maps are required to be used for the design work or for determining the quantities of earth work
etc. while wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas and comparatively less important works.

iii) The Scale of the Map. The contour interval should be in the inverse ratio to the scale of the map i.e.
the smaller the scale, the greater is the contour interval.

iv) Time and Expense of Field and Office work. The smaller the interval, the greater is the amount of
field-work and plotting work.
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR -INTERVAL
The following are the common values of the contour interval adopted for various
purposes:-

i) For large scale maps of flat country, for building sites, for detailed design work and for
calculation of quantities of earth work;
0.2 to 0.5 m.

ii) For reservoirs and town planning schemes; 0.5 to 2m.

iii) For location surveys. 2 to 3m.

iv) For small scale maps of broken country and general topographic work; 3m,5m,10m,or 25m.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

i) All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

ii) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and steep-slope where they run
close together.
iii) A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced and
iv) A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

v) A series of closed contour lines on the

map represent a hill , if the higher 80
values are inside 75

70

65
HILL
60
60
65
70
75
80

A HILL
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
80

vi) A series of closed contour lines on the 75

map indicate a depression if the higher DEPRESSION
values are outside 70

65

60

70
60
65
70
75
80

A DEPRESSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles.
If the higher values are inside the bend or loop in the contour, it indicates a Ridge.

If the higher
100 values are 100
outside the
90 90
bend, it
80
80 represents a
70 Valley
70
60 60
50
50

VALLEY LINE
RIDGE
LINE
CONTOURING
CONTOURING 16
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on map except in the case of an
overhanging cliff.

40

30

20

10

40 30 20 10

OVERHANGING CLIFF
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
Contour lines never run into one another
except in the case of a vertical cliff. In this case 50
,several contours coincide and the horizontal
equivalent becomes zero. 40

VERTICAL
30
CLIFF

20

10

50
10 20 30 40 50

OVERHANGING CLIFF
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP

(i) A contour map furnishes information regarding the features of the ground , whether it is flat,
undulating or mountainous.
(ii) From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in any direction
(iii) Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map can be ascertained
(iv) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical or suitable site for an engineering
project such as a road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.
(v) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
(vi) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from the contour map.
(vii) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth work.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
 A section taken through the lengthwise dimension of a structure. It can also be termed as the Side
Elevation of a structure.
 Longitudinal sections of Roads, Canals, Bridges, etc are very useful in determining the theoretical
gradient of the proposed structure based on the existing surface conditions
L-SECTION PROFILE
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Cross Section

 cutting or piece of something cut off at right angles to an axis also : a representation of such a
cutting.

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CrossSection of Highway
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THANK YOU

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