CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY & DRAWING

DEFINITION:-

Surveying in simple terms, is the art of making those measurements, which will
determine, the relative positions of points on the surface of the Earth, in order to
find the shape and extent of any portion of earth's surface may be ascertained and
delineated on a map or plan. It is essentially a process of determining positions of
points in a horizontal plane. In short, may be regarded as the art and science of
map making. Leveling is an art of determining and representing the relative heights
or elevations of different points on the surface of the Earth. It is the process of
determining positions of points in a vertical plane. Surveying and leveling are
frequently considered as distinct operations. However, in its comprehensive sense,
the term surveying includes leveling.

SCOPE OF FOREST SURVEY:

1. Knowledge of theory and practice of surveying and map reading are an important part
of a Forester.

2. Useful and required in protection, management and administration of forests. Such

as demarcate and /or check the Forest Boundaries, lay out felling coupes, mapping of
fire burnt areas in the forest, preparation of plantation maps/stock maps, detect
encroachments and illicit possession of forest lands, prepare plans of areas to be
cleared / fenced or for raising plantations, align extraction roads and paths etc.,

OBJECT OF SURVEY:
1. The primary object of Survey is the preparation of a plan or map

PLAN: The results of surveys when plotted and drawn on paper constitute a plan. A plan is
therefore, the representation of some scale, of the ground and the objects upon it as
projected on a horizontal plane which is represented by the plane of the paper on which the
plan is drawn.

MAP: The representation is called a map, if the scale is small, while it is called a plan, if the
scale is large, e.g. a map of India, a plan of an estate or a building. On a plan, only
horizontal distances are shown, some times however, vertical distances are also represented
approximately by means of contour lines, hachures, or other systems. Vertical distances are
correctly shown by means of vertical sections, called briefly, SECTIONS.

Primary Division of Surveying:

may be divided into two general classes.

1. Geodetic survey: Geodetic surveying is also called trigonometrical Surveying, it is

necessary to take into account the curvature of the earth, since large distances and areas
are covered. Since the shape of the earth is spheroidal, the line connecting any two points
on earth is curved or is an arc of a great circle, if the earth is assumed to be a perfect
sphere,

2. Plane surveying: In plane surveying the curvature of the earth is not taken into
account, as the surveys extend over small areas. The earth's surface is considered as a
plane; the line connecting any two points as a straight line, and the angles of polygons as
plane angles. It, therefore involves knowledge of geometry and plane trigonometry.

The degree of accuracy required in this type of survey is comparatively low. It may here
be noted that the difference in length between the arc and the subtended chord on "the
surface of the earth is only about 0.1M in 18.2KMs, 0.3M in 54.3KMs and 0.5M in 91KMs.
Similarly the angle of a spherical triangle on the earth's surface and that of the angles of a
spherical triangle of the corresponding plane triangle is only one second for every 195.5Sq.
KMs of area.

Classification of surveys:

1. Classification based upon the nature of the field of survey:

i. Land Surveys
ii. Marine or Navigation surveys
iii. Astronomical Surveys.

2. Classification based upon the object of survey:

i Archeological surveys for unearthing relics of antiquity

ii. Geological surveys for determining different strata in the earth's crust.
iii. Mine surveys for exploring minerals wealth such as gold,
coal etc.,
iv. Military surveys for determining points of strategic
importance both offensive and defensive.

3. Classification based upon the methods employed in survey:

i. Triangulation surveys,
ii. Traverse surveys.

4. Classification based upon the instruments employed:

i. Chain surveys,
ii. Theodolite surveys,
iii. Decametric surveys, iv. Compass surveys.
v. Plane table surveys,
vi. Photographic and Aerial surveys
vii. Surveys using GPS and DGPS.

LAND SURVEY: Land surveys may be divided into the following classes.

i. Topographical Surveys: determines the natural features of a country such as

hills, valleys, nallas, rivers, lakes, woods, tanks, roads, railway tracks etc.,

ii. Cadastal surveys : Which determines the additional features like boundaries of
fields, houses, and other properties, path ways etc.,

iii. City surveys: for laying out plots and construction of streets, water supply
systems and sewers etc.,

iv. Engineering surveys: It determines quantities, and for collecting data for the
design of Engineering works such as roads, railways, reservoirs, or works in
connection with water supply, sewerage etc., Engineering surveys may be
further divided into

a. Reconnaissance survey: for determining the feasibility and rough cost of

scheme

b. Preliminary surveys for collecting more precise data to choose the best
location for the work and to estimate the exact quantities and costs.

c. Location surveys for setting out the work on the ground.

USES OF SURVEYS:
 Surveying may be regarded as an art and science of map making. This was in practice
since ancient times and has become increasingly important as time has progressed.

The earliest surveys are chiefly confined to measurement of land and establishment of
boundaries. The engineer must be thoroughly familiar with the principles and practice of
surveying, since all engineering and construction of projects extending over large areas, etc,
based upon elaborate and complete surveys. In all engineering projects the preparation of
accurate plans and sections is the first necessity.

Principles of Surveying: the two fundamental principles upon which various survey
methods are based upon

a. To work from the whole to the part.

b. To fix the positions of new stations by at least two independent processes. The new
stations are fixed from points already fixed by

i. Linear measurement
ii. Angular measurement and
iii. Both linear measurement and Angular measurement Example: In chain
surveying, the measurements and plotting of the main lines and the station
points are checked by means of check or tie lines.

Methods of locating a point: - In surveying the relative positions of points are located by
measurements from at least two points of reference whose positions must be known. Two
points are selected in the field and the distance between them is measured. The line then
plotted to some scale on paper. Other points can be located by two measurements from
these two points of reference and represented in their relative positions on the paper. To
locate a point C with respect to two or more given points of reference the following methods
may be employed.
 CHAPTER-III

MEASUREMENTS
There are two kind of measurements used in plane surveying

1. Linear 2. Angular
Linear measurements are two kinds
1. Horizontal distances 2. Vertical distances
Angular measurements are two types
1. Horizontal angles 2. Vertical angles

In surveying all measurements of distances are horizontal as the distance between any
two points on a plan or map is always horizontal distance between them irrespective of their
elevations.

Systems and units of measurements: - There are two systems of measurements

I. British imperial system 2. The metric system

1 British system: - In the system, the units of length, weight and volume are imperial
standard yard, imperial standard pound and imperial standard gallon respectively. This
was followed in India till 1962 and became illegal from April 1963.

2. Metric System: - The name is derived from the fundamental unit meter. It was evolved
after the French revolution 1789, by a committee of scientists appointed for the purpose. It
is being used all over the world for scientific purposes. India also switched over to this
system from October, 1961 with one year period of transition. Metric system has become
legally recognized system all over India.

The fundamental unit of measurements for length, weight and volume are

1. Meter 2, Gram 3.Litre

The above three measurements have got following relationship.

1. One kilogram of pure air free water at 4°c measures one litre.

2. One cubic centimeter of pure air free water at 4°c weighs one gram

Advantages of Metric System:-

1. It is a decimal system: multiplications and divisions are convenient

2. In this system figures remain same and all that is required is shift the decimal point
in changing from one unit to another.

3. Simple, easy to understand and scientifically devised.

4. Units of length , Volume and weight are derived from one unit and are interrelated

The following are the units of measurements in the metric system.

1. The primary unit of length is meter.

2. The primary unit of area is sq.. Meter.
3. The primary unit of volume is cubic Meter
4. The primary unit of Weight is Kilogram.
5. The primary unit of mass is gram.
6. The primary unit of capacity is liter.

Basic units of area & length

 British Metric
144 sq. inches = 1 sq. ft 100 mm2 = 1cm2
9 sq. foot = 1 sq. yard 00cm 2
= 1dm2
4840 sq. Yard = 1 Acre 100dm 2
= 1 mt2
640 Acres = 1 sq. mile 10000M2 = 1 Ha
121 sq. Yard = 1 Gunta 100 Ha = 1 Sq. Km
10 sq. chains = l Acre 25 sq. Chains = 1 Ha
100 cents = 1 Acre 20 meters = 1 chain
12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
5.5 yards = 1 pole or perch
4 poles = 1 chain (66 ft)
10 chains (66') = 1 furlong
6ft = 1 fathom
120 fathoms = 1 dable
6080 ft = 1 Nautical mile
Angular measurements
60 seconds = 1 Minute
60 Minutes = 1 Degree (hr)
57°-18' = 1 Radian
Radians = 180°

A radian is the angle at the center of a circle by an area of length equal to radius. It is
the unit of circular measure of angle. The circular measure of an angle is therefore equal to
the number of radians which it contains.

Measurements
Measurements are two kinds
1. Linear
a. Horizontal The distance between two points
distances means horizon tal distance between them
irrespective of vertical distances.

b. Vertical Vertical distance is the distance between

two points on a vertical plane.

2. Angular
a. Horizontal Horizontal angle is the angle between the
angles two intersecting lines between the
projections made on a horizontal plane.

b. Vertical angles Vertical angle at the point is the angle

between the horizontal line and the line of
sight to that point.

Units of measurement According to the standards Weights and

Measurements Act, 1956, the Metric
system is the only recognized system to
be followed in India.

Basic Units of Length

 Metric Units British Units

10 millimeters 1 centi meter 12 inches 1 foot

10 centimeters 1 Deci meter 3 feet 1 Yard
l0 Decimeters1 Meter 5.5 Yards lPole
10 Meters 1 Deca meters 4 Poles 1 chain
l0 Deca meters l Hectameters 10 Chains 1 Furlong
10 Hectameters 1 Kilo meter 8 furlongs 1 mile
l Million meters 1 Mega meter 1/1000 th of inch 1 milli inch
1/ Million meters 1 micro meter/ micron 1/million inch 1 micro inch
0.001 micron 1 milli micron 100 links 1 chain
1852 Meters 1 nautical mile 6ft. 1 fathom
120 fathoms 1 cable length
6080 feet 1 nautical mile
1 Engineers chain 100 feet

Basic units of Area

Metric Units British Units
100 Sq. mm 1 Sq. cm 144 Sq. inches 1 Sq. foot
100 Sq. cm 1Sq. Deci. Meter 9 Sq. foot 1 Sq. Yard
100 Sq. Deci. Mtr 1 Sq. Meter 30.25 Sq. Yards 1 Sq. rod/pole
100 Sq. Meter 1 Sq. arc 40 Sq. rods 1 rod
100 Sq. arcs lHa 4 roods 1 Acre
l00Hactares 1 Sq. KM 640 Acres 1 Sq. mile
484 Sq. Yards 1 Sq. Chain
10 Sq. chains 1 Acre

Basic units of Volume

Metric Units British Units
1000 cubic mm 1 cubic cm 1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot
1000 cubic cms 1 cubic deci Mtr. 27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard
1000 cubic deci. 1 cubic Meter
Meter
BASIC CONVERSION TABLES: The centimetre is very seldom used in the building and
allied trades. The measurements are normally given in metres and millimetres.
Length Liquid Volume
1 inch Equals 25.40mm 1 Pound Equals 0.4535924 Kgs.
1 foot Equals 304.8mm 1 litre Equals 0.035 cubic feet
1 yard Equals 914.4mm 1 cubic ft. Equals 28.32 litres.
1 yard Equals 3 feet 1 gallon Equals 4.5461 litres
1 metre Equals 1.0936 yards 1 cubic ft. Equals 6.23 gallons
1 yard Equals 0.9144 mtrs 1 cubic yd Equals 168.21 gallons
1 metre Equals 3.281 feet 1 cubic mt Equals 1000 litres.
Liquid Conversion
Length Liquid Volume
Volume 1000 millilitres(ml) Equals 1 Litre
1 cubic mtr Equals 35.315 cubic feet 1 litre Equals 1.76 pints
1 cubic mtr Equals 1.3079 cubic yards 1 ml = lcc Equals 0.0017 pints
1 cubic mtr Equals 0.0283 cubic metre 1ml or cc Equals 0.035 fluid
ounce(oz)
1 cubic yard Equals 0.7646 cubic metre 1 litre Equals 0.22jallons
1 fl.oz. Equals 28.413 mlorcc
Weight 1 pint Equals 568 ml or cc
1 tonne (metric) Equals 2205 lbs 1 pint Equals 0.568 litres
 1 ton imperial Equals 2240 lbs 1Pound Equals 0.4535924Kg
1000 grams Equals 1 kilogramlTula Equals 180 grains.
1000 kilograms Equals 1 tonne Area
1 kilogram Equals 2.20462 lbs. 1 square mmEquals 0.00155 sq. inches
1 kilogram Equals 0.0197 cwt 1 square metre Equals 10.764 sq. feet
1 cwt Equals 112 lbs 1 square metre Equals 1.196 sq. yards
1 cwt Equals 50.8 kg 1 square inch Equals 645.20 sq. mm
lib Equals 0.4536 kg 1 square foot Equals 0.0929 sq. metres
lib Equals 16 07. 1 Square yard Equals 0.8361 sq. metres
1 oz Equals 28.3 grams lHa Equals 2.4711 Acres
0.404686 Ha. Equals lAcre

lSq. Chain Equals 484Sq. Yards Equals 404.686Sq, Meters

lSq.Mile Equals 258.999 Ha. Equals 640 Acres
1 meter Equals 0.00497079 furlongs Equals 0..04979079 chains
201.168 Meters Equals 1 Furlong Equals 10 Chains

1 Km Equals 0.62137 Miles

1.609344 KMs Equals 1 Mile

CHAPTER-IV

MEASUREMENTS OF DISTANCES
Distances between various points on the earth surface can be measured in two ways.

Direct method: actually by measuring on the ground.

Indirect method: by calculation or computation.

Direct measurements: - The following methods are adopted depending on the degree of
accuracy required.

By Pacing: - For approximate results, distances may be taken up pacing. One has to walk
over the line to be measured, keep on counting the number of paces, and multiply the same
by the length of a pace (average is taken as 2.5 ft. or 75cms). It provides a rapid means of
approximately checking more precise measurements of distances.

By ocular estimation: - It is a rough method of determining distances.

By speedometer: - The speedometer of an automobile may be used to give approximate
distances.
Wheel pedometer: - It consists of a wheel whose circumference is a multiple of a meter. It
is rolled with a handle along the line to be measured. It is used by P\VD for fixing mile-
stones.

Odometer: - It is a simple devise which can be attached to the wheel of any vehicle. It
directly records the number of revolutions of the wheel.

Passometer: - It is a pocket instrument which records the number of steps taken in pacing
a given distance.

By recording time: - By recording time interval of travel and average speed of the surveyor.

By chaining: - Of all the methods the most common and accurate method is measuring
with a chain or a tape, called chaining.

Instruments for measuring distances

Measuring chains: - A chain is a linear measure used for measuring distances in survey. It
is made of 100 links of steel wire connected by 3 oval rings which makes the chain pliable
and renders alterations in length of the chain as well as its folding up possible. The ends of
the chain are provided with brass swivel handles. The length of a link is the distance
between the centers of two consecutive middle rings. To facilitate reading of a chain, each
chain is divided into l0equal parts by means of a brass tag (also called a tally, teller, or
tablet) fastened to every 10 links. The tallies are notched or toothed, the number of notches
or teeth correspond to the number of tens of links from the nearest end of the chain. The
tallies at 10 links from each end have one tooth, while at 20 links from each end have two
teeth and so on, at 50' link is circular at the centre of the chain.
Advantages of the chain:-
 It can with stand rough handling, suitable for forest surveys.
 It can be easily repaired if broken.
 It can be easily read.
 Length of chain can easily be corrected if it is long or short.
 Disadvantages of the chain: -
 It is heavy and cumbersome.

 It is subject to alteration in length, elongation due to excessive pull or shortening due

to bending of links and adhesion of mud.

 It is liable to get entangled in brushwood, etc.,

 It considerably sags when raised off the ground in stepping sloping distances

Various kinds of chains: -

Gunter's or surveyor's chain: - It is 22yards or 66ft. long named after its inventor in 1620.
Each of its 100 links measures 0.66ft. or 7.92inches. Formerly it was mainly used for land
surveying. It is very convenient for measuring distances in miles and furlongs and areas in
acres, because of its simple relation to these units. 10 chains = furlong; 80 chains = l mile;
10 sq.chains = 1 acre.

Engineers' chain: - It is 100ft. long chain; each one of its 100 links measures one ft. It was
used in leveling and engineering surveys because of facility of computation of quantities of
work.

50ft. chain: - It was mainly used in hilly country along steep slopes as it is light.

60ft. chain: - Mainly used in mining surveys.

Metric chain: - In countries where unit of length is a meter. 10, 20, 25, 30 - meter chains
are used; 20meters (65.617 ft) is the most
commonly used chain. It is divided in to 100 links, each 20cms length and brass tallies are
attached to every 251inks from each end.

Arrows: - With each chain are provided 10 arrows, pins or skewers, each 30cm to 45cms
long. These are made of stout steel wire, sharpened at one end and bent in to a ring or an
eye at the other end. These are used for marking the chain lengths on the ground. Some
times strips of red flag are fastened to their rings to make them conspicuous on the ground.
Lining out (unfolding) and a packing up (folding) the chain; - to line out the chain, hold
the handles in the left and throw out the chain with the right hand in the direction of
measurement. The leader walks away with one handle, dragging the chain forward to pack
or fold up the chain, hold it in the center, by the round 50-link tag in the left hand and fold
up now double chain with the right hand, two links at a time, collecting it in the left hand
and placing the links slantwise the chain when thus folded up, will have a neck at the
centre, so that when the strap has been put it will not slip off. The links with the handles
will finish up on the outside and tied round the chain with a strap.

Testing the chain: - A chain invariably goes out of standard length after use for
sometime. It may have shortened due to bending of links, or mud clogging the links When
working over muddy ground. It gets elongated due to wearing away of surfaces of
connecting links, stretching of links rough handling in putting it trough hedges, ferns or
rough ground. It is therefore necessary to check that the chain is of standard length to
avoid errors in measurement. The chain may be tests by:-

Laying the chain to be used over the chain of standard length.

Applying it to the chain-standard (standard chain length), which is generally marked on

some public buildings in large towns, plinths of walls, or platforms of railway stations, etc.
(or) use of a test- gauge which may be established by driving two pegs into the ground with
nails inserted into their tops, to mark the exact point at the requisite distance apart (66';
100'; 20-meter, etc., as the case may be) by means of a good steel band, tape or a standard
chain, and the chain checked by applying it to this standard.

Adjusting or standardizing the chain-of the chain is too long, it may be adjusted by

 Removing one or more of small oval rings,

 By replacing worn out rings with new ones,
 By closing up the joints of connecting or
 By hammering back to shape the elongated rings. If the chain is too short, it may be
adjusted by
 Straightening any bent links,
 Flattering out some of the small rings, or
 By inserting one or more additional rings to the chain..

The adjustment of the chain should, as far as practicable be effected symmetrically on

either side of the point so that the position of the central tally remains unchanged.

In the case an incorrect chain is used inevitably its exact length must be determined and
recorded for subsequent computation of correct lengths of chain lines.

Tapes: - tapes are made of a variety of materials, and in different lengths. Tapes mostly
used are (i) cloth or linen, (ii) metallic, (iii) steel and (iv) invar tapes.

1. Cloth or linen tape: - it consists of varnished strip of woven linen, 1cm to 1.5cm
wide, and winds in a well sewn leather case with either a folding or a flush handle. It
is obtainable in various lengths of 50', 66', 100' or 15m, 20m, 30m. it is graduated
generally in feet and inches on one side and meters and cm on the other. The end of
the tape is provided with a brass ring, whose length is included in the first unit
marked on the tape. It is light and handy, but is affected by damp, and shrinks and
stretches easily and is likely to twist and tangle. It is used for taking subsidiary
measurements such as offsets. It should be dried and cleaned before winding up.

2. Metallic tape: - it is made of water proof fabric, in which are woven very fine brass or
copper wires to prevent stretching and twisting. It is generally 50ft. or 100ft., 15m or
30m in length. It is suitable for accurate and important measurement; mainly used
for taking offsets, etc.

3. Steel tape: - it is used for direct measurements of all important surveys. It is made of
steel ribbon varying in width from l/2cm to 1cm. it is obtainable in various lengths
but the common ones are 50',100',300' or 15m,30,100. It is graduated in feet tenths
and hundredths or meters and cms. As it is delicate, liable to kink and break, it has
to be used with great care. If broken, it can be mended locally by riveting a piece of
tape of the same length to its back.
4. Invar tape: - The word invar is a derivative from "invariable". Invar is an alloy of steel
and possesses a very low coefficient in lengths of 30m and 100m, corresponding to
the common lengths of 100ft. and 300ft. it is an expensive and a delicate tape and
has to be handled with great care. It is recommended only for precise measurements,
such as base lines in triangulation surveys, A steel band chain is also used for
checking lengths of other chains.

Instruments for marking stations

Pegs: - these are made of any hard timber, tapering at one end; convenient size being 20-
35cm length, 2.5-4.0 cm square. These are firmly driven into the ground with a hammer
with about 4 cm lengths projecting above the ground level. For soft ground pegs may be 45-
60cms long and 4.0-5.Ocms square in section. Ranging rods:- are used both for marking
the stations prominently and for ranging lines. They are made of well seasoned, straight-
grained timber, generally circular in section, 2.5 to 4cm dia., and shod with an iron shoe at
the lower end. They vary from 2 to 3 meters in length, and are divided into equals parts,
each 20 to 30cm or 1 link long; and alternately painted red and white or black and white for
easy visibility from a distance.
Ranging poles: - are similar to ranging rods, but they are longer and heavier than the
above, in section, 4 to 6m in length and 6 to 10cm in dia. They must be straight, though
need not be painted; are generally used for very long lines.

Whites: - these consist of sharpened thin sticks or bamboos 0.5 to 1 meter long, and split
at the top with a knife for the purpose of inserting pieces of white paper in the clefts of
these sticks. These are useful for temporary marking of points-such as contour points or
leveling points in cross sections. Ranging out survey lines: - is measuring a chain line on
the ground, it is essential that the chain is laid on the ground in a straight line between the
ends stations. If the line is short and the end stations are inter visible, it is quite easy to put
the chain in proper alignment. However, if the line is long and the end station is not clearly
visible, it is necessary to fix intermediate points in alignment say by rods, to maintain the
direction. Similarly, it may be necessary to establish a number of intermediate points when
a chain line crosses a valley or undulating ground, and the forward station is not visible.
This operation of interpolating rods at the end stations is known as ranging.

Ranging is classified as direct and indirect.

Direct Ranging: - Possible only when the end stations are inter visible.

Ranging by eye sight: - This can be done by surveyor with the help of an assistant. The
surveyor remaining at one station and sends an assistant forward with a rod to the place
where it is desired to set it up. The assistant aligns himself, roughly along the chain line
and holding the rod at an arm's length faces the surveyor to receive direction. The surveyor
standing at a distance of one or two meter from the nearer rod, places his eye in line with
the two rods which are already in position. He now signals his assistant by waving his
hand, to move his rod right or left as required until the three rods are exactly in the same
straight line. The assistant now receives signal to plant the rod on the ground. The surveyor
also carefully checks the position of the rod, by sighting over the lower ends of the rods to
avoid error due to their non verticality.

The surveyor uses a pre-arranged code of signals for directing his assistant into line as
follows:

1. Rapid sweeps with left hand - Move considerably to the left.

2. Rapid sweeps with right hand - Move considerably to the right.
3. Low sweeps with left hand - Move a bit to the left.
4. Low sweeps with right hand - Move a bit to the right.
5. Left arm extended - Keep on moving to the left.
6. Right arm extended - Keep on moving to the Right,
7. Left hand up and moved to right - Plumb the rod to the left.
8. Right hand up and moved to right - Plumb the rod to the right.
9. Both hands above the head - correct.
10. Both hands extended forward horizontally and the hands depressed briskly - Fix.

Indirect Ranging: - When the two end stations are not inter-visible due to raise in the
intervening ground, or due to the distance being too big, direct ranging is not possible. In
such cases intermediate points can be established on the chain line by an indirect method
of ranging.

Reciprocal Ranging: - Let A and B the two stations invisible from each other. Fix two
ranging rods, one at either end of the chain line AB. We are now required to fix intermediate
stations ranged in line with AB. Let two chainmen with ranging rods occupy positions M1
and P1 as nearly in the line as they can judge, such that the man at P1 can see both the
rods at Ml and A and like wise the man at Ml can see both the rods at P1 and B. the
chainman at P1 plants his rod and ranges the other rod at M2 exactly in line with M2 and
B; then again the man at P2 ranges M3 in line with A and P2. This process continues until
they both are finally in line with A and B. Hence A, ML P, B will be all in one line. In line
with A and B. Hence A, M. P, B will be all in one line.

Reciprocal ranging (Over view)

Chaining a line: - The tern chains a line means, measuring the distances of a line chain
only. For chaining two persons are required. The man at forward end of a chain is called
leader or head chainman. The man at rear end of chain is called the follower or rear
chainman. The duties of leader are to follow the instructions of the follower is as given
below.

Leader: - 1. Dragging the chain in forward direction of the survey line. 2. Marking and
inserting arrow at the end of a chain. 3. Obeying the instructions of the follower.

Follower: -

1. Aligning the leader.

2. Giving instructions to the leader.
3. Carrying rear handle of the chain.
4. Picking up arrows inserted by the leader.
5. Counting the links of the last chain.

Hence more intelligent and experienced of the two chainman will be selected as follower.
The accuracy of the measurements depends on the judgment and care of the follower.
Method of chaining a line: - The method of chaining on a level ground is as follows.

1. To chain a line the follower keeps one handle of chain touching the station peg at the
beginning of chain line and stands firmly with both the heels on the handle.

2. The leader stretches the chain and moves forward dragging the chain with the handle
of the chain in one hand and keeping the 10 arrows on the other hand.

3. The leader bends down to the ground, takes an arrow in the right hand holding it
vertically touching the outer edge of the chain handle, keeps his body to one side, so
as not to obstruct the view of the follower in sighting forward ranging rod.

4. The follower directs the leader to be in line with the forward ranging rod by signaling
with his hand until the arrow is perfectly on the line.

5. The leader gives jerks and stretches the chain in a straight line and fixes an arrow,
touching the outer surface of the handle to mark one chain length. The end of the
chain should be marked by cross mark to avoid displacement of arrow.

6. The follower releases the rear end of the chain and collects the arrow while the leader
drags the chain forward a little away with out displacing the arrow till the rear handle
comes to the first chain length of arrow.

7. The process continues and repeated. When the leader fixes tenth arrow, he calls out
for arrows and moves for the next chain, till the follower comes to arrow. The leader
comes to the follower collects the ten arrows after counting. The leader also should
give a small stone or stick as token of exchange of arrows. The follower fixes a peg or
rod at the every tenth chain. The surveyor should also record such transfer of arrows
carefully in the field book as a check.

8. When the fractional length of chain is to be read, the leader drags the chain beyond
the end station till follower comes to the last arrow fixed and stretches it straight. The
follower holds the handle against the arrow and reads the fractional measurement
counting the links. The fraction when added to full chain length gives the whole
length of the line.

Chaining on Sloping Ground: - Since, a plan is the horizontal (two dimensions such as
length and width) of the ground represents - all measurements must be made horizontally.
If made along a slope, these should be reduced to equivalent horizontal distances. Thus, if
represents a section of sloping ground between A and B, the distance required for plotting
and/or computations is AC, not AB. Since the sloping distance is always greater than its
horizontal equivalent, it becomes necessary to allowance for slope. This can be done in two
ways - either by stepping (Direct method) or by measuring along the slope and calculating
AC from the known length AB and its angle of slope (indirect method).

Direct Method: By Stepping -

 This method consists measuring the line in short horizontal lengths. Suppose we have to
measure the distance AB, starting from A in the uphill direction. The follower elevates his
end of the chain until it is stretched horizontally, with the other end held by the leader,
resting on the ground. The rear handle should be vertically above the station peg A.
simultaneously the follower directs the leader into proper alignment with B, and the leader
marks the other point of the chain on the ground with the arrow. This repeated until the
entire length is gone over in four steps. Thus the entire four component distances a, b, c, d,
are measure which, when totaled, give the horizontal distance AC. It will be readily
appreciated that for accurate results:
i) The chain should be stretched in small steps, of 20 to 50 links at a time, or else
the error due to sag will be significant. A steel tape, which is much lighter, is the
best for this kind of work.
ii) Steeper the slope, shorter should be the steps. Length of the steps need not be
uniform.
iii) Height of the handle above the ground, i.e., the length of the plumb bob, should
not exceed 1.5meters (or 5 feet),
iv) To judge the horizontality of the chain, the surveyor should stand clear on one
side and direct his chainman.

To ensure that the outside edge of the rear handle is vertically above the marked point,
either a plummet may be used with the plumb, bob on the mark or the follower should
support the handle of his chain by grasping it against a spare rod held on the mark, truly
vertical.

In chaining downhill, the follower stands on the rear handle of the chain and directs the
leader into line. The leader lifts up the chain until it is horizontal, and marks the
corresponding point on the ground under the end of the chain, by using a plummet, a spare
rod or a drop-arrow weighted at its end. The leader drags forward the chain for the next
length and repeats till the entire length is gone over.

Chaining may be uphill or downhill, but downhill is preferable. This method of stepping
is practicable whether the slopes are uniform or other wise; it is certainly preferable when
the ground is uneven, undulating and gradients are short.

Indirect Methods: First Method Let "l" be the measured distance; α angle of slope and
AB = D, the required horizontal distance; then D = l cos α.
 If, however, the slope is irregular, and made up of varying inclinations, the ground is
divided into sections of, more or less, uniform slope and the slope length of each section
measured and its corresponding angle of slope observed with a clinometer.

Suppose l1, l2, l3, c etc., are measured lengths and q1, q2, q3 etc., their corresponding
angles of slope. Then the horizontal distance AB = l1 cos q1 + l2 cos q2 + l3 cos q3.

Second method Hypotenusal Allowance Method - If only the distance between two
points is required, horizontal distances may be computed after measurements in the field,
as in the first method. However, if a number of intermediate points have to be located,
correction will have to be applied to every chain arrow is set forward, beyond each chain
measured on the ground, by an extent equal to calculated correction. This can be
determined as follows: -
 Let ACE be a section along the sloped ground angle of slope being x. Let AB, the
horizontal equivalent of AC = 1 chain (100 links). With A as centre and AB as radius draw
an arc cutting AC is D. Then the allowance to be given for a chain length AD is DC, so as to
allow for greater length along the hypotenuse; this distance DC is known as Hypotenusal
allowance.

DC = AC-AD = AC-AB = AB sec X - AB - (sec x - 1) or the correction in links = 100(sec x-

1), by which extent each chain arrow must be set forward to mark one chain horizontal
distance. For example, ifx= 10° hypotenusal allowance or the correction DC=100(sec 10°-1)=
100(1.0154- 1)= 1.54 links.

Precision in Chaining: - On level ground, with carefully tested chain, the error in
chaining should be 1 in 500, and for measurements over rough and hilly ground (as are
mostly met within forest surveys) it may be up to 1 in 250 only.

Error in Length due to Incorrect chain - If the chain is too long, actual distance is
greater than the measured distance; reverse is the case when the chain is too short in the
former case the error is negative and correction is positive. Reverse in the latter case.

In each case the length of the line = L'/LX measured length of the line; where L' =
incorrect (i.e., actual) length of chain. L = the true length of chain. If e is the mean
elongation or shortening of the chain, then L' =L ± e.

Error in Area due to incorrect chain - If an area has been measured with an incorrect
chain, the true area may be found by the formula: -

True area = (L' /L)2 x measured area.

Example: - A plot of land was surveyed and its area was found to be 175 acres. It was
subsequently found that the chain was short by one link. Calculate the true area

Solution: - True area = (99/100)2x 175 = 171.52 acres.

Sources of error in chaining: - Errors may be (i) Compensating or

(ii) Cumulative. Compensating errors are those which are likely to occur in either direction
and hence tend to compensate and are not a serious source of error, such as: -

a. Incorrect holding of the chain with reference to the arrow.

b. Fractional parts of the chain or tape may not be correct, if total length of the chain is
adjusted by insertions or removal of a few connecting rings from one portion of the
chain: and if the tape is not uniformly calibrated throughout.

c. During stepping, crude methods of plumbing being adopted.

d. Due to chaining too stiff or too loose.

Cumulative Errors: are those which occur in one direction only and tend to accumulate
and, therefore, seriously affect the accuracy of work. However if the errors classified as
compensating, by chance, happen in on e direction only, these will automatically have a
cumulative effect. On the other hand, sometime a cumulative error may compensate or
balance another cumulative error, e.g., a strong pull may offset sag, or high temperature a
offset a slight shortage in the chain length. Some examples of cumulative errors are: -

a. Chain or tape is not of correct length; check properly before use.

b. Slope correction is not applied to measurements along slope.

c. Sag correction is not applied when chain or tape is held suspended in the air.

d. Measurements made along incorrectly aligned lines.

e. Error due to temperature standard temperature for tapes is 68 °F.

Mistakes in Chaining: - Mistakes are generally avoidable; these are generally made by
inexperienced chainmen. Some of these are: -

a. Miscounting or loss of arrows; adding or omitting a full chain length.

b. Reading the wrong end of the chain; greatest chance of mistake is to read 40 links,
and vice versa.

c. Incorrect booking: example. 783 for 738.

d. Calling out numbers wrongly; example. 30.6 as thirty six.

e. Faulty-alignment; check the same carefully.

f. A knot or a kink in the chain; examine the chain properly before use.
 CHAPTER - V

CHAIN SURVEYING
General: Chain surveying necessitates the setting out on the ground a system of straight
lines, called chain lines. Forming well defined figures and referring to these lines, the
features of the ground to be surveyed by means of offsets. It deals with only linear
measurements in the field; it is a convenient method suitable for small areas and open
ground with simple details. Relative position of the chain lines is determined by recording
the angles made by them with each other with an angle measuring instrument, as in
prismatic compass survey, or by laying out lines to form a series of triangles and measuring
the sides as in chain survey, involving only linear measurement.

Chain Triangulation: There are two general methods of surveying: i.e., Triangulation and
Traversing. Chain triangulation or chain surveying is a system of surveying in which sides
of various triangles are measured directly in the field and no angular measurements are
required. The underlying principle is to divide the area to be surveyed into a frame - work of
triangles, since triangle is the only figure which determine in size and shape if the lengths
of the triangles will depend on configuration of the ground, natural obstacles, if any, and
the extent and nature of details desired to be plotted.

Equipment required for chain survey- A chain (20-metre or 30-metre) and 10 arrows; a
tape (preferably metallic); an offset rod; an optical square or a cross staff; a plumb bob;
ranging rods; a survey field book with a pencil and a pen knife. Some common terms used
in chain survey

Well conditioned and ill- conditioned Triangles: - A well conditioned triangle is one in
which a small error in the measurement of one length produces the least possible error in
some other length or area depending on it. In case of a triangle, we know that a point
located by the intersection of two arcs is displaced least by errors in radii when they
intersect at right angles. If all the three sides of a triangle are liable to error, the
displacement in verticals will be least is angles are as near 90 degrees as possible. That is if
the triangle is equilateral. Therefore to minimize errors in measurement and plotting., an
experienced surveyor will always try to split up the frame - work in to triangle which
approximate in form to equilateral one, i.e., in which the angles are neither very acute (less
than 30° nor very obtuse (more than 120° ) is known as well - conditional triangle. Triangles
which do not satisfy the above requisites, are known as ill-conditioned and should, as far as
possible, be avoided. If unavoidable, great care should be taken in recording the
measurement and plotting.
 Survey Stations: - A survey station in a point where main, base or any other chain or tie
line begins or terminates; or, it is a point on the system of triangulation and check lines
that is measured to or from, The one at the beginning or the end of a chain line is quite an
important one. There are two kinds of stations, viz., main stations and subsidiary or tie
stations. Main stations are the principle corners of the main lines which command the
boundaries of the survey. Tie or subsidiary stations are the points selected on the main
survey lines where it may be required to run subsidiary lines to locate interior details such
as fences, buildings, etc when these arc distant station which is lettered or numbered;
capital letters are used to denote maim stations and small letters generally for tie stations.

Selection of stations: - The following points should be kept in mind while selecting
stations

1. The number of main lines should be as few as possible, and should run as close and
parallel to the outer boundaries as far as possible. Lesser the number o lines easier
will be the plotting and lesser the chances of error in plotting.

2. The flags at the main stations should be invisible.

3. Main lines should form well-conditioned triangles.

4. The main principle of surveying working from the whole to the part should be strictly
observed.

5. A long line should be run through the center and whole length of area called the base
line on level ground, as far as possible. Te entire frame work of the survey rests on the
base line.

6. Each triangle should be provided with at least one check line, to cheek the
measurements of all the main lines. Tie lines should be run to obtain offsets
conveniently to all details that are to be plotted.

7. Chain lines should be so located as to avoid obstacles in chaining as far as possible.

Base line: - A base line is usually the longest and the most important of all chain lines,
running through the center and length of the area to be surveyed. It should be carefully
selected, on a level ground, and accurately measured horizontally twice or thrice as the
accuracy of the entire survey will ultimately depend on the accuracy and straightness of
this line. It fixes up the directions of all other lines, as it is on this base line that the frame
work of survey is built up. If necessary two base lines, in the form of 'X' should be laid out.
The liability to inaccuracy in triangulation increases with the distance from the base, it is
necessary to locate the base line in the center of the survey, which avoids accumulation of
errors in the system of triangles built thereon.
 Check or Proof line: - Its function is to check the accuracy of measurements and
plotting by making cross measurements, the measured length of a line - called check or
proof line - in the field should tally with the length scaled on the plan. It is generally a line
joining the apex of a triangle to some fixed point on the opposite side.

Tie line or subsidiary line: - A tie line served dual purpose. It provides a check on the
accuracy of the frame work and also enables the surveyor to pick up interior details which
happen to quite far away from the chain lines.

Off-sets: - Off-sets are lateral measurements from the chain line taken to objects such
as comers of buildings, fences and hedges, banks of steams, trees and poles, etc to the right
or left of the chain lines, which are required to fix the details of the survey. There are two
kinds of off-sets 1.Right, rectangular or perpendicular off-sets which are taken at right
angles to the chain line. In the strict sense, off-sets arc always taken at right angles to the
chain line. 2. Oblique off-sets:- Measurements taken at oblique or tie offsets. The off-sets
are again two kinds. 1. Short off-sets when the length off-set is more than half a chain.
Short off-sets can be measured more accurately and quickly than long off-sets.

Perpendicular Off-set Oblique Off-set

When the off-sets are short the perpendicular direction is judged by eye only or laid by
swinging a tape on the chain and noting minimum point of reading on it. When off-sets are
long the perpendicular direction is determined with cross staff or optical square. When the
off-sets are required to locate important details or accurately or away from chain, line,
oblique off-sets are taken. Points to be born in mind in taking off-sets:-
1. Take as many off-sets as are sufficient to define the outline of the object clearly and
accurately.
2. If the objects are round off-sets should be taken to the centre.
3. If the boundary is straight an off-sets to its each end is sufficient.
4. Whenever the outline of the object changes direction an off-set must be taken at each
change of direction.

Instruments for setting out right angles: - The following instruments are commonly
used in forest surveys for setting out a right angle at a given point on a line. 1. Wooden
cross-staff. 2. Optical square. 3. Chain or tape.

1. Wooden cross-staff: - It consists of two parts, the head and staff. The head is wooden
square block about 10 cms square and 5cms thick with two fine saw cuts about a cm deep
are made at right angles to each other. The block is furnished with two pairs of vertical
slits, at the end of saw cuts giving two lines of sight at right angles each other. The head is
fixed to the top of an iron staff about 15cms diameter and 1.2mts to 1.4mts long. Uses of
cross-staff:-
1. To erect a perpendicular line on a chain line.

2. To take perpendicular off sets.

3. For laying base line and planting lines in aligning & staking.

4. For laying nursery site and aligning nursery beds.

5. For surveying small areas like fire burnt areas, nurseries, plots along with chain.

Method of using a cross staff:-

A). For laying a line at right angles at a given point on chain line:- Fix the cross staff at
the given point on the chain line vertically and turn until the both end stations of chain line
is sighted through one of the slits. A ranging rod is fixed at the required point on the line
sighted through one of the slits. A ranging rod is fixed at the required point on the line
sighted through the other pair of slits at right angles to the former and to the point of chain
line.

B). For taking off set to the chain line at. a given point :- Hold the cross staff
approximately on the chain line approximately at right angle to the chain line sighting
through one pair of slits. Then sight through the other pair of slits and move forward or
backward on the chain line until the object to which offset is to be taken is bisected. Sight
again to see that forward station is sighted, if not adjust till both object and forward
stations are sighted from one point on chain line through slits at right angles.

Testing the cross staff: - The accuracy of a cross staff can be checked by laying a
perpendicular with reference one pair of slits and checking it by means of other.

2. Indian optical square: - This is a more accurate instrument than the cross staff. It is
a brass, wedge shaped hallow box, whose sides are about 5 cms and depth 3 cms having
handle fixed about 8cms long. In this hallow box two small rectangular mirrors at angle of
45degree fixed to the inclined sides of box. Above the mirrors there are two rectangular
openings. The wider side of the open face of the instrument, which is turned to the object,
will have exactly in 90°.

Principle of construction of optical square: - Based on optical principles that

1. The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

2. When a ray of light is reflected by two plane mirrors successively it under goes a
deviation of twice the angle between the reflecting mirrors.

In the optical square since the two mirrors are fixed at an angle 45 degree the angle
between the first incident ray and the last reflection ray is 90 degree. The use of optical
square is same as cross staff but easy, quick and accurate.

Chain or a tape: - I (a) To erect a perpendicular to a chain line from a point on it. ABC
is a chain line and a perpendicular is to be erected on AC at B. With B as center mark
points D and E equidistant from B. with D as center draw an arc above and below the line;
repeat with E as center and the same radius. Mark points of inter section F and F' on the
ground. BF, BF' are perpendicular on the line AC at B. b) Points A and B are fixed 40 units
distance apart. With A as center and radius of 30 units draw an arc; with B as center and
radius of 50 units draw another arc. Mark point of intersection C; CA is perpendicular to
AB. This is known as 3:4:5 method of laying a right angle. This can be also be done by
5:12:13 method. if) To drop a perpendicular to a given chain line from a point outside it, let
AB be the chain line, C the point outside, it. With C as center draw an arc cutting the chain
line in D and E. Insert arrows at D & E. bisect DE in F; F is the required foot of the
perpendicular

Obstacles in chaining: - Though it is said that stations have to be selected such that
the chaining and vision must be free from obstacles. But it is not always possible in
practice, especially while surveying forest areas in difficult country. In such cases there are
special methods to get covering such obstacles in chaining across them. The obstacles in
chaining may be classified as follows.

 Chaining free but vision obstructed: - There are two cases to be considered.
 Both ends may be visible from, intermediate points on the line Example: Raising
mounds or spurs etc.
 Both ends may not visible from any intermediate points Example: Forest growth.
 Chaining obstructed but vision free. They are again two types
 Chaining around the obstacles is possible Example: Ponds, tanks, swamps etc.
 Chaining around the obstacles is possible Example: River.
 Chaining and vision both obstructed. Example Building. Methods of getting over
different types of obstacles: -.

1. Chaining free, vision obstructed: - Both end stations of lines visible from intermediate
points on Line Example:: Raising grounds, hill, spurs etc.,

In this case the difficulty may be got over by reciprocal ranging as previously described.
Both ends may not be visible from any intermediate points Example: Forest Growth, thick
bushes, swampy areas with high growth of grass etc.,
 In this case "Random Line" method is to be adapted to overcome the obstacle. In figure
let AB, the line whose length is required to be measured. From A run a line called Random
line AB’1 from A in any convenient direction, as nearly towards B as can be judged.
Continue the line until the point B’ sighted and lay the line BB’1then AB2 =
AB’1 +BB’1
2 2

To fix an intermediate station say C on the line AB, the distance AC on the random line
is measured and the perpendicular distance calculated as follows:

AC1/CC1 = AB/BB1

The distance CC1 is measured from CI perpendicular to the random line AC1 and the
point C is located on the main chain line AB. Like wise as many as intermediate points
required can be fixed on line AB and finally line AB is cleared and demarcated.

This method is employed for re-clearing forest boundaries where the boundary pillars on
either side are not inter-visible.

2. Chaining obstructed but Vision free.

Chaining around the obstacles is possible for Example:: Pond, tank, Swampy area etc.

Method 1:- AB is survey line. Select C and D on the chain line on either side of the
obstacle, at C and D erect perpendiculars CE =.DF With 3:4:5 method or cross staff or
optical square, measure EF CD which is equal to CD the length of obstacles.

3. Chaining around the obstacle is not possible

Method 1: AB is the chain line obstructed by river. C is the point on the other side of the
river ranged in AB. Set a perpendicular BD at B to AB and fix its mid point E Set another
perpendicular DF to BD at D. Fix a rod at E. fix a point G on DF such that G,E and C are
Ranged in line.
Fig4.19

Method 2: AB is the chain line obstructed by river. C is the point on the other side of the
river ranged in AB. At any point D on AB Set out a perpendicular and fix a Point F .
similarly set out perpendicular BK at B . On BK fix a point E such that E,F and lies on
same line.

BC/BE =GE/FG

BC= GE X BE/FG

Chaining and vision both obstructed

Method I : Select the points K and B on the chain line AD. At the point K and B erect
perpendiculars KL and BM of equal length. Extend the line LM clearing the obstacle and
select two points N and P on it. At N and P lay perpendiculars, NC and PR equal in length to
KL. The points C and P are obviously on the chain line AD and BC=MN. Care must be taken
in setting out the perpendiculars very accurately and to see that their length are exactly
equal.
Method of carrying out field work of chain survey:
Equipment required: 1) 20 Meters chain with 10 arrows (2) Metallic tape 15 or 30 Meters (3)
Ranging rods-5, (4) wooden pegs, (5) Cross-staff or optical square, (6) Survey field book, (7)
Pencils, (8) Implements such as bill hook, axe, hammer, pen knife etc.

Reconnaissance: - The preliminary inspection of an area to be surveyed is called

reconnaissance or reconnoiters. The surveyor should go over the entire area to be surveyed
and examine the area thoroughly so as to plan the best possible arrangement of work. He
should note the various boundaries, the positions of buildings, roads, streams etc various
obstacles and suitable positions of stations. He shall select stations such that they are
inter-visible and well conditioned triangles, in addition to that main lines forming the frame
work of survey are with minimum obstacles. The length of main boundaries may be
determined by pacing. After careful and intelligent reconnaissance, the surveyor gets a
fairly intimate knowledge of the shape and extent of the area to be surveyed. The surveyor
should prepare a sketch called an index sketch or key plan fairly resembling the plan of the
ground showing important features. The position of stations and chain lines duly lettered
and numbered. The sketch is drawn on first page of field book.
Marking the stations: The stations has to be earmarked on the ground by driving wooden
pegs, projecting above the ground by not more than 4 to 5 cms. The station number is
marked on it. In a pasture land the turf must be scrapped around the Example: To trace
out the stations at later date three measurements from permanent objects should be taken
for each station and draw location sketches in the field book. Chaining operations:
Chaining of survey lines may be commenced from base line and they are in regular clock
wise or anti clock wise order. The nearly details trees, buildings etc which are to be plotted
are located by off sets, recorded and sketched in the field book. The chain after it is
stretched in the true alignment and the arrow inserted is kept lying on the ground till the
chainages of and off sets to various objects are taken and recorded. The process of chaining
and offsetting is repeated until the end of the line reaches other lines are similarly dealt
with.

Booking field notes: The book in which survey work is recorded by measurements and
sketches are called as filed book. It is an oblong book about 20 by 10 cms opening length
wise, the pages are serially numbered and are blank excepting one or two lines(l l/22cms
apart) down the length of the page and in the center of it. The line and or the space between
the two lines represents chain line and chain measurements are recorded before two lines
and offsets on the eight or left of these as measured on the ground with reference to chain
line. The nature and form of objects are sketched and named in the note book as the work
proceeds recording of data commences from the last page of the note book and from the
down of the page upwards, as if we were actually writing it on the chain.

At the beginning of record of each survey line in the field book is written (1) the name or
number of the survey line (2) the name or number of station (3) the symbol A denoting main
station. The tie station a will be denoted by symbol a. End of a chain line be marked by
double cross line to avoid confusion. The directions of the survey lines starting off from and
ending at the station should be shown clearly. The initial and closing chainages should be
enclosed by circle or oval. All distances along the chain line (chainages hangs) are entered
in the central column and the off sets written opposite, them on the right or left of the
column according as they are right or left of the survey line. Close to the object and inside
i.e. chain side. When any feature such as fence, road, wall etc., crosses the chain line, the
chain age of the point of inter section is entered in the column and direction of the feature
sketched. The line representing the object should not be carried across the central column.
To continue it on the other side of the column a line parallel, to its direction should be
drawn from a point directly, opposite on the other side of the column. Entries should not be
crowded. At least one-centimeter space should be left between two entries. The name or
number of the end station and the name and number of line should be written at the close
of change.
The following points should be kept in view in booking the field notes

1. Each chain line should be recorded on a separate page.

2. All measurements should be recorded as soon as they are taken. They should be
clear, neat and accurate. They should contain all information necessary for plotting
the survey.
3. The notes should be complete nothing should be left to memory. They should be clear,
neat and accurate. They should contain all information necessary plotting the survey.
4. Figuring should be neat and writing legible there should be no over writing of the
figures
5. Sketches are the various features located should be neat and self-explanatory.
6. Explanatory notes and reference to other pages where necessary should be added.
7. Entries should be recorded in pencil for which a pencil of good quality may be used.
8. The book should be keep clean, no entries should be erased, if any entry is wrong or
any change in the notice if necessary a line should be drawn though it and a correct
one. written above it, if entire page is to be cancelled it should be crossed and marked
 as cancelled and a reference to the other page, on which the correct notice written
should be made on the page
9. The complaint regard of the survey should include (1) the title of the survey (2)
general sketch of the area surveyed (3) location sketch (4) record of chain lines (5) the
data of the survey (6) the names of the members of the party and (7) the page index of
the chain lines and stations

Plotting :- it consists of preparation of plans, computation of areas etc. the surveyor should
given in a miniature form, the true reproduction of field notice, the following drawing
instruments and materials are generally used for drawing. Drawing instruments:-

1. A drawing board of good quality a board of imperial size is useful money proposes and
is in common use.

2. A tee square of good quality suitable for the above board.

3. Set squares made of celluloid-only a pair of 45° and 60° is required as they are used
for drawing parallel and perpendiculars lines. They are obtainable in various sizes, a
convenient size being 25 cms.

4. Parallel ruler celluloid of good quality.

5. An instrument box of good quality containing bow pen, division spring bows
compasses with pen and pencil etc.
6. A protractor made of celluloid and of a circular type
7. A set of scales which consists of 30 cms, scales marked with 12 different scales of
reduction with corresponding off set scales of 5 cms, long, they are designated
a,b,c,d,e,f.
8. A preoperational compass for enlarging and reducing planes.
9. Set of fresh curves of celluloid used for irregular and curved lines.

Drawing materials:-
1.Drawing paper: - it should be of good quality with a fairly smooth surface cartridge
paper and be used for ordinary drawings. For important work Supirior quality hand
made paper may be used.

Various sizes of Drawing papers in common use.

Demy 20” X 15 ¼ “

Medium 22 ¾” X 17 ½ “

Royal 24” X 19”

Imperial 30” X 22’’

Double Elephant 40’’ X 27’’

2. Drawing pins: - these are necessary for attaching the paper to the drawing
board.
3. Pencils: - good quality pencils such as venus, Kohinoor of H, 2H, or 3h grades
should be used for drawing lines to be inked, and HB grade used for notes and
sketches.
4. Erasers: - soft white rubbers of good quality should be used for rubbing out
pencil lines and good ink rubber for erasing ink lines
5. Ink : For inking plans good black Indian ink (water proof) available in bottles
should be used. Coloured inks such as blue, crimson lakes etc., may also be used.
Drawing Instruments
 1. Drawing table: Made of good quality seasoned timber, with even surface of
convenient size should be used.
2. Drawing Board: Good quality boards should be used of convinent size. Borads are
built up with battens at back to allow for expansion or shrinkage of board.
3. Set Squares : one pair of wooden or celluloid set squares 45 and 60 degrees are
required for drawing parallel lines.
4. Tee Square ; it is required to draw perpendicular lines
5. Protractor; Celluloid made circular or semicircular protractors may be used.
6. Proportional Compass : For making enlargement or reduction of plans proportional
compass being used.
7. Beam Compass: for drawing arcs of large radii which is not possible with ordinary
compass.

Plotting Chain Survey:

Before commencing to plot a survey, the scale of the plan should be chosen. It is
usually selected before the field work is commenced. It will determine the size of paper
required for drawing.

A border line may be drawn on the paper living a margin of 3 to 5 cms round the sheet
with plain or ornamental corners. In the rectangle so drawn the position on the survey
north line, scale, title etc., should be so arranged that the completed plane should appear to
the best. A survey should always be plotted looking North. It is well to arrange the plan so
that the north side of the survey should be towards the top of the paper.

To determine the best position of the plan, the framework of the main lines of the survey
should first be plotted on a piece of tracing paper to the scale of the plan and them moved
on the drawing paper till it is arranged systematically on the paper. Then the direction of
the base line and position of one end should be pricked through. The base line being the
longest line of the survey is first drawn on its proper position and its length accurately
scaled. The intermediate stations on the base line are marked with a picker or with a fine
pencil point accurately measuring their chain ages. They are lettered or numbered and
enclosed in a small circle. The triangles built on the base line are drawn in position by
describing short areas with the ends of the base line as centers and the lengths of sides as
radius. Before the point of inter section is finally marked, the lines should be carefully
tested with the scale to make sure that the sides of the triangle are correctly plotted. After
plotting the frame work off sets are plotted. In plotting the off-sets the chain ages of the
points from which the off-sets were measured are marked along the chain line and the
perpendicular line.

Inking: After completing and checking the plan, it is inked in. it is always convenient to
work from the top of the plan downwards or from left to right. The inked in lines should be
finer, cured lines should be first inked in, with the help of French curves and then the
straight line, so that the joining may be made more neatly. Surface features are indicated
on plan with conventional signs. Erasing an inking line should be avoided as far as
possible. But if it necessary, one eraser should be first applied, then soft rubber and finally
the erased surface should be polished by rubbing it with a hard smooth surface.
North Point: The North Point must be shown on plan in any convenient blank space on the
paper preferably at the top pointing upwards. It will be plain or ornamental.
Title: The title should be printed in the lower right hand corner, it should include the name
of the area, owners name etc, vertical or sloping block letters may be used for printing the
title.
Scale: The scale should be drawn under the title or just inside for border at the bottom of
the drawing.
 Chapter VII
DUMPY LEVEL
It is a simple, compact and stable type of level with a focal length of 30 to 35 cm (12 to 14
in).the telescope is rigidly fixed to its supports and therefore can neither be rotated about
its longitudinal axis nor can it be removed from its supports (unlike reversible levels) .as
compared to the Wye leve , it is simpler in construction has fewer parts subject to wear
require fewer adjustments and stays in adjustment better. It gets its name from some what
shorter, compact and dumpy shape of its telescope

LEVELLING - INSTRUMENTS & METHODS

It is diaphragm is carried by the internal tube and is adjusted by two capstan-head

screws. A mill-headed focusing screw on the side of the telescope operates the internal tube,
which can be moved in and out focusing objects at different distances. The spirit level (tube)
is fixed above the telescope, and is attached to it by capstan screws at one end and a
hinged joint at the other. In some improved models, a cross bubbles tube has been added
by which the instrument can set up approximately level without turning the large level
(hence the telescope) several times in two directions, at right angles to each other. This
saves time, but should not be relied upon for accurate work for which it is too small. Some
instruments are also provided with a mirror attached to the object glass end of the bubble
tube, facing the observer, and inclined at an angle of 45 to the bubble tube. The mirror
enables the observer to watch the bubble during an observation without moving his eye
from the eye-piece. Sometimes, a compass with a magnifying glass is also fitted in the body
or the horizontal bar, to enable taking bearing of the line simultaneously.
 The diaphragm has, generally, two vertical and one horizontal web. The eyepiece is
adjustable to the diaphragm cross wires by screwing motion, in or out.

This is a ray shade (or sun shade) provided to protect the objective from the direct rays of
the when sighting in that direction.

The internal screw by means of which the level is fixed to the tripod is cut in a separate
plate having three projecting arms-a tribrach stage instead of four parallel screws. The
hollow boss, through which the axis of the instrument passes, is provided with three arms,
each carrying a leveling screw in line with the center of the tribrach plate carrying the
internal thread. The lower ends of the leveling screws are mushroom shaped, and passed
through the enlarged ends of the key hole shaped slots cut in the swiveling plate fitted to
the top of the tribrach plate. When the instrument has been placed in position, swiveling
plate is pushed back, so that the narrow parts of the slots engage with the shoulders on the
ends of the leveling screws, thus firmly fixing the level to the tripod. A locking screw
prevents the swiveling plate working back. Before the instrument is used, its adjustments
have to be checked and carried out, if necessary.

1. Temporary Adjustments of a Dumpy Level: The two adjustments required are:-

i. Leveling or setting up the level: The object of this adjustment is to get the axis of the
telescope at right angle to the vertical axis, which will make the vertical axis of the
instrument truly vertical Set up the instrument (three-screw level head) with its legs
suitably splayed, and as nearly level as can be judged by the eye and pressed in the
ground: one leg of the tripod being along the line of observation. Bring the foot screws
to the centers of their run. By careful manipulation of the legs to the right or left,
inward or out ward, ensure that the bubble of the large spirit level and also that of the
small cross bubble tube are both central. The vertical axis is now nearly vertical. To
make it exactly vertical, bring the large spirit-level bubble to the center of its run by
means of the screw B (Fig. 8.16 a) under the telescope. Then revolve the telescope
gently through 90° (quarter circle) in the horizontal plane, thus bringing it parallel to
the other two foot-screws A-A; bring the bubble again to the center of its run in this
position, by turning both foot screws either inward or outward.

ii. Simultaneously, according as the bubble is required to traverse the right or the left.
The bubble moves towards the screw, which is turned clockwise. Swing back the
telescope to its original position, and if the bubble is displaced, bring it to the center
by operating one foot screw as before. Repeat the process reverse the telescope end for
 end. If the permanent adjustments are correct, vertical axis of motion will now be
truly vertical and the bubble will remain central through entire revolution of the
telescope; if it does-not, it shows that the bubble axis is not at right angle to the
vertical axis of motion and requires a permanent adjustment (which will be dealt with
rater).

With four-screw level hear (Fig 8.16b), rotate the telescope until it comes over two
opposite screws, say in position A-A, and bring the bubble to the centre of its run by
turning these screws. As these screws are antagonistic, they must be turned either inward
or both outward depending on the direction in which the bubble is required to move. No
rotate the telescope until it comes over the other two screws in the line B-B and by
operating these screws make the bubble central again. Rotate the telescope again to its
initial position A-A; if the bubble is displaced, center it by the first pair of screws. It will
remain central throughout the revaluation if instrument is in correct adjustment.

III. Elimination of parallax (i.e. correct focusing). Parallax is the apparent displacement in
the position of image of an object with the change in the position of the observer, and
the precise focusing consists in getting the image of the staff exactly in the plane of
the diaphragm. The object of this adjustment is to make the foci of the eye-piece and
the object glass coincide at the cross wires, eye-piece and of the object lens.

Hold a piece of while paper in front of the object lens. Move the eye-piece in and out till
cross hairs are most distinctly seen; eye-piece is now focused. To focus the objective, direct
the telescope to the distant well defined object, preferably the staff at the station to be
observed, with the eye on the cross hairs. Lightly tap the telescope by turning the milled-
head focusing screw in or out till the image is most distinctly seen and the parallax is
removed. In this position, if the observer moves the eye sideways he will not find any
relative movement between the cross hair and the image. If necessary, operate the focusing
screw again until the relative displacement has ceased. Adjustment of eye-piece may be
required only once, but the objective has to be focused for every new object/station sighted.

2. Permanent Adjustments of a Dumpy Level: In a Dumpy Level in perfect

adjustment, the following relations (Fig. 8.17) should exist:

a. The axis of the level tube should be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

b. The horizontal cross-hair of the telescope should lie in a plane perpendicular to the
vertical axis, so that it will lie in a horizontal plane when the instrument is level

c. The line of sight should be parallel to the axis of the level tube.

The object of permanent adjustments is to establish fixed relations between its principal
lines, as shown in Fig.8.17 principles involved in these adjustments are the same in any
telescopic level, though the peculiarities of construction of each type of instrument
necessitate modifications in the nature and order of adjustments.

In a Dumpy Level, the telescope is permanently fixed to the limp by the manufacturer (cf.
Reversible Levels) and the telescope axis is made perpendicular to the vertical axis,
Therefore, only two permanent adjustment are required in a Dumpy Level (viz., a & c
above), instead of three, which are tested and carried out as follows:-

1. To make the axis of the Level Tube perpendicular to the vertical axis of the
instrument, so that when the vertical axis is truly vertical, the telescope is exactly
horizontal and the bubble will be central. This is also known as making the bubble
traverse. The object is to ensure that once leveled up, the bubble will remain central
for all directions of the telescope.

Test: - Set up the instrument (first temporary adjustment) with the telescope over one
screw, in the tribrach type. Reverse the telescope end for end, i.e., through 180°, about its
vertical axis. If the bubble remains central, the level tube is in proper adjustment, if the
former deviates from the center, the latter is out if adjustment.
Displacement of the bubble indicates double the angle actual error of perpendicularity of
level tube axis to the vertical axis (as shown in Fig. 8.18), because single reversion simply
places the error as mush to one side as it was on the other side before reversion; single
reversion, therefore, doubles the error.

Adjustment: - In the Fig. 8.18 above, (90 degrees) represents the angle between the vertical
axis and axis of level tube. When the level is reversed, the bubble is displaced through
angle2; hence the correction is - i.e., half the displacement. Make the correction by
bringing the bubble half way back to the center (i.e., adjust half the deviation) by
means of capstan nuts at one end of the level tube, by loosening one and tightening
the other. Correct the other half of deviation by repeating the first temporary
adjustment by the foot (leveling) screws; repeat the process till perfect.

(ii) Collimation Adjustment i.e. to set the line of collimation parallel to the adjusted Level
Tube axis (and, consequently, perpendicular to the vertical axis of motion). This implies
that when the bubble is central the line of collimation will trace a level (actually horizontal)
plane in the air when the telescope is revolved; this being the basic requirement of spirit
leveling and an essential one. this adjustment, if necessary, can be made by operating the
diaphragm screws and placing it in correct line of the telescope. In a Dumpy Level the eye-
piece and the objective can neither be interchanged nor the eye-piece rotated in the socket
(unlike Reversible Levels), so the following Two-peg Method adjustment is necessary:-Two
peg Method Test: I - To trace a level line in the air (Fig. 8 19). Set in the level on a level piece
of ground exactly midway between two pegs A and B, say 40 meters apart, at N'. as both
pegs are at the same distance from the level, the error (due to curvature, refraction,
collimation, etc.) if any, in the reading on one peg will be the same as the error in the
reading on the other (operation known as balancing or equalizing the back-sight and fore-
sight). Carry out temporary adjustments and take readings on the staff placed at A, then on
the same staff placed at B (to eliminate any difference due to graduations). Difference
between the two readings is the true difference between the level of A and B (irrespective of
the adjustment of the level). Tap the higher peg (lower reading) gently in the ground till the
readings on pegs A and B are the same and, therefore, the tops of pegs A and B are at the
same level, notwithstanding the line of collimation being truly horizontal, or inclined (as
shown in Fig 8.19) because the inclination and distances AN' and BN' on both sides being
equal, AD will be =BF only when pegs A and B are on the same level.

Step II - To set the line of collimation parallel to the Level Tube axis. Shift the level from N'
to position N, on the other side of peg B (Fig 8.20) in line with two pegs, and let us say 20
metres from B (for easy; calculation distance BN should bear a simple ratio to distance AB
say 1/2 , 1/3 or V*) level up the instrument, and holding the same staff at A and B, in
succession, take readings. If the two readings are the same, the line of collimation must
obviously be horizontal when the bubble is central, in which case the adjustment is correct.
If, however, the adjustment is incorrect, the line of collimation is inclined, either upwards
as in Fig. 8.20 (A) or downward as in Fig. 8.20 (b), and the staff readings on nearer pegs B
are lower or higher than those on peg A, in the two cases, respectively.

Adjustment - Let K and G be the staffs on; pegs B and A same staff). When the line of
collimation is horizontal, corrected staff reading on either peg should be BC=AE; correction
in both cases being=CF on nearer; peg B, or DE on farther peg A; subtractive in case (a) and
additive in case (B) of Fig. 8.20. Triangles MFC and HFD are similar. Therefore, HF / FC =
HD / MC = AB / NB - 40/20 = 2/1 (in this case) Or, FC (correction) = 1/2 of difference
between staff readings on pegs A and B. Correct staff reading should be = BC = AE = BF =
FC, in cases (a) and (b), respectively. Now the diaphragm is to be set to reading C (or E) on
the nearer (or the farther) staff, when the collimation line will be horizontal, and parallel to
level tube axis. How raise the diaphragm by mean of capstan screws (loosen the bottom
screw before tightening the upper one) in case (a), till reading AE is observed on the distant
peg, and checked with the same reading, BC, on the nearer peg. In case (b) when the
corrected reading is greater than the observed reading, diaphragm will have to be lowered,
by loosening the upper screw and tightening the lower one, till the calculated reading is
observed. Diaphragm, cross wire moves in the direction, in which the screw is tightened.

Example: - Let the staff reading on B in the above case (b) be 6.29 and that on A be 6.15
correction FC = XA HF=l/2 (6.29-6.15) = 0.07. Raise the diaphragm to lower staff reading on
B to (6.29-0.07) = 6.22; Staff reading on A will also now be the same i.e., 6.22.

Second Alternative Method of Collimation Adjustment (by Reciprocal Leveling):-Test - Fix

pegs at two points A and B about 100 meters apart on a fairly firm ground; pegs being not
necessarily level. Set up the level at C close to peg A and note the readings a1 and b1 on the
same staff placed at A and then at B (Fig.8.21 a). If the line of collimation is horizontal,
difference (a1-b1) between the two readings gives the true difference in the levels of pegs A
and B. Now shift the instrument to D, close to peg B (fig. 8.21 b) and note readings a2 and
b2 on the same staff kept successively at A and B. If the difference (a2-b2) in the two
readings is the same as (al-bl) in the former case, then the line of collimation is horizontal
and the difference gives the true difference in the levels of A and B. If the difference in the
above two sets of staff readings is not the same in the two positions of the instrument, then
the instrument is out of adjustment.

Adjustment - True difference in level of the two pegs is the mean of the two difference
recorded,as explained below: - Let correct difference in level of pegs A and B =1 Let
collimation error be

Then, difference in level recorded in the firs! case (Fig. 8.21 a) is * bl-ai=i+e and, in (he
second case it is b2-a2=I-e. Adding the two and eliminating e, we get I = ((bl-al )+(b2-a2))/2.
i.e. mean of the two apparent differences of level.

Now adjust diaphragm to read I, the corrected difference in two levels by; adjusting in to the
farther peg.
Example: - In carrying out collimation adjustment, what should be the staff reading at A in
the second case so that instrument can be brought in adjustment?

Solution:

Instrument at A: Apparent difference in level: = 4.25-3.57 = 0.68 (A higher)

Instrument at B: Apparent difference in level = 2.45-1.87=0.58(A higher)
True difference in level = (0.68+0.58)/2=0.63
Again, instrument at B: True reading on B = 2.45
Therefore, true reading on A = 2.45 - 0.63= 1.82

Third Method of Collimation Adjustment - This is a combination on the above two

methods; it is quicker and least liable to error.

Test: - Set up the level exactly; midway between pegs A and B; level it up. Take readings
on the same staff, successively held on pegs A and B; let these be 3.24 and 2.76 meter,
respectively. It means peg A is lower than B by 0.48 meter. Shift the level to A and set if up
very close to the staff held at A, and take the staff reading. Let this reading be 3.32 meter;
i.e. height of collimation plane above peg A is 3.32 meter. Since B is higher than a by 0.48
meter, staff reading on B should be (3.32 - 0.48) = 2.84 meter, if line of collimation is
correct, i.e., horizontal.

Adjustment: - If the reading on peg B is not 2.84, adjust the diaphragm accordingly by
screws to read the calculated reading of 2.84 meter on staff held at B.
 CHAPTER VIII

CONTOURS - CONTOURING - TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

I. General: The utility of a plan or a map is considerably enhanced if the altitudes of the
surface features are also represented, along with their relative positions in plan, so as
to represent the third dimension as well.

II. Contours-contour lines:- A contour line or a contour may be variously defined as:-

a. "Representation of an imaginary line running along the surface of the ground at the
same height above mean-sea-level (M.S.L) throughout its length."

OR

b. "A thin line drawn on the map, joining up points of equal height above M.S.L.".

c. "a line of intersection of a level surface with the surface of the ground".

OR

d. "a line drawn o the map which corresponds to an imaginary line connection points of
equal elevation on the earth's surface."

e. "an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface." It may be imagined as
the trace formed by the shore-line (water-line) of still water of a lake, which is a
natural contour.

If locations of several ground points are of equal elevations above MS L. are plotted, a line
on the map joining these points is called a contour line. Thus contours on the ground are
represented by contour lines on the map. However, the two terms are loosely used
interchangeably.

Contour interval or vertical interval (C.I./V.I.):-

The constant (fixed) vertical distance between any two consecutive contour lines on a map
is known as the V.I. or C.I. The choice of C.I. will decided by various considerations, such
as nature of the terrain, purpose of the survey, time and money available for the work, scale
and the desired standard of legibility of the map. The V.I. will be in the inverse ratio to the
scale of the map; smaller the scale the greater must be the C.I., otherwise details will be
obscured, and unless the ground is flat, confusion may be caused. Smaller the C.I., more
accurately are the relief features delineated. Usual contour intervals adopted for various
map scales, hitherto on the British System, and the corresponding C.I. suggested for the
metric system scales are for general topographical work, the C.I. adopted is 10' (5 meters)
and upward. Contour interval for hill road alignment=25' or 5 meters.

(Horizontal Equivalent (H.E.) :- Horizontal distance between any two consecutive contours
is termed as Horizontal Equivalent (H.E.). For a given V.I./C.I. the H.E. depends on the
steepness of the slope: steeper the slope shorter the H.E.

Slope of the ground may be expressed in degrees, gradient (1 in....) or as a percentage.

Characteristics of contour: By virtue of the property of a contour line that every point on
it has the same elevation, a contour map with a constant C.I depicts the configuration of
the ground in a typical manner, Therefore knowledge of important characteristics of contour
in facilitates both the plotting as well as interpretation of a topographical map. Some of
these are:-

i. The horizontal distance between contour line being inversely proportional to the slope,
the direction of the steepest slope is that of the shortest distance between the
contours, and at right angle to the contour at a point on that contour.

ii. Closer the contours, steeper the ground (as near the top of a hill) wider apart the
contours, flatter the ground they represent (as near the foot a HILL)

iii On uniform slopes, contour lines are spaced uniformly spaced contours

iv. A plane surface is represented by straight, parallel and uniformly spaced contours.

v. As all land areas may be regarded as summits or islands above sea-level, evidently all
contour lines must close upon themselves (an not end anywhere) either within or
outside the limits of the map. A series of closed contour lines on a map indicates
either a hill peak or a depression (Pond, Lake Etc.,) without an outlet, according as
the higher or lower values are inside them

vi Contour lines of different elevations on the ground will never merge or unite except in
the case of a vertical cliff when the H.E. becomes zero

vii Contour lines representing different elevations will never cross each other except in
the rare cases of an overhanging cliff, or a cave penetrating a hill side; and there must
be two intersections in such cases. This is so because at the intersections, two or
more points of different levels on the ground are represented by the same one point in
plan.

viii Two contour lines having the same elevation cannot unite and continue as one line,
nor can a single contour line split into two lines. This is evident from the conception
of contours as water marks (or shorelines) on the ground.

ix. Contour lines cross a water shed or a ridge line at right angles, with the concave side
towards the higher ground.

x. While crossing a valley or a ravine the contour lines run up the valley on one side,
turn at the stream and back on the other side. The curve of the contour is convex
towards the stream. They are intersected at right angles by the stream.
Contouring: - The process of determining a series of level lines (contours) on the ground at
equal vertical interval apart (representing certain altitudes), and delineating the same on a
map is known as contouring.

This process of locating contours on a map involves both vertical and horizontal
measurements in the field, which may be executed in various ways according to the
instruments used.

TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
Contouring over large areas is known as Topographical Survey Distinguishing feature of a
Topo-survey is the determination of location of the points and objects, both in plan and in
elevation, necessary for plotting of contours and preparation of a topographic map, on
which the relief features of the surface can be interpreted, Topo-survey, therefore, collects
necessary field data required to prepare a contour map depicting the topographical features
of the area. Topographical map is a graphic representation of the results obtained from
such a survey; and as it portrays the third dimension of the ground features as well, it is of
great utility.

Aerial photogrammetry is increasingly used for topographic surveying of extensive areas.

Even for ground surveys, the survey or should study aerial photographs of the area,
whenever available; examination of over-lapping pairs of photographs by means of simple
stereoscope affords vision as in three dimensions, and is of great help.

Objects of Topographic Survey (contouring) in forestry:- A Forester may called upon to

prepare maps of certain areas on scales larger than 1/16000 (corresponding to 4" = 1 mile)
Survey of India Topo Maps, with a view to planning silvicultural, soil conservation, timber
extraction, road alignment operations, etc., such a survey when completed, and a topo-map
constructed, will enable him to :-

i. Study topographic features of the country,

ii. Determine gradients and make provisional alignment of roads, extraction paths,
contour trenches etc.

iii. Make provisional selection of sites for forest plantations, keeping in view the nature of
slope, aspect, drainage, etc.

iv. Plan lay-out of fire lines (usually along contours) and irrigation channels for forest
nurseries

v. Plan stock-mapping and enumeration operations,

vi. Compute earth work for engineering works, etc. Uses do Topographic (contour) Maps:-

i. Contour maps give all important information regarding the relief features and terrain
of the tract, whether flat, undulating, hilly, etc.

ii. They help the forester, engineer and a survey or in selection of suitable sites for layout
of roads, irrigation channels, reservoirs, nurseries, soil conservation works,
plantations, etc.

iii. Quantities of earth work cut and fill, involved in various engineering projects can
computed from a contour map.

iv. Indivisibility of two points can be ascertained from a topo-map.

v. With the help of a contour map, area of the drainage basin watershed) and the
capacity of a reservoir for irrigation purposes and water supply can be estimated.
Watershed line separating one drainage basin from another is traced on the map, say,
along the ridge RR' and through the saddle S, as in Fig.9.4. Extent of the drainage
basin area can be estimated by measurement (with a plani-meter or any other
method), taking care that the entire area draining into a valley is included.

vi A contour map is useful in tracing a given contour gradient through a point for
purposes of road alignment, lay out for irrigation channels etc. let it be required to
trace provisional alignment of a road from A upward (Fig. 9.5), at a gradient of 1 in
25, on a contour map with a contour interval of 5 meter. We have to locate the points
at which the gradient (grade contour) intersects the given contours. Since the C.I. is 5
meter, horizontal distance between the successive required points will be 25X5=125
meters.

vii Cross-sections and profile can be drawn; in any direction from

the contour maps, for whatever purposes these may be required

Contour Representation of Various Types of Slope:-

Slopes may be gentle or steep; besides being gentle or steep these may be (i) uniform, (ii)
concave or (iii) convex.

Steep and Gentle slopes: - Closer spacing of contours indicates steeper slope, because in
this case the horizontal distance to be traveled forward is comparatively shorter for the
same height (V.I.C.I) to be climbed.
Uniform Slope: Equidistant contours indicate uniform slope.

Concave and convex slopes: - A concave slope is the one which curves inwards. It,
therefore, begins with a gentler slope at the bottom ending with a steeper slope; lower
contours being farther apart and upper closer. Spacing of contours in plan, readings from
high to low increases.

A Convex slope is the one, which bulges outward. It begins with a steep slope and ends with
a gentler one: lower contours being closer than the higher ones. Spacing of contours,
reading from high to low, decreases in plan. Top slopes of hills are generally convex.

METHODS OF CONTOURING
The process of location and plotting of contours involves both vertical and horizontal
measurements; the field work may be organized and conducted in various ways, according
to instruments used, generally.

Field work consists of two operations, viz: (a) location of points on contours (i.e., leveling or
vertical control), and (b) survey of these points (i.e., surveying or horizontal control). For the
former, a telescopic level, Hand Level a clinometer or any leveling instrument is used, and
for the latter a chain or tape, Compass of Plane Table. Both these operations, leveling and
surveying, may either be carried out almost simultaneously if performed by two parties, or
the contour points pegged out before they are surveyed.

The field methods may be classified as (i) Direct, and (ii) indirect.

Direct Methods (Actual)- In these methods, the contours to be plotted are actually traced
out in the field, by locating and pegging out a series of points on each with a level or a hand
level (or any other leveling instrument). These points are then surveyed and plotted, and
corresponding contour lines drawn through them. This procedure is also known as tracing
out or running out contours.

Direct contouring is more accurate but slow, tedious and expensive. It is, therefore, suitable
only for small areas, when the scale of the map is large, vertical interval (V.I) small and high
standard of accuracy is required, eg. for locating water channels in nurseries, building sites
in hills, etc. for comparatively flat and uniformly sloping ground, direct contouring is
preferable to indirect contouring.

Field Work: While executing the field work, two principles of general applicability should be
observed:-

I The degree of accuracy would 'depend on the scale to which the plotting is to be done,
and the purpose for which the plan is required.
II Since the contour lines are to be drawn through the plotted points, only such points
should be located that the contours are nearly straight between them Since contours
ordinarily change direction very sharply where they cross ridge and valley lines,
salient points on these are of special importance. The gradients or ridge and valley
lines being generally fairly uniform, these lines are important aids to correct contour
drawing and should never be omitted. Special care is taken in the field to locate the
ridge and valley lines; usually these lines are plotted first on the map.

In Direct Methods, either the contour points are located and pegged on fixed straight lines
(preferably near ridge or valley lines) at a given V.I. apart (by a leveling instrument) or the
points are found and marked on each contour line by following its outline on the ground (by
projecting a level line) and pegging salient points on it, with chits of paper on them
(identifying their level) to avoid confusion in subsequently surveying and plotting them.

Contour Drawing: When topography is irregular, far more satisfactory results will be
obtained if the plotting is done in the field itself. In order to sketch topography correctly in
the field, it is advisable to select important topographic features (ridge and valley lines,
summits, depressions, etc.) and delineate the same in their proper prospective; a surveyor
will be able to develop this faculty with experience.

A Frame
A frame is the one of the way of solving problem of drawing contours in field. It
can be made at home with local resources. It is called A frame because it is in the shape of
English alphabet A

When using A frame two people will make work. One will operate A frame and
another marks located contour lines with stakes.

 First study the area for which contours are to be determined. Begin making
contour lines near the highest point.

 Let the A frame stand on ground without moving rear leg. Then put the front
leg down on the ground so that it is on the level of rear leg.

 Two legs of the A frame are on the same level when the plumb bob or plumb
stone stops at middle, when this happens the contour line is found. Which is
a level line between two legs of A frame. Mark with stick on the spot where
rear leg stands.
  Move the A frame forward by placing the rear leg on the spot where the front
leg stood before. Adjust the front leg until it levels rear leg.

 For every two or three meters of contour line which is find, mark it with
stake.

 Follow the procedure until you reach the entire length of the contour which
is other side of the hill.

CHAPTER IX

MAPS AND MAP READING INTRODUCTION

Map reading is both an art and a science. Every forester must acquire the skill or reading a
map quickly and correctly. An experienced map reader can visualize the country delineated
on a map its terrain undulation, ridges and valleys, hills and depressions, measure its
slopes and distances, assess the suitability of different parts for different objects, and
comprehend numerous details shown by conventional signs and symbols on the map all so
essential in forestry profession. Definition: A map may be defined variously as:-

1. "A reproduction of some portion of the earth's surface."

2. "A representation of the whole or part of the earth's surface in miniature."
3. "A conventional delineation of the earth's surface or portion thereof on a flat sheet."
4. "A picture (or photo) gives pictorial representation of the features, whereas on maps
various features are indicated by conventional signs and symbols.

Characteristics of a map:-
1 All objects on the map are in the same relative position as on the ground.
2 All angles between the lines drawn on the map are a equal to the angles between
corresponding lines drawn on the ground.
Map of. Picture (or Photo):- Though a map is also a kind of picture of some portion of
earth's surfaces, but it materially differs from an ordinary picture in several ways,
examples:

(i) Whereas in an ordinary picture objects are represented as seen from the ground and
reproduced as they appear to the observer at a comparatively short distance, in a map
they are represented as they would appear if seen from a great height (as from an aero
plane).
(ii) A picture is in perspective and the scale diminishes with the distance. It shows only
that side with the features which is turned towards the observer. A map or a plan is
drawn to scale and reproduces true proportions of length, breadth and area of the
features represented, as also their relative positions and distances from each other.
(iii) In a picture all objects represented are easily recognizable, at a glance, whereas in a
map everything must either be named or marked with a distinguishing sign or symbol
(iv) Conventional signs and symbols are the alphabets of map reading and, when properly
grasped and understood, these convey more definite information to a trained map
reader than any picture.

Map of Plan: - Plan of an area is a map on a large scale wherein ground features are clearly
represented. A map, however, covers much larger area, and is drawn on a mush smaller
scale, wherein detailed features cannot be represented.

Object of Map Reading: - As indicated in the preceding paragraphs, the object of map
reading is to get a clear and an accurate picture of the ground, by interpreting the scale,
conventional signs and symbols used in the map. An experienced map reader a forester,
Engineer or a Surveyor - can interpret and visualize the details delineated on map, which
may be of great help to him in planning and executing various jobs connected with his
profession.

Pre-requisites for Map Reading: - Knowledge of the following is an essential pre-requisite

for correct and thorough interpretation of a map.

(a) Scale of the Map: - Scale is the fixed relation which every distance on the (plan)
bears to the corresponding horizontal distance on the ground. The scale depends on the
purpose and extent of details desired to be represented therein. From the scale of a map an
idea of ground distances can be effectively and correctly obtained.

Scale of a map either be: (i) stared as so many centimeters to a km or (ii) expressed as a
R.F. (already dealt with in Chapter-Scales). (b) Conventional Signs: - "A conventional sign is
the name given to the symbol used to indicate on the map a feature or an object which
occurs on the ground." These signs are the alphabets of map reading.

Conventional signs are used when there is no room on paper to show the true outline of to
add a written description. Smaller the scale, lesser is the room for description, and
therefore greater the number of objects which need be shown by conventional symbols. For
facility of recognition, conventional signs should, preferably, be suggestive of the objects
represented. Signs should be as simple as possible to facilitate drawing. These signs are not
drawn to scale.

The exact position of the object represented is in the center of the symbol if drawn in plan
(e.g. a triangulation point or a bench mark), or the center of the base if drawn in elevation
(e.g. a tree). (Some of the common conventional signs are given).

Conventional signs may be divided into two classes:-

(i) Those designed to represent natural relief features such as hills, valleys, streams,
etc : eg. Contours, hachure, layers, shading etc.

(ii) Those designed to represent artificially made features such as roads, buildings, gates,
culverts, water channels etc.
(C.) Orientation (Setting up) of the Map: - It consists in setting up the map so that its
North direction coincides with the actual represents. When property oriented, a line from
the observer's position on the map to any other points on the map is the real direction of
the same point on the ground. Map has to be oriented for any or all of the following
purposes:-

(i) For the purpose of studying it.

(ii) For finding one's ground position on the map.

(iii) For ascertaining directions of places, objects, etc., shown on the map eg. Boundary
pillars, Forest Rest Houses, Coupe and compartment boundaries, roads, habitations
etc.

(iv) For filling in additional information not previously plotted.

Methods of Setting (Orienting) a Map -

1. Without a Compass :- (i) When observer's position, as well as that of some distant
object is known on the map, it can be set by turning the map, preferably fixed on a
Plane-Table, till the direction of the observer and the object on map coincides with
that on the ground, when sighted along the alidade.

(ii) It can be approximately set when near a straight object like road, railway line, etc., by
keeping the map plotting of the same parallel to the corresponding object on the
ground, (iii) By finding the North with a watch from the position of the Sun, (method
explained later) and setting the map accordingly.

2. With a Compass: -

(i) From the true Magnetic North line on the map, set the North of the map to correspond
with the North indicated by the compass.

(ii) When observer's position and a distant object are known on the map: take bearing of
the object and draw a pencil line joining the two positions. Keep compass on the line,
and turn the map till line reads the recorded bearing. (This is also implied in method
(i) above).

(d) Finding One's Position on the Map -

(i) With a Chain or Tape: - When two ground objects are visible and accessible and also
plotted on the map: Let 'O' be observer's position and P5 and P6 two boundary pillars,
visible and accessible, and also plotted. Measure distances OP5 (let it be d2) on the
ground. On the map draw arcs with P5 and P6 as centers, and, dl and d2 as radii (on
map scale), respectively, intersecting at observer's position 'O' on the map.

(ii) With Prismatic Compass alone: - When at least two ground objects are visible,
whether accessible or not, which are also shown on the map : In the above example,
observe bearings of OP5 and OP6 at observer's station 'O' let these be 50° and 130°.
On the .nap lay out back bearing s of OPS and OP6, viz., 230° at P5 310° at P6.
respectively. The point of intersection gives observer's position 'O' on the map.

(iii) With Prismatic Compass and Chain or Tape: - In this case at least one of the
ground objects plotted on the map should be visible and accessible. Take bearings to
P5 (as in above example) from 'O'; let it be 50°. Measure distance OP5-let it be d. on
the map lay out back bearing of OP5, viz., 230 at P5 and scale off distance d on it.
This gives observer's position 'O' on the map.

(iv) With Plane-Table (with or without tape) :-

(a) With Tape: - by radiation method - from any one known accessible station.

(b) Without Tape :- by intersection of two rays from two known stations:
 Two point and three point problem methods (as described in - Plane-Table Surveying).
Importance of Maps in Forestry: - Map are the very 'eyes and ears' of a forester. Not only are
they his useful guide in locating his bearings in the forests often remote, inaccessible and
infrequently visited where maps are indispensable - but also form a very essential record for
forest protection and management purposes as well. Thus, maps are very important in
forestry, as are briefly listed below.

A. Protection Purposes: - Forest maps give record of boundaries, encroachments and illicit
possessions, if any, can be checked, and detected by reference to these maps. Accuracy of
boundary pillars and can be verified, missing and demolished pillars can be detected and
re-fixed with the help of forest maps. Periodical check of forest boundaries is one of the
routine duties of a forester.

B. Management Purposes:- l. Management Maps:- Working Plan Maps:- These are

prepared by Working Plan Officers, generally on 1/50000 scale i.e. 2cm = 1km.
corresponding to old 1" = 1 mile scale which give, in addition to the main topographical
features and roads, paths, huts, Rest house etc., additional important information in
respect of Working Circles, Felling Series. Periodic Blocks (P.Bs). Annual coupes, Coupes,
Compartments and Sub-compartments, sites of permanent nurseries; Experimental,
sample and preservation plots etc., as well. Each Working Circle is colored with a distance
colour wash: P.B.I. areas, if any, are usually given deeper shade of the appropriate colour.

2. Stock Maps: - These are prepared by Working Plan Officers, generally on 1/5000 scale
(corresponding to old 4"= 1 mile scale), and finally checked and approved by the Chief
Conservator of Forests. These maps give, ordinarily, the distribution of forest types and
main forest species, non-forest areas and blanks etc. If, the management is intensive age-
classes, quality-classes and density are also suitably differentiated by hatching etc.

In case of forest plantations, soil suitability maps are prepared before hand and
approved by the competent authority, allotting different areas to various species or
mixtures. Such maps are prepared on larger scales 1/10000 or 1/5000 (corresponding to
old 8" =l mile and 16"=l mile scales) It is a common practice to prepare such maps in U.P.
and West Bengal, known as Regeneration-Plan maps. Similar maps are also prepared for
soil conservation works called Land Use Capability Maps- on 1/5000 scale, for allocation of
different area for different treatments and soil station, etc., according to nature of the area
(soil, slope, etc.).

3. Contour Maps: - The purpose of these maps is to shew the progress of various forestry
operations and exercise check and control on such operations under the Working Plan
Prescriptions. Usual scale is 1/15000 (old 4" = l mile scale). Control maps can be combined
with management maps are maintained. A copy each of the control maps for each
compartment is field in the Compartment History File (C.H.F.)

These control maps may be prepared for any or all of the following purposes :-

(i) Record of Forest Fires

(ii) Fellings of all kind
(iii) Artificial and Natural Regeneration
(iv) Cutting of Fire-lines and Fire-traces
(v) Control burning.
(vi) Progress of soil conservation operations etc.

Various operations are best recorded by different colour washes and combination or
colour washes and hatching, with the entry of year of operation or completion of the same,
on the control map concerned. Control maps are pictorial representation of the progress of
the various operations, prescribed or suggested in the concerned Working Plan for proposes
of control, as such they form necessary adjuncts to Control Forms, maintained for similar
purposes.

Beat Maps are tracings from 1/5000 scale maps (old 4" = l mile scale), usually on tracing
cloth and folded into a pocket size folder, covering only the beat area and given to the beat
officer concerned. Forest Compartments, Working Circles, Roads, Buildings and important
topographical features are all shown therein, as in any management map.
C. For Miscellaneous Purposes: - Large scale Topo Survey Sheets are useful for: -
(i) Demarcation of forest area - Coupe and compartment boundaries
(ii) Provisional alignment of roads, irrigation channels etc.
(iii) Provisional planning of various operations depending on topography etc.
(iv) General idea of topography and natural features, as also the direction of slopes,
indivisibility of stations, directions and distances etc.