Notes on Basic Surveying (22205)

Unit I Overview & Classification of Survey

Survey: Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the surface of
the earth by measuring the horizontal distances between them, and by preparing a map to any suitable
scale.

Levelling: It is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points on the surface
of the earth. Therefore, in levelling, the measurements are taken only in the vertical plane.

Object of Surveying:

1. The aim of surveying is to prepare a map to show the relative positions of the objects on the
surface of the earth.
2. The map is drawn to some suitable scale.
3. It shows the natural features of a country, such as towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers, etc.
4. Maps may also include details of different engineering works, such as roads, railways,
imrigation canals, etc.

Uses of Surveying

1. To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages towns, forests,
etc. of a country.
2. To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses and other properties.
3. To prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works such as roads,
railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
4. To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different parts
of a country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for the defence of
a country
5. To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find the best possible
routes for roads, railways, etc.
6. To prepare an archaeological map including places where ancient relics exist.

Principal of Surveying

The general principles of surveying are given below:

1. To work from the whole to the part, and

2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference
points.
1. According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e.
controlling stations) and main survey lines (i.c. controlling lines). The area is then divided into
a number of parts by forming well-conditioned triangles. The main survey lines are measured
very accurately with a standard chain. Then the sides of the triangles are measured. The
purpose of this process of working is to prevent accumulation of error

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Notes on Basic Surveying (22205)

.
2. According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at least two
measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear measurements refer to
horizontal distances measured by chain or tape. Angular measurements refer to the magnetic
bearing or horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or theodolite. In chain surveying, the
positions of main stations and directions of main survey lines are fixed by tie lines and check
lines

Types of Surveying:

A. Primary Classification Surveying is primarily classified as under:

1. Plane surveying 2. Geodetic surveying

1. Plane Surveying: We know that the shape of the earth is spheroidal. Thus, the surface is obviously
curved. But in plane surveying, the curvature of the earth is not taken into consideration. This is
because plane surveying is carried out over a small area. So, the surface of the earth is considered
plane. In such surveying, a line joining any two points is considered straight. Plane surveying is
conducted by state agencies like the Irrigation Department, Railway Department, etc. Plane surveying
is done on an area of less than 250 km2.

2. Geodetic Surveying In geodetic surveying, the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration. It
is extended over a large area. The line joining any two points is considered a curved line. The triangle
formed by any three points is considered spherical and the angles of the triangle are assumed to be
spherical angles. Geodetic surveying is conducted by the Survey of India department, and is carried
out over an area exceeding 250 km2.

I-2 Prepared by: Prof. Kamble A. S. (SCSMCoE, Nepti)

Notes on Basic Surveying (22205)

B. Secondary Classification

1. Based on instruments (a) Chain surveying. (b) Compass surveying. (c) Plane table surveying, (d)
Theodolite surveying, (e) Tacheometric surveying, and () Photographic surveying.

2. Based on methods (a) Triangulation surveying, and (b) Traverse surveying.

3. Based on objects (a) Geological surveying, (b) Mine surveying. (c) Archaeological surveying, and
(d) Military surveying.

4. Based on nature of field (a) Land surveying, (b) Marine surveying, and (c) Astronomical
surveying.

Again, land surveying is divided into the following classes:

a. Topographical surveying, which is done to determine the natural features of a country.

b. Cadastral surveying, which is conducted in order to determine the boundaries of fields, estates,
houses, etc.
c. City surveying, which is carried out to locate the premises, streets, water supply and sanitary
systems, etc.
d. Engineering surveying, which is done to prepare detailed drawings of projects involving roads,
railways, etc.

Types Survey

1. Engineering survey Surveys which are done to provide sufficient data for the design of engineering
projects such as highways, railways, water supply, sewage disposal, reservoirs, bridges, etc., are
known as engineering surveys. It consists of topographic survey of the area, measurement of earth
work, providing grade. and making measurements of the completed work till date. These are also
known as construction surveys.

2. Defence survey Surveys have a very important and critical application in the military. They provide
strategic information that can decide the course of a war. Aerial and topographical maps of the enemy
areas indicating important routes, airports, ordnance factories, missile sites, early warning and other
types of radars, anti-aircraft positions and other topographical features can be prepared. Aerial surveys
can also provide vital information on location, concentration and movement of troops and armaments.
This information may be used for preparing tactical and strategic plans both for defence and attack.

3. Geological survey In this both surface and subsurface surveying is required to determine the
location, extent and reserves of different minerals and rock types. Different types of geological
structures like folds, faults and unconformities may help to locate the possibility of the occurrence of
economic minerals, oils, etc. These are also required to decide upon the foundation treatment of
important engineering projects such as dams, bridges, etc.

4. Geographical survey Surveys conducted to provide sufficient data for the preparation of
geographical maps are known as geographical surveys The maps may be prepared depicting the land
use efficiency, sources and intensity of irrigation, physiographic regions and waterfalls, surface
drainage, slope height curve and slope profile and contours.

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Notes on Basic Surveying (22205)

5. Mine survey In this both surface and underground surveys are required. It consists of a topographic
survey of mine property and making a surface map, making underground surveys to delineate fully the
mine working and constructing the underground plans, fixing the positions and directions of tunnels,
shafts, drifts, etc. and preparation of a geological map.

6. Archaeological survey These are done to unearth the relics of antiquity, civilizations, kingdoms,
towns, villages, forts, temples, etc., buried due to earthquakes, landslides or other calamities and are
located, marked and identified. Excavations of the surveyed area lead us to the relics, which reflect the
history, culture and development of the era. These provide vital links on understanding the evolution
of the present civilization as well as human beings.

7. Route survey These are undertaken to locate and set out the adopted line on ground for a highway
or railway and to obtain all the necessary data. The sequence of operations in a route survey is as
follows:

(a) Reconnaissance survey A visit is made to the site and all the relevant information is collected, It
includes collection of existing maps of the area: tracing the relevant map portion over a paper;
incorporating the details of the area, it missing, by conducting rough survey.

(b) Preliminary survey It is the topographical survey of the area in which the project is located.
Sometimes an aerial survey is done if the area is extensive. It includes the depiction of the precise
locations of all prominent features and fixing the position of the structure on the map.

(c) Control survey It consists in planning a general control system for preliminary survey which may
be triangulation or traversing. For location survey, it consists of triangulation.

Location survey It consists in establishing the points, exactly on the ground, for which the
computations have been done in the control survey for location.

8. Land survey It consists of re-running old land lines to determine their lengths and directions,
subdividing the land into predetermined shapes and sizes and calculating their areas and setting
monuments and locating their positions (monuments are the objects placed to mark the corner points
of the landed property). Topographical, city and cadastral surveys are some of the examples of land
surveying.

(a) Topographical survey This is a survey conducted to obtain data to make a map indicating
inequalities of land surface by measuring elevations and to locate the natural and artificial features of
the earth, e.g., rivers, woods, hills, etc. In India, topographical maps are produced by the Survey of
India (SOI) for referencing of these maps. SOI has adopted a sheet number system (Appendix I).

(b) Cadastral survey This is referred to extensive urban and rural surveys made to plot the details
such as boundaries of fields, houses and property lines. These are also known as public land surveys.

(c) City survey An extensive survey of the area in and around a city for fixing reference monuments,
locating and improving property lines, and determining the configuration and features of the land, is
referred to as a city survey. It is similar to the cadastral survey except that refinement observed in
making measurements is made proportional to the land cost where the survey is being conducted.

9. Hydrographic survey It deals with the survey of water bodies like streams, Jakes, coastal waters
and consists in acquiring data to chart the shore lines of water bodies. It also determines the shape of

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Notes on Basic Surveying (22205)

the area underlying the water surface to assess the factors affecting navigation, water supply,
subaqueous construction, etc.

10. Underground survey This is referred to as the preparation of underground plans, fixing the
positions and directions of tunnels, shafts and drifts, etc. This consists in transferring bearings and
coordinates from a surface base line to an underground base line. An example of this kind of survey is
mine surveying.)

11. Aerial survey When the survey is carried out by taking photographs with a camera fitted in an
airplane, it is called aerial or photogrammetric surveying. It is extremely useful for making large-scale
maps of extensive constructional schemes with accuracy. Though expensive, this survey is
recommended for the development of projects in places where ground survey will be slow and difficult
because of a busy or complicated area.

Scale It is not always possible to represent the actual length of an object on a drawing. So, it is
required to reduce the object, in order to accommodate it on the drawing, in some proportion. The ratio
by which the actual length of the object is reduced or increased is known as the 'scale’.

(a) Full-Size Scale if the actual length of the object is shown on the drawing, the scale used is said to
be a full-size scale.

(b) Reducing Scale If the actual length of the object is reduced in order to accommodate it on the
drawing sheet, the scale used is said to be a reducing scale.

(c) Increasing or Enlarging Scale If the actual length of an object is enlarged so as to bring out its
details more clearly on the drawing, the scale used is said to be an enlarging scale.

Representative Fraction (RF) The ratio of the distance on the drawing to the corresponding actual
length of the object is known as the representative fraction, distance on drawing of object
corresponding actual distance of object (both distances in same units)

i.e.

RF =

Scales can be of the following four types:

(a) Plain,
(b) Diagonal,
(c) Comparative, and
(d) Vernier.

(a) Plain Scale This scale is used to represent two successive units, such as "kilometres, hectometres',
'metres, decimetres', 'metres, 1/10th of metre', and so on

(b) Diagonal Scale This is a scale used to represent three successive units or one unit and its fraction
up to the second place of decimals, such as kilometres, hectometres, decametres, "metres, decimetres,
centimetres,' and "metres, 1/100th of a metre,' and so on.

I-5 Prepared by: Prof. Kamble A. S. (SCSMCoE, Nepti)