Survey I

Survey I

01/17/2024 2
 Survey I

01/17/2024 3
 Survey I

01/17/2024 4
 Survey I

01/17/2024 5
 Survey I

01/17/2024 6
 Survey I

01/17/2024 7
 Chapter-1 Introduction
1.1.Introduction to Surveying and its importance in Civil Engineering
1.2.Historical Development in Surveying
1.3.Objective and principle of surveying
1.4.Divisions and types of surveying
1.5.Introduction to plans and maps
1.6.Scales and its types in Surveying and mapping
1.7.Conventional survey techniques: Chain survey. Compass survey and
plane table survey

01/17/2024 8
1.1 Introduction to surveying and its
importance in Civil engineering
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of distinctive
features on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of
direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction and elevation.
Levelling is a branch of surveying that determines the relative vertical
distances (elevations) of different points on the surface of the earth
with respect to a given or assumed datum. Levelling deals with
measurements in a vertical plane.

01/17/2024 9
1.1 Introduction to surveying and its
importance in Civil engineering
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as
construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams, water supply and
irrigation schemes etc. are based upon surveying measurements. Thus,
surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering projects. Other
principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized are :
 to fix the national and state boundaries
 to establish control points
 to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth
 to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping

01/17/2024 10
1.2 Historical Development in Surveying
The history of surveying dates back to ancient times, with a recorded
land register in Egypt in 3000BC, and re-establishment of farm
boundaries following floods of the Nile River and construction of the
Great Pyramid of Giza recorded about the same time.
Under the Romans, land surveying was established as a profession and
land surveyors established the basic measurements under which the
Roman Empire was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands
(300AD).
In eighteenth century in Europe, a method of surveying known as
triangulation, which relied on the measurement of angles, was used to
build a hierarchy of networks to allow point positioning within a country.
01/17/2024 11
1.2 Historical Development in Surveying
• Over time, Gunter’s chain was replaced by steel bands and invar
tapes, and later by Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM)
equipment, and subsequently Global Positioning System (GPS)
devices, each in turn capable of improved efficiency and greater
accuracies of measurement than the preceding forms. Likewise,
compasses were replaced by transits, later theodolites and then Total
Stations, which combined angular and distance measurement in a
single survey instrument.

01/17/2024 12
1.2 Classification of Surveying
Types of surveying
1. Plane surveying
In plane surveying, the curvature of the earth is not taken into
consideration. This is because plane surveying is carried out over a
small area and the surface of the earth is considered as plane. In such
surveying, a line joining any two points is considered to be straight. The
triangle formed by any three points is considered as a plane triangle
and the angles of the triangle are assumed to be plane angles. Plane
surveying is conducted in an area of less than 250

01/17/2024 13
1.2 Classification of Surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
In geodetic surveying, the curvature of the earth is taken into
consideration. It is extended over a large area. The line joining any two
points is considered as a curved line. The triangle formed by any three
points is considered to be spherical and the angles of the triangle are
assumed to be spherical angles. Geodetic surveying is carried out over
an area exceeding 250

01/17/2024 14
1.2 Classification of Surveying
Based on purpose of survey:
1. Engineering Surveys. The surveys which are carried out for determination of
quantities or to afford sufficient data for designing engineering works, such as road,
reservoirs, sewage disposal, water supply, etc., are called Engineering Surveys.
2. Military or Defense Surveys. The surveys which are carried out for preparation of
maps of the areas of Military importance, are called military surveys.
3. Mine Surveys. The surveys which are carried out for exploration of mineral wealth
beneath the surface of the ground, i.e., coal, copper, gold, iron ores etc., are called
Mine surveys.
4. Geological Surveys. The surveys which are carried out to ascertain the composition
fo the earth crust i.e., different stratas of rocks of the earth crust, are called
Geological surveys.
5. Archaelogical Surveys. The surveys which are carried out to prepare maps of
ancient culture i.e., antiquities, are called Archaelogical surveys.
01/17/2024 15
1.2 Classification of Surveying
Based on nature of field
1. Land Surveys
(i) Topographic surveys. The surveys which are carried out to depict the topography of the mountaineous terrain, rivers, water bodies,
wooded areas and other cultural details such as roads, railways, townships etc., are called topographical surveys.
(ii) Cadastral surveys. The surveys which are generally plotted to a larger scale than topographical surveys and are carried out for fixing
the property lines, calculation of area of landed properties and preparation of revenue maps of states, are called cadastral survey. These are
also sometimes used for surveying the boundaries of municipalities, corporations, etc.
(iii) City surveys. The surveys which are carried out for the construction of roads, parks, water supply system, sewer and other
constructional work for any developing township, are called City surveys. The city maps which are prepared for the tourists are known as
Guide Maps.
2. Hydrographic Surveys. The surveys which deal with the mapping of large water bodies for the purpose of navigation, prediction of
tides and determination of mean sea-level, are called Hydrographic surveys. Hydrographic surveys consist of preparation of topographical
maps of the shores and banks, by taking soundings and determining the depth of water at a number of places .
3. Astronomical Surveys. The surveys which are carried out for determining the absolute locations i.e., latitudes of different places on the
earth surface and the direction of any line on the surface of the earth by making observations to heavenly bodies, i.e., stars and sun, are
called astronomical surveys.

01/17/2024 16
1.2 Classification of Surveying
Based on instrument used:
According to the instruments used and method of surveying, the surveys
may also be classified as under: (Define each)
1. Chain surveying
2. Compass surveying
3. Plane table surveying
4. Theodolite surveying
5. Tacheometric surveying
6. Triangulation surveying
7. Aerial surveying
8. Photogrammetric surveying
01/17/2024 17
1.2 Classification of Surveying
Based on methods used:
According to the methods used, the surveys may also be classified as
under:
1. Traversing
2. Triangulation

01/17/2024 18
1.3 Objective & Principle of Surveying
The fundamental principles upon which different methods of surveying are based, are very
simple. These are stated as under:
1. Working from the whole to the part. The main principle of surveying whether plane or
geodetic is to work from the whole to the part. To achieve this in actual practice, a
sufficient number of primary control points, are established with higher precision in and
around the area to be detail-surveyed. Minor control points in between the primary control
points, are then established with less precise method. Further details are surveyed with the
help of these minor control points by adopting any one of the survey methods. The main
idea of working from the whole to the part is to prevent accumulation of errors and to
localize minor errors within the framework of the control points. On the other hand, if
survey is carried out from the part to the whole, the errors would expand to greater
magnitudes and the scale of the survey will be distorted beyond control.
In general practice, the area is divided into a number of large triangles and the positions of
their vertices are surveyed with greater accuracy, using sophisticated instruments. These
triangles are further divided into smaller triangles and their vertices are surveyed with
lesser accuracy.
01/17/2024 19
1.4 Principle of surveying
2. Location of a point by measurement from two control points.
The control points are selected in the area and the distance between them, is measured accurately. The line is
then plotted to a convenient scale on a drawing sheet. In case, the control points are coordinated, their
locations may be plotted with the system of coordinates. The location of the required point may then be
plotted by making two measurements from the given control points as explained below:
Let P and Q be two given control points. Any other point, say, R can be located with reference to these points,
by any one of the following methods.
(a) By measuring the distances PR and QR.
The distances PR and QR may be measured and the location of R may be plotted by drawing arcs to the same
scale to which line PQ has been drawn. [ (a)]
(b) By Dropping a perpendicular from R on PQ.
A perpendicular RT may be dropped on the line PQ. Distances PT, TQ and RT are measured and the location of
R may be plotted by drawing the perpendicular RT to the same scale to which line PQ has been drawn [ (b)].
Principles (a) and (b) are generally used in the method of ‘Chain surveying’.

01/17/2024 20
1.4 Principle of surveying
2. Location of a point by measurement from two control points.

01/17/2024 21
1.4 Principle of surveying
2. Location of a point by measurement from two control points.
(c) By measuring the distance QR and the angle PQR. The distance QR and the angle PQR equal to α are
measured and the location of R may be plotted either by means of a protractor [ (c)].
This principle is used in the method of ‘Theodolite Traversing’.
(d) By measuring the interior angles of the triangle PQR. The interior angles P, Q and R of the triangle PQR are
measured with an angle measuring instrument such as theodolites. The lengths of the sides PR and QR are
calculated by solving the triangle PQR and the coordinates of R are calculated in the same terms as those of P
and Q. Even without calculating the coordinates, or sides the location of R can be obtained by plotting the
angles PQR and QPR [ (d)].
This principle is used in the method of ‘Triangulation’.
(e) By measuring the sides of the triangle PQR.
The interior angles P, Q and R are calculated from the measured sides of the triangle PQR by applying cosine
rule. This principle is used in the method of Trilateration.

01/17/2024 22
1.4 Principle of surveying
3. Independent Check:
• Errors are seen in survey works. To check in order to assure there is no error must
be obvious.
• If mistakes in the field measurements and calculations cannot be detected in
time, a considerable amount of subsequent work will be wasted.
• Every survey operation should be subjected to check, as far as possible, a
completely independent check, and not repetition of operation.

01/17/2024 23
1.4 Principle of surveying
4. Consistency of work
• The precision of different parts of a survey within a control framework should
always be consistent.
• The final accuracy of a survey is dependent upon the accuracy of the overall
controlling framework.
• If a survey is done using instruments ranging from compass to theodolite, then
the accuracy of the overall survey cannot be expected to be in accord with the
precision of theodolite only but there is also the influence of using compass.
• So, it is necessary to be consistent in use of instruments, sets of observation, etc.

01/17/2024 24
1.5 Plans and Maps

A plan is the graphical representation, to some scale, of the features on,

near or below the surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plane
which is represented by plane of the paper on which the plan is drawn.
However, since the surface of the earth is curved and the paper of the
plan or map is plane, no part of the surface can be represented on such
maps without distortion. In plane surveying, the areas involved are
small, the earth's surface may be regarded as plane and hence plan is
constructed by orthographic projection on a relatively large scale.

01/17/2024 25
1.5 Plans and Maps

The representation is called a map if the scale is small while it is called

a plan if the scale is large. On a plan, generally, only horizontal
distances and directions are shown. On a topographic map, however,
the vertical distances are also represented by contour lines or other
systems.

01/17/2024 26
1.6 Introduction to scales used in surveying

It is not always possible to represent the actual length of an object on a

drawing. So, it is required to reduce the object in order to
accommodate it on the drawing in some proportion The ratio by which
the actual length of the object is reduced or increased is known as
‘scale’.

01/17/2024 27
1.6 Introduction to scales used in surveying

Representative Fraction
The ratio of the distance on the drawing to the corresponding actual length of
the object on the ground is known as the representative fractions.

(both the distances are in same unit)

Example:
If the scale is 1cm represents 50m,

01/17/2024 28
1.6 Introduction to scales used in surveying
Scales of the maps are represented by the following two methods:
1. Numerical scales. Numerical scales are further divided into two types, i.e., (a) Engineer’s scale (b) Fraction
scale.
(a) Engineer’s scale. The scale on which one cm on the plan represents some whole number of metres on the
ground, is known as Engineer’s scale. For example, 1 cm = 5 m ; 1 cm = 10 m, etc.
(b) Fraction scale. The scale on which an unit of length on the plan represents some number of the same unit of
length on the ground is known as Fraction Scale. For example, 1 : 500; 1 : 1000; 1 : 5,000, etc.
To convert an engineer’s scale into fraction scale, multiply the whole number of metres by 100. Similarly, a
fraction scale may be converted into engineer’s scale by dividing the denominator by 100 and equating.

01/17/2024 29
 1.6 Introduction to scales used in surveying
2. Graphical scales. A graphical scale is a line subdivided into plan distances
corresponding to some convenient units of length on the surface of the earth(field).
Explain it’s use.

01/17/2024 30
1.6 Introduction to scales used in surveying
As the area involved are rather large, it is necessary to select a suitable scale for
representing the area on a map. Selection of the scale depends upon the purpose,
size and the required precision of plotting. Scales are generally classified as large,
medium and small as follows:
Large scale: 1 cm= 10m or less than 10 m
Medium scale: 1 cm= 10m to 100 m
Small scale: 1cm = 100m or more than 100m

01/17/2024 31
1.7 Conventional survey techniques: Chain
survey, Compass survey and Plane table survey

Assignment:
Include Definition, Instruments Required and describe Working Principle of Each

01/17/2024 32
THANK YOU